初中英语语法

这是一篇关于初中英语语法的思维导图，此脑图系统地总结归纳出来的一系列英语语法的使用及规则，可以参考复习。希望可以帮助到你！

语法

词法

名词

可数名词

1. 名词复数

规则变化

大多数名词，在名词的末尾加上 "s"

以-s, -x, -sh, -ch, -z 结尾的名词：加 "es"

box-boxes quiz-quizzes (z需要双写)

以辅音字母 + o 结尾的名词：加 "es" 以元音字母 + o 结尾的名词：直接加 "s"

hero-heroes tomato-tomatoes zoo-zoos piano-pianos (但也有例外photo-photos)

以辅音字母 + y 结尾的名词：将 "y" 变为 "i"，再加 "es" 以元音字母 + y 结尾的名词：直接加 "s"

country-countries day-days

以 f 或 fe 结尾的名词：通常将 "f" 或 "fe" 变为 "v"，再加 "es"

leaf-leaves

不规则变化

改变元音字母

man-men (注意German-Germans，此man非彼man) woman/ˈwʊmən/-women/ˈwɪmɪn/ foot-feet tooth-teeth

改变词尾

child-children ox-oxen

单复数同形

一些以s结尾的单词

crossroads, headquarters, means, series, species, Swiss, Chinese

一些动物

deer, fish, salmon, sheep, trout

以craft结尾的交通工具

aircraft

特殊变化

有些名词只有复数形式，无单数形式

集合：clothes、pants 一对/副：scissors、jeans、glasses眼镜

复合名词复数

有主体的复合名词将主体变为复数：father-in-law--fathers-in-law 没有主体词的复合名词在词尾加-s：grown-up--grown-ups 成年人 由man/woman构成，两部分都要变成复数：a man worker-men workers

2. 使用

可以在可数名词(单/复数)前加数字和不定冠词

one coin, two coins / a cake

对于单数可数名词，通常需要使用冠词(定/不定)或所有格代词修饰

I saw your sister yesterday ( I saw sister yesterday.) Can you give me a hand? (Can you give me hand?)

对于复数可数名词，通常可以直接使用，而不需要冠词

Did you buy apples? Yes, but I forgot to buy stawberries.

通用

数量词修饰

通用，可数+不可数： some、any (任何一些、否定疑问句)、all、no、a lot of (常用)、lots of

可数：some、any、many、a few (肯定句)、few (否定句、消极、极少) 不可数：some、any、much、a little (肯定句)、little(否定句、极少)

有些名词既可数又不可数

可数形式通常指更具体事物，不可数形式通常指更一般事物

I'm just ducking out to buy a paper. (paper报纸) Her necklace was made of paper. (paper材料)

不可数名词

1. 不可数名词的计数

用容器、单位等量词修饰，表示不可数名词的多少

a cup of coffee、a glass of beer、a bottle of water、a piece of information

2. 不可数名词的程度

用修饰词、比例修饰，表示不可数名词的程度

He spoke with great confidence. / The cake is made up of 70% chocolate

3. 使用

不可数名词前不可以加上数字

money (one money/two moneys) milk (one milk/two milks)

不可数名词，可以不加不定冠词the或所有格修饰

We need flour and chocolate to make a cake. (…a flour and a chocolate…)

不可数名词+动词第三人称单数

Money makes the world go around. / The milk has gone sour.

4. 有哪些

液体

water, milk, coffee, juice, wine

物质和材料

gold, wood, plastic, steel, silver

食物

bread, rice, cheese, pasta, butter

自然现象

rain, snow, thunder, sunlight, darkness

抽象概念

love, happiness, knowledge, information, freedom

抽象状态

anger, sadness, confusion, peace, patience

集合名词

furniture, luggage, equipment, information

其他

money, advice, weather, pollution, luck

名词的所有格

1. 所有格表示拥有sth

's

有生命

人、动物

The dog's name is Scruffy.

单数名词

一般情况下的名词所有格，加's；如果以s结尾的所有格，加'

my sister's glasses、Women's Day、The boss' office

所以生命只能用's，非生命可以用's和of

复数名词

复数名词一般以s结尾，所有格通常加'；如果不以s结尾，则加's

The dogs' toys、sheep's lambs、Children's Day

复合名词和短语的所有格通常是在最后的中心词后面加's

His mother-in-law's son、The president of the company's decision

所有格后的商店、家、诊所、餐馆等名词可以省略，口语中

at Jim's 在吉姆家、at the barber's 在理发店、at the doctor's (office)

of

无生命的名词所有格，用of+名词的形式，与's等效

Car's color = The color of the car (car的所有格，car无生命)

用of，而不用's

名词短语非常长

the head of one of the most successful publishing companies

名词短语with：beginning, middle and end, 及 top, bottom, front, back, side等

the end of the day. not: the day's end

with words like：sound, smell, taste等

the smell of the sea. not: the sea's smell

官方职衔

the President of the United States. not: the United States' President

更正式的语气

正式：the sales of this quarter. 非正式：this quarter's sales

用's，而不用of

通常，当名词是人或其他生物时，不使用of，而使用's来表示所有权关系

Yasmin's company not: the company of Yasmin

不过，在正式语言中，有时会有例外，特别是在文学、艺术等上下文中

the works of Shakespeare

表示时间段time period的所有格，通常在时间段后面添加's

A day's work / A month's vacation / An hour's delay

省略所有格

通过使用名词+名词的结构，而不是名词所有格，来表示非生物事物的所有权 在这些情况下，省略名词所有格的结构可以使语句更简洁和直接。

The company language is English. not: the company's language The office culture is friendly. not: the office's culture

2. 双重所有格，表示全体中的一部分

n + of + n's(名词所有格)，of前面的名词n是不确定的，of后面的名词n必须是明确的，且必须是人，不能是事物；若of前面的名词是确定的，后面的所有格就会被去掉

a friend of my sister's=one of my sister's friends the best friend of Sue

n + of + 名词性物主代词

a good friend of mine、an interesting story of his

限定词 + 名词 + of + 名词所有格：排他性限定词如不定冠词、数词、某些不定代词 (如some、any、many、most、no、few等)，指示代词that以及疑问代词which等限定词通常不与形容词性物主代词或's所有格一起修饰名词，而常使用of所有格或双重所有格结构

a friend of mine、Two books of Maria's、Some toys of yours、It's no business of yours、That brother of yours、Which friend of yours did you mention just now?

3. 所有格表示的关系

所有关系(the students' reading room)、主谓关系(the arrival of the train)、动宾关系(the search of knowlefge)、同位关系(the name of Kate)、来源关系

代词

1. 说明

代词是用来代替 (名词、短语或句子)的词，用于避免在重复提到名词时过于冗长或繁琐，绝大多数代词具有名词和形容词的功能

2. 人称代词

1. 人称代词代替名词，避免重复，比如： 原文：Today is Ms. Pearson's last day. Ms. Pearson is starting a new job. 改进后：Today is Ms. Pearson's last day. Ms. Pearson She is starting a new job.

2. 形式的变化

人称代词有人称(一、二、三)、数(单、复)、格(主、宾)的变化： 主格： 单数：I you he/she/it 复数：we(我们) you(你们) they(他/她/它们) 宾格： 单数：me you him/her/it 复数：us you them

3. it的用法

1. 指代动物、无生命的事物，译为“它”

It's a lovely dog. / It's my house.

2. 指代前文提到的事物或概念，避免重复

Look at the house over there. It is my house.

3. 指代时间、日期、天气、距离等，此时it不译为它

It is five o'clock. / It is December 25th. / It is going to rain. / It is cold in winter

4. 指代性别不明确的baby、child；不太清楚或身份未确定的人

Is it a girl?/Look at the child. It is crying. ; Who is it? It's me. / Is it your father?

5. 指代形式主语(避免句子头轻脚重，占位符)或形式宾语

It is not easy to drive on such a rainy day. / I find it hard to learn Chinese well.

6. it做先行词(形式主语)，构成强调句，真正主语放在句末以强调

It is my teacher who gives me a lot of help./It was John who called me.

7. 特定短语和表达

"make it" (成功)、"have it your way" (按照你的方式来)

4. we, you, they的特殊用法

we you they除了人称代词，有时候泛指人们

We all make mistakes. 人们都会犯错误

5. she, he的特殊用法

she he除了人称代词，有时也可以用来指代一些非人类事物，如太阳/月亮/土地/国家/动物等，通常是为了拟人化。已知性别时，可用she或he指代宠物

The sun has risen. She is round and bright. I have a dog named Max, and he is very playful.

6. 多个人称代词的顺序

you, he(she), and I / we, you and they

3. 物主代词

1. 形容词性物主代词，相当于形容词，修饰名词 单数：my, your, his/her/its 复数：our, your, their

2. 名词性物主代词，相当于名词，替代名词 单数：mine, yours, his/hers/its 复数：ours, yours, theirs

4. 反身代词

1. 单数:myself yourself himself/herself/itself复数:ourselves yourselves themselves

2. 动词的主语和宾语相同时，使用反身代词。做动词宾语(动作回到该动作执行者本身)、介词宾语(回到本身)、表语(回到本身)

He will buy himself a car. / We should take care of ourselves. Those students are very pleased with themselves. Look at the poor boy in the picture. The boy was myself.

3. 反身代词放在名词、代词之后(同位语)，或者句末，用来表示强调

Because she herself gave up, nobody could help her. / The story itself is good. She cooked the dinner herself. 她自己亲自地做了晚饭，强调动作的执行者是自己 She cooked the dinner by herself. by herself(独自地)，她自己独自地做了晚饭

4. feel, concentrate, relax, meet，这些不是反身代词，但在其他语言可能是

Larry feels good. (not: Larry feels himself good.)

5. 有一些动词后面常跟反身代词：behave , cut , dry, enjoy, express, hurt, introduce

Behave yourselves at Grandma and Grampa's house this weekend.

5. 指示代词

this that these those

单数：this(较近，这个) that(较远，那个) 复数：these(较近，这些) those(较远，那些)

this tennis racket here – that tennis racket over there these tennis rackets here – those tennis rackets over there

电话中，this表示打电话者，that表示接电话者

Hello! This is Peter. / Who is that, please?

指示代词做代词时，代替名词，避免重复

The books I bought were much better than those you had.

指示形容词 ( "this," "that," "these," "those")与指示代词不同，通常用来修饰名词

This room is mine.

such same so

such作指示代词时，指 (上文提到的)那样的情况、那件事，或下文的这样的事物

Cricket was boring. Such was her opinion before meeting Ian.

same作指示代词时，其前常加定冠词the，指同样的人，同样的事物

His name and mine are the same.

so作指示代词时，用于指代上文提到的相同的人、事件或情况

Do you often read a newspaper? If so, which one?

so用于think、believe、expect、imagine、suppose、hope、afraid等词之后，代替前文所提出的观点。

I hope so.

6. 相互代词

通常在句子中充当宾语，用来表示两个或多个人或事物之间的相互行为或关系

each other

用于表示两个人或事物之间的相互行为或关系

We talk to each other every day.

one another

用于表示多个人或事物之间的相互行为或关系

The team members support one another.

7. 不定代词

Quantifiers

修饰可数名词：many, few, a few 修饰不可数名词：much, little, a little 都修饰：lots of, a lot of, some, any

lots of, a lot of

可用在肯定句、否定句和疑问句，以及所有类型的名词，还可以放在冠词和限定词之前。因此是最灵活，最重要的两个量词。通常可以互换，但a lot of更常见

a lot of(常用), lots of用于可数和不可数，常用于肯定句中 (非正式风格)，虽然也可否定句，但否定句常用much, many

Do you know many people in your neighbourhood?(常用) ↔ Do you know lots of people in your neighbourhood?(也正确，很奇怪)

much, many

否定句、疑问句

much用于不可数名词，如money, water，常用于否定句和疑问句

How much money do you have? He can't speak much Spanish.

many用于可数名词，如children, words，常用于否定句和疑问句

How many children do you have? He doesn't know many Spanish words.

肯定句

肯定句使用much和many听起来很正式，所以日常英语中，常使用a lot of, lots of

I went shopping and spent a lot of money. I went shopping and spent much money.(x)

some, any

some

肯定句

some在肯定句中，表示"几个","一些","某个"；

I have some work to do today.

否定句、疑问句

在疑问句中，表示建议、请求或者希望得到肯定的回答；作定语时，可修饰可数名词或不可数名词

Would you like some coffee with sugar?

any

否定句、疑问句

any一般用于疑问句或否定句中，表示"任何一些","任何一个"；

They didn't have any friends here. / Have you got any questions to ask?

肯定句

在肯定句中，表示"任何的"；作定语时，可修饰可数名词或不可数名词

Come here with any friend.

(a) few, (a) little

可数：few, a few； 不可数：little, a little 肯定，有一些：a few, a little； 否定，很少几乎没有：few, little

He has little money.他几乎没有什么钱 There is still a little time left.还有一点时间

Distributives

不定代词指的是，代替或修饰不特指的人或事物的代词 除了every、no只能作定语外，其他不定代词可作主、宾、表、定语

both, either, neither

both

both表示"两个都"，修饰复数名词，表示肯定

Both restaurants close soon

带有限定词的名词前，可以使用both/both of；但代词前，必须使用both of

Both the restaurants ... = Both of the restaurants … Both of us are hungry. / Both us are hungry.(x)

both出现在行为动词之前，助动词、be动词之后

We are both hungry. / We both want to order food.

连接两个：both...and... neither...nor...

Both Italian and Chinese are out of the question. Neither the Chinese restaurant nor the Italian delivers.

either

either表示"两者中的任何一个"；定语修饰单数名词；谓语动词单数

Either option is fine for me. 任何一个选择对我来说都很好(区别both)

either...or...表示"在两种可能性之一的选择"

I want either Italian or Chinese. 我想要意大利菜或中餐

either of的使用：在物主代词("us"、"them"、"you" 等)或带有限定词的复数名词 ("the"、"a/an"、"my"、"these" 等)之前

I don't like either of them. / You can ask either of the waitresses.

neither

neither是both的否定式,表示"两者中哪一个都不...";定语修饰单数名词;谓语动词单数

Neither restaurant delivers. 两家餐厅都不提供外卖服务

neither...nor...

Neither my girlfriend nor my best friend remembered my birthday. 都不记得

neither of使用：在代词之前(us、them、ours 等)或带有限定词的复数名词之前

Neither of us wanted to cook. / Neither of the restaurants had a table. / Neither of her parents said goodbye.

neither+助动词+主语，倒装语序，表示"也不"；not ... either表达相同的意思

A: I don't like Chinese. B: Neither do I. / I don't like Chinese either. 口语：B：Me neither. / Me either.

each, every

each

each作定语，修饰可数单数名词；也可作主/宾/状语等

He thanked each guest personally.

each常用于"2个"，也可"3个及以上"，侧重于集体中的各个独立的事物/群体内的个体，常与 "individually"、"personally" 等词一起使用

There were ten competitors at the event and each winner was given a prize. 此时，使用 "every" 会太泛化；"each" 指的是群体中的一些元素 (获胜者)。

在代词前 (如 "us"、"them" 等)和带有限定词的名词前 (如 "the"、"a/an"、"her"、"these" 等)，使用 "each of"

We can find something for each of us.

every

every只作定语，修饰可数名词单数，表示"三个及以上整体中的每一个/所有元素"

Every student goes to school in school uniform.

every用在数字或序数词前，表示频率

She works every third Saturday in the month. 她每月工作第三个星期六 We eat out every two weeks. 我们每两周外出吃饭一次

不能在在代词或限定词前使用every of，应该使用every one of

I've seen every one of his movies.

all, no, none of

all

all表示"三个或三个以上的人或事物"，可数名词/不可数名词，与复数使用

We all like football. 3人 / We both like football. 2人

all出现在行为动词之前，助动词、be动词之后

We are both hungry. / We both want to order food.

与带有(the, these, your, my等)限定词的名词前，可以用all/all of; 但与(them, us, theirs, mine等)代替名词的代词前，必须使用all of, of表物主关系，不能省

All the restaurants close soon. = All of the restaurants close soon. All of them close soon. not: All them close soon.

no

no只能作定语，修饰可数名词或不可数名词

There is no time left. / No restaurants deliver... No restaurant delivers...

none of

none of表示"没有一个人/事物"，可单/复数，常用于3个及以上，2个是neither

None of the cake was eaten.(单) / None of the restaurants deliver after ten.(复)

none of可用于代词之前，或者带有限定词的名词之前

None of them deliver after ten o'clock. / None of your emails arrived.

none of的动词形式要根据名词的单复数来变化

None of the cake was eaten. / None of the restaurants deliver after ten.

other, the other, another

other

限定词

"other" 是一个不确定的限定词，表示"额外的、替代的、不同类型的"

other作限定词时，可以与单数不可数名词和复数名词一起使用

Do you have other luggage to check? 你还有其他要托运的行李吗？ This one's too big. Do you have it in other sizes?

如果要和单数可数名词使用，必须在它之前使用另一个限定词

I don't like the red one. I prefer the other colour. I prefer other colour. Jeremy is at university; our other son is still at school. There's one other thing we need to discuss before we finish.

other作限定词时，没有复数形式

Mandy and Charlotte stayed behind. The other girls went home. Not: The others girls …

代词

other作为代词，有复数形式others(复数更常见)

I'll attach two photos to this email and I'll send others tomorrow.

the other

限定词

"the other" 是一个明确的限定词，用来指特定的人或物

the other与单数名词使用时，表示两个选择中的第二个，或相反者

This computer here is new. The other computer is about five years old

the other与复数名词使用时，表示一组中剩余的人或事物

Joel and Karen are here, but where are the other kids?

the other作为限定词，没有复数形式(同上)

the others keys (wrong)

代词

the other作代词时，特指在前文已经提到的事物；复数为the others

She has two kittens, one is black and the other is all white.

another

"another"由"an"和"other"两个词组成，an表示单一，因此another常用单数形式。another表示不特定的人或物，常，意思为one more(一个更多的)或an additional or extra(额外的或多余的)，或an alternative or different(另一种或不同的)

限定词

another常与单数名词一起使用

Would you like another cup of coffee? 你想要再来一杯咖啡吗？

another作为限定词，常与one搭配

Would you like a second cup of coffee? / Sure, I'll have another one.

代词

another作为代词时，它可以替代单数名词

Would you like a second cup of coffee? / Sure, I'll have another.(对比)

限定词：单数：other/the other/another key (is) 复数：other/the other keys (are) 代词： 单数：the other/another (is) 复数：others/the others (are)

复合不定代词

复合不定代词由every, some, any, no，加上thing, body, one构成的

everything, everybody, everyone

表示"集合中的每一个人/事物"或"整个集体"

Everything looks different. / It seems that everyone has disappeared.

something, somebody, someone

一般用于肯定句中，表示"不确定的人/事物"

I would really like to ask someone. / I think I heard something.

anything, anybody, anyone

否定句中，表示"没有人/东西"

But there isn't anyone here I could ask.

疑问句中，表示"一些人/东西"

Is there anyone there?

条件状语从句中，使用anything, anybody等，而不是something, somebody等

Please ask me if you have any questions.

也可用于肯定句中，但表示"任何人/东西"

Anyone can succeed through hard work.

not+anything/anybody 代替 nothing/nobody

Nothing looks familiar. = I don't see anything that looks familiar.

nothing, nobody, no one

表示"没有一个人/东西"

Nothing looks familiar. / There is nobody in the street.

any-还是every-

any-表示"集合中任何一个人/事物"，想象每个个体用or连接 every-表示"集合中的每一个个体"或者"整个群体"，想象每个个体用and连接

Anyone could help me: the man or the woman or the child or the old lady. Everyone has disappeared: the man and the woman and the child.

anything还是everything

I hope we can get everything/anything ready in time. everything更合适。everything表示该场景内(in time)一切事物，而anything更加开放，表示任何事物

定语修饰复合不定代词时，定语放在不定代词的后面

I have something important to tell you.

不定代词作主语，谓语动词用第三人称单数

Nothing is difficult in the world if you work hard at it.

不定代词与人称代词they/it搭配

以 -body/-one 结尾的不定代词 (指代人)，在替换它们时使用 "they" 或 "their"。

Everybody should know their way home.

以 -thing 结尾的不定代词 (指代非人)，在替换它们时使用代词 "it"

Nothing looks the way it used to.

8. 疑问代词

who、whom、whose、what、which 1.疑问代词用来引导疑问句，一般放句首，指代疑问的内容，相当于一个名词。 2.此外，疑问代词还可以用作定语修饰名词，此时是一种具有特殊意义的形容词。 3.疑问代词不分单复数，视它所替代的人或事物决定单复数，但是通常用单数；如果修饰名词，则以名词的单复数为准。

who/whom/whose只能指代人

who 和 whom 只用作主语、宾语和表语，不用作定语。

Who took away my pen？ (who作主语)Who spoke at the meeting? Who are those boys？ (who作表语)

whom为宾格，作宾语。口语中常用who代替whom作宾语，但介词后则只用whom

Who(m) did you invite to your birthday party? (宾语) With whom did you go？ (正式场合，介词后用whom) Who did you go with？ (口语中，常把介词放句尾)

whose是who的所有格形式，表示“谁的”，常作定语

Whose car is newer？ (whose作定语)

what/which可指代人或物

若选择范围较小或明确，通常使用 which；选择范围较大或不明确，通常使用 what

Which color do you like, red, black or white? / What color is your car?

若指人，多用 which/who，即使选择的范围不明确；what指人时，一般指人的职业

Which writers do you like? / What is she? She is a doctor.

由于 what 和 who 的选择范围较大或不明确，所以其后可以跟 else，表示其他的人(或事物)，但却通常不跟表示特定范围的 of 短语；而 which 的选择范围较小或明确，所以其后一般不接 else，却常与表特定范围的 of 短语连用

Who (What) else did you see there? Which of the three girls is the oldest?

9. 关系代词

作用：引导关系从句

who, whom, whose, that用于人/动物

The man, who was in a hurry, forgot to put the handbrake on.

which, whose, that用于事物

The car, which was parked on a hill, slowly rolled down the street.

带介词的关系代词

介词在句尾：非正式英语、口语

The police did not know who the car belonged to.

介词在关系代词之前：正式英语、书面英语

The police did not know to whom the car belongs.

冠词

不定冠词a/an--泛指

1. 指不特定的、非特指的、泛指的人/事物

Ms Smith is in a hotel room.

2. 第一次提到的某人/某物，有介绍作用

There is a bed, a carpet and a bedside table.

3. 用在单数普通名词前，加a，指一类人/事物

A plane runs faster than a train.

4. 以元音音素开头的单词，使用an；辅音音素开头的单词，使用是a

an apple / an hour / an umbrella / a university / a united group

定冠词the--特指

1. 指特定的、特指的人/事物，小特指：特定的、前面提到的再次提及、双方都知道的，大特指：独一无二的

There is a book on the desk. The book is not intersting at all. The earth goes around the sun. / The Yellow River is called the Mother River.

2. 用在前面已经提到过的事情

Ms Smith has two pieces of luggage: a suitcase and a handbag. The suitcase is very heavy.

3. 用在形容词最高级前面

Marry is the most beautiful girl in my class.

4. 用在序数词前

The first one should go last.

5. 用在表示方位的名词前

The temperature is lower in the north, but higher in the south.

6. 用在城镇周围的地方

Let's go to the cinema tomorrow. / The library is on Main Street.

7. the+形容词，表示社会中的特定群体或人

The rich should help the poor, and the young should help the old.

8. 用在姓氏复数形式前，表示一家人

The Greens went to China for holiday.

9. 用在西洋乐器前

He learned to play the piano when he was four years old.

10. 用在逢十的复数数词前表示年代

In the 1990s/1990's, we began to live a better life.

零冠词

1. 不可数名词前，不用冠词

I hope we have nice weather. / The weather was awful last summer.

2. 泛指一般人/事物的复数名词（但是特指使用冠词）

Hotels are very expensive. (but: The hotels in this area are affordable.) Businesswomen travel a lot. (but: The businesswomen taht I know travel a lot)

3. 不含普通名词的专有名词，不加the, a/an

专有名词

节日

Christmas is a time for giving and celebrating.

人们知道的语言

Ms Smith speaks English.

加了a/an的专有名词本质是在限定普通名词

加了the的专有名词本质是在限定普通名词，即这个专有名词包含了普通名词

This is not the John Smith I know.（这句暗示有两个约翰·史密斯的存在）

the Pacific （Ocean），the Atlantic （Ocean），the Indian Ocean ，the Arctic （Ocean）这里定冠词the限定的其实是Ocean大洋，大洋不只有一个，是普通名词

(the United States of) America . 定冠词the修饰的是普通名词States，不是专有名词America 【在名词位置的其实都是普通名词】

4. 地名(城镇,街道,广场,公园)，大陆湖泊，国名

地名(城镇,街道,广场,公园)

New York City. Ms. Smith is in Dublin. Her hotel is in Merrion Street between Fitzwilliam Square and Merrion Park.

(洲)大陆，湖泊

Ireland is a country in Europe. Lake Baikal is the largest freshwater lake in the world.

国名，除了the Netherlands和包含Kingdom, Republic, State, Union等词汇的国家

I'm from China. / I'm from the USA. /We go to the Netherlands every summer

5. 日期、月份、星期、季节（除非特指）

She left last Monday and is coming back next Wednesday. / Winter is cold. but: She arrived on a rainy Monday.

6. 三餐，球类、棋牌

三餐(breakfast, lunch, supper)前不用冠词

The hotel serves breakfast between 8 and 10 o'clock.

球类 play + sport，不用冠词 (西洋乐器，用the)

play tennis, play football

棋牌

play chess

7. 物质材料、抽象、学科

物质名词(泛指材料时，如果谈论特定的材料，需要冠词)

Paper is made of wood. but: Where is the paper for the printer?

抽象名词，即一般情况下无法触摸到的

Life is complicated. / What's on TV today? (but: We never eat dinner in front of the TV.)

学科

Paul is very good at science but poor in English.

8. 限定词

名词前有物主代词(my,her)、指示代词(this,that)、不定代词(any,some)或所有格修饰(Mike's)时，这些限定词已经确定了名词，因此不需要再加上冠词。

I love my job. Not: I love the my job. Does she want this book? Not: Does she want the this book? I do not have any money. I have no idea. (no=not any)

9. 人名、称呼或表示官职、头衔等名词前不用冠词

人名、称呼

John Smith / Professor Lee is good at swimming.

头衔、部门与 be、become、elect、appointment 等动词一起使用

When was Barack Obama elected president?

10. 某些特定表达：bed, class, home, work

go to bed / be in class / after work / come home

11. 表示乘用的交通工具的名词前(与by连用不用冠词，非by需要冠词)

I go to school by bike/by bus. They hurried to catch the train.

数词

基数词

two-twelve-twenty / three-thirteen-thirty / four-fourteen-forty

英式英语中百位和十位之间加上and；若无十位，则在百和个之间添加and;美式省略

1,250: one thousand, two hundred and fifty / 2,001 – two thousand and one (American English: one thousand, two hundred fifty / two thousand one

在hundred, thousand, million前面加上a或one，a为口语用法

100: a hundred = one hundred / 1,000 - a thousand/one thousand

表示具体数字时，如前面有基数词,hundred,thousand,million,billion要用单数形式，不加s. 表示不具体数字时，如成百上千，用复数形式：hundreds of, thousands of

There are three thousand students in my school. They spent millions of dollars building the bridge.

表示几十年代时，将几十年代改用复数形式，形成 in the + 几十的复数； 表示几十岁时，将几十岁改为复数形式，形成 in one's + 几十岁的复数

In the nineteen sixties/ in the 1960's, many people in China lived a poor life. My grandfather got retired in his sixties.

倍数：基数词+times

We play football five times a week.

序数词

序数词只需要在数字后面加th

four-fourth eleven-eleventh

特殊情况：one – first、two – second、three – third five – fifth、eight – eighth、nine – ninth、twelve – twelfth、thirty-thirtieth

在较大的数字(>10)中，只需将最后一个数字改成序数形式

421st = four hundred and twenty-first / 5,011th = five thousand and eleventh

将数字转化为序数时，只需在数字后面加上书写数字的最后两个字母

first = 1st / second = 2nd / third = 3rd / twenty-sixth = 26th a/one hundred and first = 101st

序数词的使用

序数词前常加the

The first is better than the second.

序数词前不加the的情况：序数词前已经有限定词

Yao Ming is China's first tallest basketball player.

日期

Today is the eleventh of June.

排序

We live on the fifteenth floor.

枚举

First, wash the rice. Second, put it in a saucepan. Third, add water. Fourth,

分数

分数的表示：分子为基数词，分母为序数词

1/3:one third、1/10:one tenth; 除了:1/2:one half、1/4:one quarter

当分子大于一时，分母的序数词使用复数形式 (加上 "s")

2/3:two thirds、3/4:three quarters、4/8:four eighths

“quarter”表示四分之一

小数

小数的表示：小数用小数点表示，小数点后的数字要分开念

0.135 - nought point one three five (US：zero point one three five)

小数值小于1时，使用of a + 单数名词 (除了1/2)

2/3 km: two thirds of a kilometre、1/2 l: half a litre (not: one half of a litre)

小数值大于1时，使用直接加复数名词

one and a half hours 、2.5 millimetres

时间

UK时间表示

past是过去多少分钟，to是差多少分钟到时间

分钟为5分钟的倍数，"数字+past/to"

It's twenty past eleven. 11:20 It's twenty to twelve. 差20分钟到12点

分钟不是5分的倍数，"数字+minutes past/to"

It's ninteen minutes past eleven. 现在是十一点十九分 It's twenty-one minutes to twelve. 现在差二十一分钟到十二点

仅在整点时使用 o'clock 表达时间

It's eleven o'clock

其他方式：两个基数词表示时间

6:31: six thirty-one / 6:45: six forty-five

12小时制/24小时制

口语中，常用12小时制；为了避免误解，需要加上"in the morning/afternoon/evening"或"at night"或 "am/pm"(正式，车站)

I always wake up at 6 o'clock. 早上6点起床 (因为晚上6点起床不常见) He finishes work at 6 o'clock in the evening.

24小时制不常见，通常在时刻表、节目和官方文件/公告中使用

The train leaves at 21:05. / Reception is open from 8:00 – 18:00

12点还是0点

"12:00 → midday/noon → twelve pm → twelve noon" (中午十二点) "00:00 → midnight → twelve am → twelve midnight" (午夜十二点)

常用的时间表达

6:00 six o'clock/ 6:05 five past six/ 6:15 a quarter past six/ 6:30 half past six 6:31 twenty-nine minutes to seven(31min to 7不直观)/ 6:45 a quarter to seven

其他有用的时间表达

A moment ago

He left a moment ago.

Now

What is Lucy doing now?

In a moment

I'll answer that question in a moment.

Soon

Michael and Madeline will be here soon.

Later

I'll call you later.

Sooner or later

The truth will come out sooner or later.

Never

Ruby has never seen snow.

Always

I always brush my teeth before bed.

In ten minutes

The train leaves in ten minutes.

In three quarters of an hour

Dinner will be ready in three quarters of an hour.

In half an hour

He ran 10 km in half an hour.

In two hours

The shops close in two hours.

Two hours ago

I got here two hours ago.

After three hours

He was tired after three hours of writing.

日期

日期表达

英式英语：日(基数词或者序数词th) 月(单词)，年

5(th) October, 2004 - the fifth of October, two thousand and four

美式英语：月 日, 年

October 5(th), 2004 - October (美式无the) fifth, two thousand and four

询问日期

What's the date today? 或者 What date is it today?

Months

January, February, March, April, May, June, July, August, September, October, November, December

Week

Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday, Friday, Saturday, Sunday

其他时间的表达

the day after tomorrow 后天, the day before yesterday 前天

形容词

作用

形容词修饰名词、代词

位置

名词前面

I live in a small village.

系动词后面(be, appear, look, seem, smell, taste …)

The neighbours seem friendly

不定代词后面(something, anything ...)

I have something important to tell you.

形容词组修饰名词时，形容词放在被修饰的名词后面

It is a meeting very important for every one.

顺序

通常，在名词之前最多放置2-3个形容词

表观点的形容词在表事实的形容词之前(nice good bad在new old big red之前)

A nice wooden chair. nice = my opinion; wooden = factual information

一般形容词在更具体或识别性形容词之前(old hot small在wooden Italian之前)

An expensive local cheese.

如果形容词出现在系动词之后，使用 "and" 连接最后两个形容词

This cheese is delicious, fresh and local.

如果两个相同类型的形容词出现在名词之前，它们也用 and 连接

A pretty woollen blanket. / opinion adjective(pretty); fact adjective (woollen) A pink and yellow blanket. / two colour adjectives (the order of the adjectives black and white is fixed)A black and white photo.

可分级/不可分级形容词

可分级形容词

大多数形容词是可分级的，这意味着它们能够被副词修饰(quite, a bit, really等)

This hotel is a bit expensive.

可分级形容词有：原级、比较级和最高级

tall – taller – the tallest / expensive – more expensive – the most expensive

不可分级形容词

绝对形容词(dead, pregnant, finished …)，没有比较级，不能用副词修饰

My homework is finished. not: My homework is a bit finished.

强形容词，也称为极端形容词(hilarious = very funny, boiling = very hot …)，没有比较级，只能使用极端副词 absolutely 来修饰强形容词。强形容词避免very过多

The water was absolutely freezing! not: The water was very freezing!

前缀、后缀

可以通过后缀/前缀，从名词、动词及其他形容词中创建新的形容词

后缀

less表示没有某物，ful表示拥有某物；但只有很少的形容词可以形成相反对

hopeful、hopeless homeless but not: homeful / beautiful but not: beautiless

构成形容词的名词后缀

able/ al/ ate/ en/ etic/ ful/ ible/ ic/ ical/ ish(像...的)/ less/ ly(adj,adv)/ ous/ y

comfortable/ natural/ passionate/ golden/ energetic/ colourful/ responsible/ historic/ economical/ foolish/ homeless/ daily/ famous/ windy

构成形容词的动词后缀

able/ ative/ ive/ ed/ ing/ ful

readable/ informative/ attractive/ confused/ annoying/ useful

-ed 形容词描述人的感受 / -ing 形容词描述引起感觉的事物或人

Erica is bored at work. / Erica's job is boring.

前缀

常用前缀来构成相反意思的形容词

il-、im-、ir-

il- 用于以 -l 开头的单词

legal → illegal

im- 用于以 -m 或 -p 开头的单词

mature→immature / patient → impatient

ir- 用于以 -r 开头的单词

responsible → irresponsible

dis-, in-, un-(常见)

appear → disappear, visible → invisible, happy → unhappy

比较级、最高级

变形

1. 比较级和最高级形式取决于它的音节数量和/或末尾的字母

2. 大多数单音节：比较级+er，最高级+est

clean-cleaner-cleanest

3. 以e结尾的单音节：比较级+r，最高级+st

nice-nicer-nicest

4. 以元音+辅音结尾的单音节：双写最后一个辅音，再+er/est

hot-hotter-hottest

5. 以y结尾的双音节：去掉y，再+ier/iest

easy-easier-easiest

6. 多音节不变形：比较级+more，最高级+most

difficult-more difficult-the most difficult

7. 以ed结尾的单音节：比较级+more，最高级+most，不是er、est

scared – more scared – the most scared

8. 例外，不规则变形

bad-worse-the worst / far-further、farther-the furthest、the farthest good-better-the best / little-less-the least / much、many-more-the most

9. 辨析

further vs farther

表示距离时，further和farther都可以；表示额外的，只能用further

Newcastle is further/farther north than York. but: If you need further information, please get in touch.

older vs elder

older/the oldest可以用在所有场合；只能用older+than；elder/the eldest只能作为定语形容词，只能指人(家庭关系)，不能用elder/eldest来指代地点、概念或事物

Diane is my older sister. / Diane is my elder sister. Diane is older than me. not: Diane is elder than me.

比较级的使用

动词+形容词比较级+than：比...更...

My father looks younger than your father/yours

动词+less+形容词比较级+than：比...更少...

This job is less challenging than the previous one.

even、still、much、a little可进一步修饰比较级

The car is much better than that one.

than后面代词的形式：代词宾格 或者 代词主格+助动词/be动词

Paul is older than her/she is.

the 比较级, the 比较级：表达两个事物之间的平行关系或一个事物依赖于另一个事物

The sooner, the better

比较级 + and + 比较级：越来越...

Your school is getting more and more beautiful.

比较级 + than + any other + 单数名词：...比其他任何...都...

Mary is more beautiful than any other girl in her class. = Mary is the most beautiful girl in her class.

最高级的使用

最高级形容词之前通常加 the

最高级与介词

使用 "of" 在时间段和复数名词之前

It was the most popular book of the year.

使用 "in" 在地点和表示群体的单数名词之前

The cafe is the best in town. / This is the most valuable piece in his collection

使用 "on" 在名词 "team" 和 "earth" 前

Sophie is the best player on the team

最高级和现在完成时；可以使用ever表强调

It's the most interesting place I've (ever) visited.

one of the + 最高级 + 复数名词：...最...之一

Shanghai is one of the biggest cities in the world.

the + 序数词 +最高级 +单数名词：第几...

This lake is the second largest lake in this country.

形容词原级的比较

as+形容词原级+as

表示两件事物相同，as...as

Today, a large coffee is (just) as cheap as a small one

表示两件事物不同，not as ... as

Normally, a large coffee is not as cheap as a small one

as后的代词使用：宾格或主格+be/助动词

Mark is just as tall as Jessica. = Mark is just as tall as her / she is.

The journey is almost as long by car as it is by train.

less+形容词原级+than

对于多音节形容词，可以使用 "less ... than" 代替 "not as ... as"

The film is less complicated than the book = The film is not as complicated as the book

不能对单音节形容词使用less than

The film is not as long as the book. not: The film is less long than the book.

副词

什么是副词

副词是用来描述词的词。可用副词修饰动词、形容词和其他副词

形容词变成副词

1. 大多数形容词加上后缀ly，即可变成副词

loud → loudly

2. 以y结尾的形容词，把y变成i，再加上ly

happy → happily

3. 以辅音+le 结尾的形容词，先删除le，再加上ly

sensible → sensibly

4. 对于 true、due 和 whole，先删除e，再加上ly (其他的加ly：extreme-extremely)

sensible → sensibly

5. 以 ll 结尾的形容词，只需要添加y；以 l 结尾的形容词，加上ly

full → fully (but: final → finally)

6. 以 ic 结尾的形容词，添加 ally (public 除外，publicly)

fantastic → fantastically

7. 不规则形式

形容词：good、public、difficult；副词：well、publicly、with difficulty

8. 某些以- ly 结尾的形容词没有副词形式。在这种情况下，使用 in a ... way/manner，或者使用类似的副词

friendly (adjective) → in a friendly way 或 in a friendly manner likely (adjective) → probably (adverb)

9. 以下单词的形容词和副词形式相同：early, hourly, daily, monthly, yearly

a yearly concert → We go to the concert yearly.

副词的基本级、比较级和最高级

构成

构成和用法与形容词的比较级、最高级相同，即er/est

hard – harder – the hardest/late – later – the latest/early – earlier – the earliest

以ly结尾的副词使用 more/most 构成比较级 (比较级与形容词形式相同的副词除外

happily - more happily - the most happily

不规则比较级和最高级副词

badly/ill-worse-the worst well-better-the best little-less-the least much-more-the most far (in space and time)-further-the furthest far (in space)-farther-the farthest

有些词的副词和形容词的形式是相同的(下)

副词基本级的用法

as+副词原级+as：与...一样

I always get up as early as my friend(dose).

否定句：not+动词原型+as(so)+副词原级+as：与...不一样

I can't get up as/so early as my friend.

副词比较级的用法

基本形式：实义动词+副词比较级+than

He runs faster than his friend.

可以用much, still, even, a little, a bit等修饰

She runs just a bit slower than her friend.

副词比较级+and+副词比较级：越来越...

She ran faster and faster.

the+副词比较级+ , +the+副词比较级：越...，越...

The faster you run, the earlier you get home.

副词最高级的用法

三者或以上相比较：实义动词+副词最高级+of/in

He runs fastest of all his classmates.

副词的类型

1. 方式副词

方式副词描述动作的执行方式，表达动作如何发生,如slowly, carefully, awfully, well

He drove carefully. / He drove slowly. / He drove badly.

副词位置

方式副词通常在宾语之后；如果没有宾语，则在主动词之后

Wendy rode her bike quickly down the hill./Wendy rode quickly down the hill.

也可以放在动词之前，改变被强调的信息

He opened the door quietly. 强调门是如何被打开的，即强调动作的方式 He quietly opened the door. 强调门是如何被轻轻地打开的，强调对象本身door

2. 地点副词

地点副词描述位置或方向，表示动作发生在哪里。如here, there, behind, up

副词位置

地点副词在宾语之后；如果没有宾语，则在主动词之后

Wendy rode her bike towards the beach. / My car is parked behind your car.

3. 时间副词

时间副词描述何时发生某事，一些典型的时间副词包括 now, then, yesterday

He is parking the car now.

副词位置

末尾(中性的位置)或者开头(强调时间)

I will ride with Wendy tomorrow. 中性位置 Tomorrow, I will ride with Wendy. 强调时间

finally, eventually, already, soon 和 last 这些副词也可以放在主动词之前

When did you last ride your bike? / Wendy finally arrived at the station.

4. 频率副词

频率副词表示动作发生的频率，一些常见频率副词包括always,never,rarely,usually

副词位置

不确定频率的副词直接放在主动词之前，但在be动词、助动词之后

Wendy often rides her bike. / She has never driven a car Wendy is rarely without her bike. but not: Wendy rarely is without her bike.

确定频率的副词，如 today, daily, every week 等，通常在句末，但也可以放在开头

Wendy won't be riding tomorrow/Tomorrow, Wendy won't be riding强调时间

usually, normally, often, frequently, sometimes 和 occasionally 这些副词可以放在句子的开头或结尾。在这种情况下，句子的强调会发生改变

Wendy rides her bike frequently. Sometimes, I walk rather than driving my car.

5. 程度副词

Very, Extremely, Quite, Highly, Completely, Absolutely,Slightly,A bit,Somewhat

副词位置

程度副词一般放在所修饰的形容词或副词之前，助动词、情态动词或系动词be之后

程度副词enough通常放在形容词或副词的后面

She is old enough to join the army

形容词还是副词

区别

形容词用来描述名词和代词 (某人 / 某物是什么样的？)，而副词用来修饰动词、形容词和其他副词 (某事物是如何完成的？某人 / 某物好 / 坏 /... 到什么程度？)

形容词和副词形式一样

有些词的副词和形容词的形式是相同的。其中最重要的词包括：hourly, daily, weekly, monthly, yearly, enough, little, much, early, long, straight, far, low, fast

a daily run → They go running daily

双重副词形式：意义不同

一些形容词可以转化为两种不同的副词形式： 副词的其中一种形式与形容词的形式相同，形容词形式的副词意义与原始意义相同； 副词的另一种形式是在末尾加上ly，但副词的意义改变

形容词：hard(困难的) 副词1：hard(困难地) 副词2：hardly(几乎不) 形容词：late(迟的,晚的) 副词1：late(迟地,晚地) 副词2：lately(最近) 形容词：most(大多数的) 副词1：most(最) 副词2：mostly(大多,主要地) 形容词：near(附近的) 副词1：near(附近) 副词2：nearly(几乎) 形容词：pretty(漂亮的) 副词1：pretty(相当) 副词2：prettily(漂亮地) 形容词：short(短的) 副词1：short(短地) 副词2：shortly(很快)

介词

介词是将 名词、代词与其他单词 联系起来的短词

时间介词

辨析

at：表示时间的某一点，或表示动作发生的瞬间。 in：表示较长的一段时间，如世纪、年份、四季、月份、一天的不同时段. on：表示特定的日子，或特定的上下午、晚上

On the morning of January 30, ...

before：表示某一时刻之前。after：表示某一时刻之后

by：表示截止某个时间或之前的一个结果。 since：表示自从某时间到现在，多与完成时态连用。 from：表示动作的起点时间 until(till)：表示某动作延续到谋和时间为止，通常翻译为：直到...才...

for：表示持续的时间长短 during：强调某一时间段之内 through：表示在整个时间段内没有间歇，(通宵)

past：过了。 to：不到，差...到...。

after：某一时间点之后。after school ago：过去某一时间。two years ago before：某一时间之前。before 2024 during：在一段时间内，强调在某个时间段内的活动或事件。during the holidays. for：在一段时间内，强调持续的时间跨度。for two hours. since：从过去某一时间开始。since 1988. (对比for和since) as of/from：从某一时间开始。I'm on holiday as of/from tomorrow. past：时钟上的具体时间。ten past six (6:10) to：时钟上的具体时间。ten to six (5:50) from … until/till/to：表示开始和结束时间。from Monday until/till/to Friday. until/till：表示还要持续多久。He is on holiday until/till Friday. at：①夜间 at night ②周末时间 at the weekend(美式:on) ③特定时间点 at half past night ④公共假日(无day) at Christmas, at Easter by：①表示最迟时间点 (not later that)I will be back by 6 o'clock. ②在某一时间点之前./直到某个时间点。By 11 o'clock I had read five pages. in：①月份/季节 in August / in winter ②一天的不同时间段 in the morning ③具体年份 in 2006 ④大约时间点 in an hour, in the past, in the future ⑤ in+时间可表示将来 on：①工作日：on Monday ②日期：on 16th May ③公共假日(有day)：on Easter Monday ④在周末(美式)：on the weekends ⑤在具体的某一天或具体的某一天的上午、中午、晚上 on a cold morning

地点和移动介词

辨析

in：表示在内，在某范围之内。on：表示在...边上，与界线相接触。 to：表示在...方，指向...方。at：表较小的地点或者狭窄的空间。

above, below：指一物在另一物的上方/下方，两者不一定有垂直关系 over, under：在...垂直的上方/下方 (正上方/正下方)

up：向上、北方、市中心、发达的地方 down：向下、南方、非市中心、非发达的地方

along：沿着。across：横过街道、田野、河湖。 past：路过。through：通过、贯穿。

between：两者之间。among：三者或三者以上之间、其中。

Peter is sitting among the students.

near：在...周围，靠近。by：在...边上，还可以表示经由、路过。 beside：在...旁边，有时可和by替换。around：在...周围，在...附近

in front of：在...的前方。behind：在...的后方。

in：①在房间、建筑、街道、城镇、国家。in the kitchen, in London ②在书籍、报纸等。in the book. ③在汽车、出租车。in the car, in a taxi ④在图片、世界。in the picture, in the world. ⑤in hospital住院, in the hospital在医院 into：进入房间或建筑物。to go into the kitchen/house above：比某物高，但不是直接在上方。The castle stands above the town. on：①附着在上面。the picture on the wall. ②在平面表面上。on the table ③在河流旁。London lies on the Thames.④在一侧(左/右)on the left ⑤在建筑物楼层上。on the first floor. ⑥在公共交通工具上。on the bus ⑦在电视、收音机、互联网上。on TV, on the radio, on the internet onto：上到某物上。to jump onto the table below：位于某物下面，但在地板/地面之上。The fish are below the surface. under：在某物下面(直接或接触)，但在地板/表面上。The bag is under the table. behind：位于正后方。There is a beautiful garden behind the house. in front of：位于正前方，在...前面。There are two men in front of the house. between：位于两者之间。The train doesn't stop between Sheffield and Leeds. through：边缘以上、以下和两侧穿过。to drive through a tunnel across：跨越以到达另一边。to walk across a bridge. over：①被其他东西覆盖。Put a jacket on over your shirt! ②表示数量大于。over 16 years of age ③跨越以到达另一边 (与“across”相似)to walk over a bridge ④跨越高障碍物。to climb over a wall at：①表示在旁边，前面，旁边。at the door, at the station ②坐在餐桌旁 (用餐)at the table. ③在某事件中。at a concert, at the party ④进行某种活动的地方(看电影/学习/工作等)at the cinema, at school, at work ⑤表示访问或预约。at sb's house, at the doctor's by,next to,beside:位于非常接近的位置Jane is standing by/next to/beside the car near：不远处。The school is near here from：来自/从某个地方。a flower from the garden to：①到某人、建筑物。to go to the cinema. ②到某地、到国家。go to London ③去睡觉。to go to bed. ④去上班。to go to work. towards：朝某物的方向 (但不一直到那里)。to go 5 steps towards the house against：①反对，与...对抗。Barcelona is playing against Manchester tonight. ②与某物接触，被支撑或与其碰撞。Michael stood with his back against the wall.

其他重要介词

about：用于主题，表示关于什么。We were talking about you. at：表示年龄。She learned Russian at 45. by：①表示创作者、作者等。a book by Mark Twain ②表示增加/上升或减少/下降。Prices have risen by 10 percent. ③用于旅行工具。by car, by bus for：①表示目的或意图。flowers for Jane ②因为/作为某事物的结果。She spent 5 years in prison for fraud. from：提到带来它的人。a present from Jane of：用于事物的所有格。a page of the book on：旅行(步行或骑马)。on foot, on horseback with：①表示与某人/某物一起。with my parents, with a friend ②表示具有某物。a woman with red hair ③表示用于做某事的材料/工具.The scratch was treated with an antiseptic.

连词

时态

动词时态

英语公有12种时态，可分为3种基本类型：现在时、过去时和将来时。每种时态有4种语态：一般时、进行时、完成时、完成进行时

一般现在时

一般现在时用于表达事实、常规的真理、习惯性动作、接连发生的事情及按时间表安排的将来事件

用法

1. 定期或习惯性发生的事件，常跟always, often等

He plays football every Tuesday.

2. 事实或普遍真理

A forward tries to score goals for his team.

3. 接连发生的事件

After school Colin goes home, packs his bag, puts on his football shirt and then he goes to football training.

4. 计划和预定的未来动作(例如按时间表或计划)

The bus leaves at half past four.

5. 状态动词和思维/记忆动词 (状态动词通常不与进行时态一起使用，如like, is等，而是而是使用一般现在时态来描述状态)

Colin likes football. He is a forward.

6. 标志词

标志词可以帮助我们识别使用哪个时态

always, normally, usually

often, sometimes, seldom

never

every day/week/month/…

动词变化规则

1. 主动词

1. 肯定句中，动词使用一般现在时形式。否定句和疑问句中，使用助动词 "do"，然后主动词使用(不带to的)不定式

肯定句：I speak. He speaks. 否定句：I do not speak. He does not speak. 疑问句：Do I speak? Does he speak?

2. 第三人称

第三人称单数，一般动词加上 -s 或 -es

例外情况

1. 当动词以 - o，-ch，-sh 结尾时，添加 - es

do – he does，wash – she washes

2. 以辅音+y 结尾时，将y改为ie，再加s；而以元音+y结尾只需加上s

worry – he worries (但是：play – he plays)

3. can, may, might 和 must 等情态动词不改变。所有形式(第一第三人称)中保持不变

he can swim，she must go

3. 其他人称和复数形式，动词不变

I work, They work

2. be 和 have

1. be动词的所有形式都是不规则的。be动词在否定句和疑问句中，不使用助动词

肯定句：I am, you are, she is 否定句：I am not, you are not, she is not 疑问句：Am I? Are you? Is she?

2. 一般现在时有两种版本的have：have，have got(美式中不常见)

肯定句：I have/I have got he has/he has got 否定句：I do not have/I have not got he does not have/he has not got 疑问句：Do I have?/Have I got? Does he have?/Has he got?

缩写形式

缩写形式是某些代词、动词和否定词 not 的组合。

主要用于口语和非正式书面英语

am(not) ...'m(not) I'm (not) (not: I amn't) are ...'re you're are not ...'re not/...aren't we're not/we aren't is ...'s he's is not ...'s not/...isn't she's not/she isn't have ...'ve they've have not ...'ve not/...haven't I've not/I haven't has ...'s she's has not ...'s not/...hasn't he's not/he hasn't do not don't you don't does not doesn't it doesn't

注意：在书面英语中，are 的缩写形式只能在代词后使用，不能在名词或名字后使用

They're not interested in football. (but not: The girls're not interested in football.)

现在进行时

现在进行时用于描述正在进行的动作、临时的状况、未来的安排和计划。现在进行时由 be 动词和主动词的现在分词形式或 - ing 形式构成

用法

1. 正在进行的动作

Look! James is taking a picture of another tourist.

2. 预先确定的近期计划

He is meeting his friend Brad tonight.

3. 只是暂时发生的动作

Brad is working there as a tour guide over the summer.

4. 表示现阶段正在进行的动作，此动作在说话时未必正在进行

What are you doing these days? I am reading a book recently.

5. 正在发生变化的情况

The town is becoming more and more popular because of its beaches

6. 标志词

标志词可以帮助我们识别使用哪个时态

at the moment

now, just now, right now

Listen! Look!

动词变化规则

1. 肯定句为助动词be+动词ing形式。否定句和疑问句不需要助动词do

肯定句：I am speaking. you are speaking. he is speaking. 否定句：I am not speaking. you are not speaking. he is not speaking. 疑问句：Am I speaking? Are you speaking? Is he speaking?

2. 现在分词变化

规则动词

现在分词通常是在动词基本形式后添加 -ing 形式来构成的

不规则动词

结尾为 - e 的单词，去掉 - e，但对于 -ee、-oe 和 -ye 结尾的单词则不变

come – coming (but: agree - agreeing)

在最后一个辅音前有一个重读的短元音，通常双写最后一个辅音字母，但 -w、-x 和 -y 结尾的单词则不双写

admit – admitted(mit重读) sit – sitting (but: fix –fixing) 但是visit - visited(vi重读，所以t不双写) read-reading(ea为长元音，所以d不双写)

在英式英语中，元音字母后的 - l 通常会双写，但是美式英语不双写

travel – travelling (British), traveling (American)

以 -ie 结尾的单词通常会将 -ie 替换为 -y

lie – lying

缩写形式

缩写形式是某些代词、动词和否定词 not 的组合

am(not) ...'m(not) I'm (not) (not: I amn't) are ...'re you're are not ...'re not/...aren't we're not/we aren't is ...'s he's is not ...'s not/...isn't she's not/she isn't

主要用于口语和非正式的书面英语

注意：在书面英语中，are 的缩写形式只能在代词后使用，不能在名词或名字后使用

They're travelling around Australia. (but not: The tourists're travelling around Australia.)

一般过去时

一般过去时描述在过去某一时间点或某一时间段内发生的动作、事件或状态，动作的持续时间并不重要，而是强调动作发生的时间。由 主动词的过去形式 形成。

用法

1. 过去发生的动作，与明确的过去时间状语连用

Last month a girl from China joined our class.

2. 过去某段时间内经常或反复发生的动作，常与always, never连用

The old man always carried an umbrella.

3. 过去按时间顺序依次发生的动作

She came in, introduced herself, and began to talk about her country.

4. 用于强调已经终止的习惯

My parents used to take a walk after supper.

5. 新的动作打断了已经在进行中的动作，通常与过去进行时连用(两个动作不同时态)

While she was talking about her home town, the school bell suddenly rang.

6. 虚拟条件句

If I spoke Chinese, I would like to go on holiday to China.

7. 标志词

标志词可以帮助我们识别使用哪个时态

时间表达

yesterday, 2 minutes ago, in 1990, the other day, last Friday 等

频率副词

always, often, sometimes, rarely, never 等

动词变化规则

1. be动词在一般过去时中是不规则的

肯定句：(I,he,she,it) I was (you,we,they) you were 否定句：I was not, I wasn't you were not, you weren't 疑问句：Was I? Were you?

2. 主动词

过去分词变化

规则动词

通常在动词基本不定式后加上ed

肯定句：I played 否定句：I did not play / I didn't play 疑问句：Did I play?

例外

1. 当动词以 - e 结尾时，只需添加 - d

love – loved (not: loveed)

2. 重读短元音后的辅音字母(最后一个辅音)，需要双写，w, x, y除外

admit – admitted(mit重读) 但是visit - visited(vi重读，所以t不双写) read-reading(ea为长元音，所以d不双写)

3. 在英式英语中，元音后跟辅音 l 时，l 总是双写，但在美式英语中不双写

travel – travelled (British), traveled (American)

4. 以 - y 结尾的单词会被替换为 - i

hurry – hurried

不规则动词

不规则动词的过去式需要背诵

否定句和疑问句使用did或did not，加上动词原型

I didn't know about the party. (not: I didn't knew …) Did she say anything? (not: Did she said …)

过去进行时

过去进行时描述过去正在进行的事情，强调过去正在进行或未完成的动作。由助动词be的过去形式 (was/were)+ 主动词的现在分词或 - ing 形式构成

用法

1. 过去某一特定时刻正在进行的动作

Lucy was sitting on the beach at six o'clock yesterday.

2. 过去两个同时发生的动作

While Lucy was relaxing on the beach, Laurence was sailing.

3. 一个过去的动作被第二个过去的动作打断(两个动作不同时态)

Lucy was watching the sunset when Laurence passed by on his boat

4. 标志词

while, as long as

动词变化规则

过去进行时态由助动词 be 的过去时形式和主动词的现在分词形式构成

肯定句：I was speaking. You were speaking. 否定句：I was not speaking. You were not speaking. 疑问句：Was I speaking? Were you speaking?

现在分词变化

规则动词

现在分词通常是在动词基本形式后添加 -ing 形式来构成的

不规则动词

结尾为 - e 的单词，去掉 - e，但对于 -ee、-oe 和 -ye 结尾的单词则不变

come – coming (but: agree - agreeing)

在最后一个辅音前有一个重读的短元音，通常双写最后一个辅音字母，但 -w、-x 和 -y 结尾的单词则不双写

admit – admitted(mit重读) sit – sitting (but: fix –fixing) 但是visit - visited(vi重读，所以t不双写) read-reading(ea为长元音，所以d不双写)

在英式英语中，元音字母后的 - l 通常会双写，但是美式英语不双写

travel – travelling (British), traveling (American)

以 -ie 结尾的单词通常会将 -ie 替换为 -y

lie – lying

现在完成时

现在完成时将过去与现在联系起来，表示已经完成的过去行为和经历对现在的影响或联系。由助动词have的一般现在时(have/has)+动词的过去分词构成

用法

1. 已完成的行动对现在有影响，通常没有特定的时间标记

I've invited all her friends and family, now I'm waiting for their replies. (we don't know when the invites were sent)

2. 使用标志词 ever 和 never 表达过去的经历

She has never had a surprise party before. Have you ever had a surprise party?

3. 最近完成的行动 (通常带有 just )

Ella has just sent a message.

4. 截至说话时刻已发生或未发生的动作 (带有 already 和 yet)

Has Tony replied yet? I have already ordered food and drinks for thirty people.

5. 到目前为止有多少次

You have reminded her at least seven times.

6. 从过去开始，并持续到现在，有可能持续到将来的状态和情况 (带有 for 和 since)

I haven't seen him for ages.

7. 标志词

标志词可以帮助我们识别使用哪个时态

ever, never

already, just, not … yet

so far, until now, up to now …

for, since (通常与静态动词一起使用)

注意

just、already、ever 和 never 跟在助动词have后面

I've just finished this great book.

其他标志词如 yet、so far、for、since 等放在句子的末尾

I haven't read that book yet.

记住：already 用于肯定句，而 yet 用于否定句和疑问句

Have you started this book yet? Yes, I've already finished it. / No, I haven't started it yet.

动词变化规则

现在完成时由助动词 have 的现在形式和动词的过去分词构成

肯定句：I have played... he has played... 否定句：I have not played... he has not played 疑问句：Have I played...? Has he played...?

过去分词的变化

过去分词变化

规则动词

通常在动词基本不定式后加上ed

肯定句：I played 否定句：I did not play / I didn't play 疑问句：Did I play?

例外

1. 当动词以 - e 结尾时，只需添加 - d

love – loved (not: loveed)

2. 重读短元音后紧跟一个辅音字母(最后一个辅音)，需要双写，w, x, y除外

admit – admitted(mit重读) 但是visit - visited(vi重读，所以t不双写) read-reading(ea为长元音，所以d不双写)

3. 在英式英语中，元音后跟辅音 l 时，l 总是双写，但在美式英语中不双写

travel – travelled (British), traveled (American)

4. 以 - y 结尾的单词会被替换为 - i

hurry – hurried

不规则动词

不规则动词的过去式需要背诵

been 和 gone

动词 go 有两个过去分词形式：been 和 gone

在未完成的访问中使用 gone (去了但是没回来)

—Where's Sarah? I haven't seen her yet. —She's just gone to the supermarket, she'll be back soon. (Sarah is still at the supermarket or on her way there at the time of speaking)

在完成的访问中使用 been (去了并且已经回来)

—Oh no! Callum has just been to the supermarket, the fridge is already full! (Callum is no longer at the supermarket at the time of speaking, this visit is complete)

缩写

缩写形式是某些代词、动词和否定词 not 的组合。

have ...'ve have not ...'ve not/...haven't has ...'s has not ...'s not/...hasn't

主要用于口语和非正式的书面英语

书面语用不缩写，has have

书面英语中，通常助动词(have, are)和代词构成缩写形式，但不与名词构成缩写

They've never played football. (but not: The girls've never played football)

然而，助动词 has 的缩写形式也可以在名词和代词后使用

He's/The boy's never played football. 's = has

以 - s 结尾的词是一个例外

James's never played football. → James has never played football.

现在完成进行时

现在完成时，用于描述从过去开始并一直持续到现在或几乎现在的动作。这个动作的时间并没有具体指定，相反，强调的是动作的结果或过程。由现在时的 "have" 助动词、过去分词 "be" (been)和主动词的现在分词或 "-ing" 形式构成

用法

1. 表达最近发生的动作，强调动作本身而不是结果

Aaron has been changing tyres all morning.

2. 表达单一持续性动作，该动作从过去开始，至今仍未完成

He has been working in this garage for ten years. (他仍在这家车库工作，因此这个动作尚未完成。)

3. 表达从过去开始并持续至今的重复性动作

Aaron has been repairing cars since he was sixteen years old.

4. 标志词

all day, the whole week

for 4 years, since 1993, how long?

lately

I've been learning English lately for my travels to foreign countries.

动词变化规则

现在完成进行时遵循以下规则：have/has + been + 动词-ing 形式

肯定句：I have been speaking. He has been speaking. 否定句：I have not been speaking. He has not been speaking. 疑问句：Have I been speaking? Has he been speaking?

现在分词变化

规则动词

现在分词通常是在动词基本形式后添加 -ing 形式来构成的

不规则动词

结尾为 - e 的单词，去掉 - e，但对于 -ee、-oe 和 -ye 结尾的单词则不变

come – coming (but: agree - agreeing)

在最后一个辅音前有一个重读的短元音，通常双写最后一个辅音字母，但 -w、-x 和 -y 结尾的单词则不双写

admit – admitted(mit重读) sit – sitting (but: fix –fixing) 但是visit - visited(vi重读，所以t不双写) read-reading(ea为长元音，所以d不双写)

在英式英语中，元音字母后的 - l 通常会双写，但是美式英语不双写

travel – travelling (British), traveling (American)

以 -ie 结尾的单词通常会将 -ie 替换为 -y

lie – lying

缩写

缩写形式是某些代词、动词和否定词 not 的组合

have ...'ve have not ...'ve not/...haven't has ...'s has not ...'s not/...hasn't

书面语肯定句不缩写，用has have

主要用于口语和非正式的书面英语

注意

have 的缩写形式通常仅用于代词之后

They've been repairing cars in the morning. (but not: The men've been repairing cars in the morning.)

但 has 的缩写可以用在名词和代词之后，除非名词以 -s 结尾

He's/Aaron's not been repairing cars in the morning.

过去完成时

过去完成时描述在过去某个时间点之前已经发生的动作或事件，由助动词 had 和动词的过去分词形式构成。它通常与一般过去时一起使用(一般过去时做时间状语)。

We went to a place where I had never been before When we arrived, the show had already started

用法

1. 过去完成时在书面英语和讲故事时很常见

2. 过去某个时间之前发生的动作(结果)

She had not eaten much of her porridge when a spider frightened her away.

3. 第三类条件句，用于讨论过去情况，并想象发生了不同的情况

If the spider had not frightened her, she would have finished her porridge sitting on her tuffet.

4. 标志词

already, just

never, not yet

once, until that day

注意：过去完成时的一些标志词与现在完成时的标志词相同。不同之处在于，过去完成时的标志词指的是过去而不是现在

动词变化规则

过去完成时结构：had + 过去分词

肯定句：I had palyed... 否定句：I had not played... 疑问句：Had I played... (第一、二、三人称，all forms are the same，都是 had)

过去分词变化

规则动词

通常在动词基本不定式后加上ed

肯定句：I played 否定句：I did not play / I didn't play 疑问句：Did I play?

例外

1. 当动词以 - e 结尾时，只需添加 - d

love – loved (not: loveed)

2. 重读短元音后紧跟一个辅音字母(最后一个辅音)，需要双写，w, x, y除外

admit – admitted(mit重读) 但是visit - visited(vi重读，所以t不双写) read-reading(ea为长元音，所以d不双写)

3. 在英式英语中，元音后跟辅音 l 时，l 总是双写，但在美式英语中不双写

travel – travelled (British), traveled (American)

4. 以 - y 结尾的单词会被替换为 - i

hurry – hurried

不规则动词

不规则动词的过去式需要背诵

缩写

缩写形式是某些代词、动词和否定词 not 的组合

had ...'d had not ...'d not/...hadn't

通常用在口语和非正式英语中

书面语肯定句不缩写，用had

否定缩写形式

'd not

书面语否定句，可以使用 代词+助动词的缩写形式(代词'd not)，但名词不可以

She'd not eaten much of her porridge. (but not: The girl'd/Little Miss Muffet'd not eaten much of her porridge.)

hadn't

代词和名词都可以使用 助动词+not的缩写形式(hadn't)

She hadn't eaten much of her porridge. The girl/Little Miss Muffet hadn't eaten much of her porridge.

过去完成进行时

过去完成进行时描述在过去某一时间之前已经开始并持续了一段时间的动作或状态，并强调动作的进行过程而不是完成。类似现在完成进行时，但是用于表达过去的动作。由 had + been + 动词的现在分词形式来构成该时态

用法

1. 过去某个特定时间点之前开始的动作，被第二个动作打断(两个动作不同时态)

Louise had been practising for hours when Mark knocked on the door.

2. 过去某个特定时间点之前开始并结束的动作，但这个动作的影响在那一刻仍然重要

When I saw Louise, she was tired because she had been practising all day.

3. 过去某个特定时间点之前开始的动作，但在那个时间点尚未完成

She had been practising for a very long time, but she still hadn't mastered the piece.

4. 标志词

for ...，since ...

Lorraine had been learning English for 12 years before she moved to England.

the whole day, all day

I didn't go out last night because I had been working all day

过去完成进行时的标志词与现在完成进行时的标志词相同。区别在于过去完成进行时的标志词指的是过去而不是现在。

过去完成时还是过去完成进行时？

有时，可以使用过去完成时代替过去完成进行时，而不会完全改变句子的意思，而是改变句子的焦点从动作的持续时间(过去完成进行)转移到动作的完成(过去完成时)

Louise had been practising for an hour. Focus is on the duration of the action. Louise had practised for an hour. Focus is on the completion of the action.

口语中不经常使用过去完成进行时

英语口语中并不经常使用过去完成进行时——它在书面文本中更为常见。因此，英语母语者更喜欢稍微改写句子，以使用更简单的时态

Louise had been practising for hours when Mark knocked on the door. (past perfect progressive) Louise was practising when Mark knocked on the door. (past progressive)

如果省略一个动作的持续时间，可以使用过去进行时代替过去完成进行时

动词变化规则

过去完成进行时结构为：had been + 现在分词形式

肯定句：I had been speaking. 否定句：I had not been speaking. 疑问句：Had I been speaking?

现在分词变化

规则动词

现在分词通常是在动词基本形式后添加 -ing 形式来构成的

不规则动词

结尾为 - e 的单词，去掉 - e，但对于 -ee、-oe 和 -ye 结尾的单词则不变

come – coming (but: agree - agreeing)

在最后一个辅音前有一个重读的短元音，通常双写最后一个辅音字母，但 -w、-x 和 -y 结尾的单词则不双写

admit – admitted(mit重读) sit – sitting (but: fix –fixing) 但是visit - visited(vi重读，所以t不双写) read-reading(ea为长元音，所以d不双写)

在英式英语中，元音字母后的 - l 通常会双写，但是美式英语不双写

travel – travelling (British), traveling (American)

以 -ie 结尾的单词通常会将 -ie 替换为 -y

lie – lying

缩写

缩写形式是某些代词、动词和否定词 not 的组合

had ...'d had not ...'d not/...hadn't

通常用在口语和非正式英语中

书面语肯定句不缩写，用had

否定缩写形式

'd not

书面语否定句，可以使用 代词+助动词的缩写形式(代词'd not)，但名词不可以

She'd not been practising for a long time. (but not: The girl'd/Louise'd not been practising for a long time.)

hadn't

代词和名词都可以使用 助动词+not的缩写形式(hadn't)

She hadn't been practising for a long time. The girl/Louise hadn't been practising for a long time.

一般将来时(will)

使用"will"的将来时，也称为一般将来时，用于表达自发的决定、预测或不能改变的将来事件，由助动词"will"和主动词的不定式或基本形式构成

用法

1. 将来某一时刻即将发生的动作或状态，与明确将来时间状语连用

They will play football next weekend.

2. 不受影响的事件 (天气) 或事物固有特性

It will be a sunny afternoon. Water will turn into steam when heated to 100℃.

3. 自发的决定

Come on, I will help you sort the files.

4. 对未来的观点、希望、不确定性、假设或预测

You won't finish it in just one day. It will rain tomorrow anyway.

5. 承诺

I will do it tomorrow.

6. 提议和请求

I'll help you with your bags. (offer) Will you give me a ride to the station? (request)

7. 第一类条件句

If I need help, I will tell you.

8. 标志词

I think

probably

perhaps

动词变化

一般将来时will的变形对所有形式(一、二、三人称)是一样的，都是"will+不定式"

肯定句：I will speak 否定句：I will not speak 疑问句：Will I speak?

缩写

缩写形式是某些代词、动词和否定词 not 的组合

will ...'ll will not ...'ll not/...won't

通常用于口语和非正式书面英语

书面语肯定句不缩写，用will

否定缩写

书面语否定句，代词与助动词的缩写形式'll 用于代词后，但不用于名词后

He'll not finish it in just one day. (but not: My colleague'll/Phil'll not finish it in just one day.)

助动词和否定词not 的组合won't，代词和名词都可以使用

He won't finish it in just one day. My colleague/Phil won't finish it in just one day.

一般将来时(going to)

使用 "going to" 的未来时，也称为一般将来时，用于表达对未来的合乎逻辑的预测，或者已经决定的意图或计划。构成方式：be + going to + 不定式

用法

1. 对已经做出决定的未来计划和意图

Mrs Lucky is going to meet a friend in town.

2. 基于现有证据的未来预测

Look at those clouds; it's going to rain.

gonna

在非正式场合，尤其是英语口语中，going to 经常缩写为 gonna

Mrs Lucky is going to meet a friend in town. (more formal/written English) I'm gonna meet a friend in town.(informal/spoken English)

动词变化规则

be + going to + 不定式

肯定句：I am/You are/He is going to speak. 否定句：I am/You are/He is not going to speak. 疑问句：Am I/Are you/Is he going to speak?

缩写

缩写形式是某些代词、动词和否定词 not 的组合

am(not) ...'m(not) I'm (not) (not: I amn't) are ...'re you're are not ...'re not/...aren't we're not/we aren't is ...'s he's is not ...'s not/...isn't she's not/she isn't

主要用于口语和非正式书面英语

注意：在书面英语中，are 的缩写形式只能在代词后使用，不能在名词或名字后使用

They're going to meet in town. (but not: The women're going to meet in town.)

将来进行时

将来进行时描述在将来某一时刻将会持续进行的动作或状态，由 "will + be + 现在分词 (ing 形式)"构成

用法

1. 表示将来某个时间正在进行的动作

In an hour she will be sitting at her table with her friends.

2. 表示预期将来发生的动作

And she will be seeing Charles, a good-looking pensioner she met last week.

3. 标志词

at 4 o'clock tomorrow

this time next week

动词变化情况

将来进行时由 will + be + 现在分词(ing形式) 构成，所有形式(人称)的变化是相同的

肯定句：I will be speaking. / I will not be speaking. 否定句：I will not be speaking. 疑问句：Will I be speaking? / Will I not be speaking?

现在分词变化

规则动词

现在分词通常是在动词基本形式后添加 -ing 形式来构成的

不规则动词

结尾为 - e 的单词，去掉 - e，但对于 -ee、-oe 和 -ye 结尾的单词则不变

come – coming (but: agree - agreeing)

在最后一个辅音前有一个重读的短元音，通常双写最后一个辅音字母，但 -w、-x 和 -y 结尾的单词则不双写

admit – admitted(mit重读) sit – sitting (but: fix –fixing) 但是visit - visited(vi重读，所以t不双写) read-reading(ea为长元音，所以d不双写)

在英式英语中，元音字母后的 - l 通常会双写，但是美式英语不双写

travel – travelling (British), traveling (American)

以 -ie 结尾的单词通常会将 -ie 替换为 -y

lie – lying

缩写

缩写形式是某些代词、动词和 not 的组合

will ...'ll will not ...'ll not/...won't

主要用于口语和非正式的书面英语

书面语肯定句不用缩写，用will

否定缩写

书面语否定句中，代词和助动词的缩写形式'll可在代词之后使用，但在名词后不使用

Unfortunately, she'll not be sitting next to Charles. (but: Unfortunately, the woman'll/Mrs Nelson'll not be sitting next to Charles)

助动词和 not 组合的否定缩写形式won't，名词和代词都可以使用

Unfortunately, she won't be sitting next to Charles. Unfortunately, the woman/Mrs Nelson won't be sitting next to Charles.

将来完成时

将来完成时，将来某一时间之前已经完成的动作或状态，它由助动词 will + have + 主动词的过去分词构成

用法

1. 将在未来某个时间之前完成的动作，通常会加上一个时间状语

Don't worry, he will have repaired the bike by then.

2. 对可能已经发生的事情的假设

He will probably have noticed that his bike is broken.

3. 标志词

by Monday (到周一时)、in a week (一周内)

动词变化规则

将来完成时由 will+have+过去分词 构成，所有形式都相同(will)

肯定句：I will have played. 否定句：I will not have played. 疑问句：Will I have played?

过去分词变化

规则动词

通常在动词基本不定式后加上ed

肯定句：I played 否定句：I did not play / I didn't play 疑问句：Did I play?

例外

1. 当动词以 - e 结尾时，只需添加 - d

love – loved (not: loveed)

2. 重读短元音后紧跟一个辅音字母(最后一个辅音)，需要双写，w, x, y除外

admit – admitted(mit重读) 但是visit - visited(vi重读，所以t不双写) read-reading(ea为长元音，所以d不双写)

3. 在英式英语中，元音后跟辅音 l 时，l 总是双写，但在美式英语中不双写

travel – travelled (British), traveled (American)

4. 以 - y 结尾的单词会被替换为 - i

hurry – hurried

不规则动词

不规则动词的过去式需要背诵

缩写

缩写形式是某些代词、动词和否定词 not 的组合

will ...'ll will not ...'ll not/...won't

通常用于口语和非正式书面英语

书面语肯定句不缩写，用will

否定缩写

书面语否定句，代词与助动词的缩写形式'll 用于代词后，但不用于名词后

I'm afraid that he'll not have repaired his bike by then. (but not: I'm afraid that Matthew'll not have repaired his bike by then.)

助动词和否定词not 的组合won't，代词和名词都可以使用

I'm afraid that he won't have repaired his bike by then. I'm afraid that the boy/Matthew won't have repaired his bike by then.

将来完成进行时

将来完成进行时描述一个动作或状态将来某一时刻之前已经开始，将继续一段时间，并有可能延续到更远的将来的某一时刻，用于强调动作到未来某个时间点的进展和持续时间。它由 will + have + been + 现在分词构成。

用法

1. 强调在未来某个时刻的一个动作的持续时间，通常与动作的持续时间有关

In ten minutes you will have been driving non-stop for six hours.

2. 表达我们想象或认为将会在未来或现在的某一特定时间点发生的事情

The cars will have been waiting for hours for the accident to be cleared.

3. 对过去某个时间发生的事情做出假设

There was an accident last week. The driver won't have been paying attention to the road signs.

4. 使用将来完成进行时时，我们通常会提及具体的时间

5. 标志词

将来完成进行时，通常会提及具体的时间

next year, by this time, last week.

动词变化规则

将来完成进行时，遵循以下规则：will + have + been + 动词的现在分词形式

肯定句：I will have been speaking. 否定句：I will not have been speaking. 疑问句：Will I have been speaking?

现在分词变化

规则动词

现在分词通常是在动词基本形式后添加 -ing 形式来构成的

不规则动词

结尾为 - e 的单词，去掉 - e，但对于 -ee、-oe 和 -ye 结尾的单词则不变

come – coming (but: agree - agreeing)

在最后一个辅音前有一个重读的短元音，通常双写最后一个辅音字母，但 -w、-x 和 -y 结尾的单词则不双写

admit – admitted(mit重读) sit – sitting (but: fix –fixing) 但是visit - visited(vi重读，所以t不双写) read-reading(ea为长元音，所以d不双写)

在英式英语中，元音字母后的 - l 通常会双写，但是美式英语不双写

travel – travelling (British), traveling (American)

以 -ie 结尾的单词通常会将 -ie 替换为 -y

lie – lying

缩写

缩写形式是某些代词、动词和否定词 not 的组合

will ...'ll will not ...'ll not/...won't

通常用于口语和非正式书面英语

书面语肯定句不缩写，用will

否定缩写

书面语否定句，代词与助动词的缩写形式'll 用于代词后，但不用于名词后

He'll not have been driving for six hours. (但不是：Her husband'll / Marc'll not've been driving for six hours.)

助动词和否定词not 的组合won't，代词和名词都可以使用

He won't have been driving for six hours. Her husband/Marc won't have been driving for six hours.

时态的比较

一般现在时 vs 现在进行时

对比

一般现在时用于描述事实、永久状态、定期发生的动作及作为叙述故事的一种方式。 现在进行时用于描述临时动作和说话时正在发生的事情。

一般现在

用法

1. 按顺序发生的动作

2. 根据时间表(火车)或计划发生的动作

3. 经常性发生的动作

信号词

always, often, usually, sometimes, never, every day/week/month/year, on Mondays, etc.

现在进行

用法

1. 说话时正在进行的动作

2. 在个人安排或组织的时间发生的动作

At 6 pm they are meeting Ben's aunt in Brighton.

3. 短期或固定时间段内发生的临时动作

She is working as a waitress in Brighton during the summer holiday.

4. 表示现阶段正在进行的动作，此动作在说话时未必正在进行

What are you doing these days?

信号词

now, at the moment, currently, right now, Listen! Look! etc.

不用于进行时的动词

1. 静态动词

be*, cost, fit, mean, remain, suit等

They are on holiday.

2. 表达拥有或归属关系的动词

belong, have*

The luggage belongs to the family.

3. 感官动词

feel*, hear, see*, smell*, taste*, touch

They hear the loudspeaker announcement.

4. 表达情感的动词

hate, hope, like, love, prefer, regret, want, wish

Ben loves going by train.

5. 表达思想和认知的动词

believe, know, realise, recognise, seem, think*, understand

He knows where they have to get off the train.

6. 引述直接言论的从句

answer, ask, reply, say

"We must hurry to get the train", Ben's father says.

进行时形式的静态动词

1. 上述标有 (*) 的静态动词也可以使用进行时形式，通常意义会有所改变

2. be

静态动词形式：状态/品质

By nature Adam is a selfish guy.

进行时形式：表现出与行为不符的方式

Why are you being so selfish?

3. have

静态动词形式：拥有

He has two suitcases.

进行时形式：特定的表达方式

He's having a good time.

4. feel

静态动词形式：①观点 (认为)；②feel (sense)

I feel that's a bad idea. (认为) It feels like you have a temperature. (感觉)

进行时形式：触摸

I'm feeling inside my suitcase to find my passport.

5. look

静态动词形式：当前外表

You look good today.

进行时形式：当前外表

You're looking good today.

6. see

静态动词形式：①看见, 视觉；②理解

I see the train coming. I see what you mean.

进行时形式：①恋爱关系，与某人在一起；②有约会或会议

Nigel and Beatrice are seeing each other. We're seeing our aunty this afternoon.

7. smell

静态动词形式：smell (sense)

You smell like a summer breeze. (闻起来)

进行时形式：smell something (action)

Why are you smelling your sunglasses?

8. taste

静态动词形式：taste (sense)

This soup tastes delicious. (尝起来)

进行时形式：尝试或测试食物的动作 (action)

I am tasting the soup to see if it's been poisoned.

9. think

静态动词形式：认为

I think it's going to be hot today.

进行时形式：思考 think about (action)

What are you thinking about?

10. weigh

静态动词形式：多重

The baby weighs eight pounds.

进行时形式：称量 (action)

She is weighing the flour for the cake.

11. measure

静态动词形式：尺寸

The garden measures around 300 square metres.

进行时形式：测量 (action)

I'm measuring the distance from the kitchen to the door.

一般现在时 vs 现在完成进行时

对比

一般现在时和现在完成进行时都用来谈论现在。 一般现在时用于一般性的陈述和在现在定期发生的动作(频率)。 现在完成进行时用于表达一个动作的持续时间，该动作开从过去始并持续到现在。

一般现在时

用法

描述一个现在的动作的频率

How often do you cycle?

标志词

how often, how long, every day/month, onece/twice, three times

现在进行完成时

用法

描述一个动作从什么时候开始，已经进行了多长时间

How long have you been cycling?

标志词

how long, for, since

现在完成时 vs 现在完成进行时

对比

现在完成时和现在完成进行时都将过去与现在联系起来。不同在于：现在完成时侧重于 (最近)完成动作的现在结果或相关性，而现在完成进行时则表达了从过去开始并在说话时仍在进行的动作的持续时间。

现在完成时

用法

1. 既可用于静态动词，也可用于行为动词

2. 使用静态动词描述进行中动作的持续时间 (how long)

I've been a receptionist for much longer.

3. 侧重于动作的结果

I have already written ten emails.

4. 最近完成的与现在相关的动作

I've just sat down for my break.

5. 经历 (ever/never: 曾经/从未)

I've never worked in such a big hotel before.

6. 否定句：自从上次发生以来还没有 (yet)

Edward feels a bit unsteady because he has not cycled for five years.

标志词

how long, for, since, already, ever, just, never, three times, (not)yet

现在完成进行时

用法

1. 只用于行为动词

2. 使用行为动词描述进行中动作的持续时间 (how long)

I have been working here since 2010.

3. 强调动作的持续时间

I've been writing emails all day.

4. 临时进行中的动作或新的习惯

Recently, I've been trying to eat more healthily.

标志词

how long, for, since, all day, recently, lately

一般的，动词 live 和 work 选择现在完成时或者现在完成进行时，表达的意思不变

I have been working/living here since 2010. = I have worked/lived here since 2010.

不用于进行时的动词

1. 静态动词

be*, cost, fit, mean, remain, suit等

The tourists have been to the hotel before. not: The tourists have been being to the hotel before.

2. 表达拥有或归属关系的动词

belong, have*

One tourist has had a headache for two days.

3. 感官动词

feel*, hear, see*, smell*, taste*, touch

I haven't heard the telephone ring.

4. 表达情感的动词

hate, hope, like, love, prefer, regret, want, wish

None of the tourists has regretted staying in our hotel.

5. 表达思想和认知的动词

believe, know, realise, recognise, seem, think*, understand

Have you thought about it?

6. 引述直接言论的从句

answer, ask, reply, say

"We must hurry to get the train", Ben's father says.

进行时形式的静态动词

1. 上述标有 (*) 的静态动词也可以使用进行时形式，通常意义会有所改变

2. be

静态动词形式：状态/品质

By nature Adam is a selfish guy.

进行时形式：表现出与行为不符的方式

Why are you being so selfish?

3. have

静态动词形式：拥有

He has two suitcases.

进行时形式：特定的表达方式

He's having a good time.

4. feel

静态动词形式：①观点 (认为)；②feel (sense)

I feel that's a bad idea. (认为) It feels like you have a temperature. (感觉)

进行时形式：触摸

I'm feeling inside my suitcase to find my passport.

5. look

静态动词形式：当前外表

You look good today.

进行时形式：当前外表

You're looking good today.

6. see

静态动词形式：①看见, 视觉；②理解

I see the train coming. I see what you mean.

进行时形式：①恋爱关系，与某人在一起；②有约会或会议

Nigel and Beatrice are seeing each other. We're seeing our aunty this afternoon.

7. smell

静态动词形式：smell (sense)

You smell like a summer breeze. (闻起来)

进行时形式：smell something (action)

Why are you smelling your sunglasses?

8. taste

静态动词形式：taste (sense)

This soup tastes delicious. (尝起来)

进行时形式：尝试或测试食物的动作 (action)

I am tasting the soup to see if it's been poisoned.

9. think

静态动词形式：认为

I think it's going to be hot today.

进行时形式：思考 think about (action)

What are you thinking about?

10. weigh

静态动词形式：多重

The baby weighs eight pounds.

进行时形式：称量 (action)

She is weighing the flour for the cake.

11. measure

静态动词形式：尺寸

The garden measures around 300 square metres.

进行时形式：测量 (action)

I'm measuring the distance from the kitchen to the door.

一般过去时 vs 过去进行时

对比

一般过去时和过去进行时都是用来表示过去动作的两种时态。 一般过去时用来表达已经完成的、按顺序进行的过去动作，因此是主要的叙述形式。 过去进行时用来表示在过去某一特定时刻正在进行的动作。

一般过去时

用法

1. 用于描述过去一个接一个发生的动作

Every morning I got up early, set off on my bike, visited the villages along the way and talked to people.

2. 用于描述过去一个动作(一般过去)中断了第二个动作(过去进行)(两个动作不同时态)

When I was talking to a farmer in a village, my mobile suddenly rang.

3. 用于描述已完成的动作

I spent my holidays in Wales.

标志词

when, then, first, suddenly

过去进行时

用法

1. 用于描述过去两个同时进行的动作

While I was cycling, my friends were probably sitting on the beach.

2. 用于场景设定/描述过去已经在进行中的动作

When I was talking to a farmer in a village, my mobile suddenly rang.

3. 用于强调过去的一个动作或状态持续了较长时间

It was raining so heavily at the seaside.

标志词

when, while

不用于进行时的动词

1. 静态动词

be*, cost, fit, mean, remain, suit等

The weather was awful.

2. 表达拥有或归属关系的动词

belong, have*

I didn't have a lot of luggage.

3. 感官动词

feel*, hear, see*, smell*, taste*, touch

I saw many villages.

4. 表达情感的动词

hate, hope, like, love, prefer, regret, want, wish

My friends preferred to spend their holidays by the sea.

5. 表达思想和认知的动词

believe, know, realise, recognise, seem, think*, understand

I thought they would be sitting at the beach all day.

6. 引述直接言论的从句

answer, ask, reply, say

"We are spending all day inside," my friends said.

进行时形式的静态动词

1. 上述标有 (*) 的静态动词也可以使用进行时形式，通常意义会有所改变

2. be

静态动词形式：状态/品质

By nature Adam is a selfish guy.

进行时形式：表现出与行为不符的方式

Why are you being so selfish?

3. have

静态动词形式：拥有

He has two suitcases.

进行时形式：特定的表达方式

He's having a good time.

4. feel

静态动词形式：①观点 (认为)；②feel (sense)

I feel that's a bad idea. (认为) It feels like you have a temperature. (感觉)

进行时形式：触摸

I'm feeling inside my suitcase to find my passport.

5. look

静态动词形式：当前外表

You look good today.

进行时形式：当前外表

You're looking good today.

6. see

静态动词形式：①看见, 视觉；②理解

I see the train coming. I see what you mean.

进行时形式：①恋爱关系，与某人在一起；②有约会或会议

Nigel and Beatrice are seeing each other. We're seeing our aunty this afternoon.

7. smell

静态动词形式：smell (sense)

You smell like a summer breeze. (闻起来)

进行时形式：smell something (action)

Why are you smelling your sunglasses?

8. taste

静态动词形式：taste (sense)

This soup tastes delicious. (尝起来)

进行时形式：尝试或测试食物的动作 (action)

I am tasting the soup to see if it's been poisoned.

9. think

静态动词形式：认为

I think it's going to be hot today.

进行时形式：思考 think about (action)

What are you thinking about?

10. weigh

静态动词形式：多重

The baby weighs eight pounds.

进行时形式：称量 (action)

She is weighing the flour for the cake.

11. measure

静态动词形式：尺寸

The garden measures around 300 square metres.

进行时形式：测量 (action)

I'm measuring the distance from the kitchen to the door.

一般过去时 vs 现在完成时

对比

一般过去时和现在完成时都指过去的动作，但在英语语法中不能互换使用。 一般过去时用于带有特定时间标记的动作，这些动作在过去开始并结束。 现在完成时用于没有时间标记的动作，这些动作开始于过去但与现在有联系。

区别1

一般过去时涉及到特定的动作，通常告诉我们动作发生的时间。 现在完成时不告诉我们动作何时发生，只告诉我们动作已经发生。

I went to Norway in 2014. (simple past) when? in 2014 I've visited Norway several times. (present perfect) when? not specified

区别2

现在完成时中的动作发生在过去，但与现在有关。 一般过去时中的动作在过去开始并在过去结束。

Chris can't come on the trip, he has broken his leg. (present perfect) his leg is still broken I broke my leg when I was fifteen. (simple past) my leg is fine now

一般过去时

用法

1. 表达带有特定时间标记的过去经历 (我们知道何时发生)

I went to Norway in 2014.

2. 询问过去何时发生某事

When did you start going to Norway?

3. 表达遥远过去已完成的动作

We saw the Northern Lights back in 1998.

4. 发生在已结束时间段内的动作

I had two coffees yesterday.

5. 谈论在过去开始并在过去结束的动作的持续时间

I lived in Norway from 2018 to 2021.

6. 通过提供具体细节和信息继续对话

I went there for the first time in 2014.

标志词

two years ago, in 1990, last Saturday, the other day, yesterday

现在完成时

用法

1. 表达过去经历，但没有特定时间标记 (我们不知道何时)

I've been to Norway several times.

2. 询问到目前为止某事是否发生或发生的频率 (ever、yet、how much/many)

How many times have you been to Norway?

3. 表达最近完成的动作 (带有 just)

I've just booked my next trip.

4. 发生在未结束时间段内的动作

It's only 10 am and I've had two coffees today.

5. 谈论某事在过去开始，但在说话时仍在进行的持续时间

I have lived alone since last year.

6. 开始对话或宣布新信息

Have you ever been to Norway?

标志词

already, always, ever/bever, for, how long, how much/how many, just, lately/recently, since, so far, until now(till now), up to now, (not) yet

一般过去时 vs 过去完成时

对比

一般过去时和过去完成时都用来表达过去发生的完成动作。 一般过去时是"默认"的过去时态，用来表达过去的动作，通常按顺序发生。 过去完成时是"过去的过去"，用来描述在过去的另一时间点或动作 (通常用一般过去时来表示, action 2)之前发生的动作或事件(action 1)

When Naomi arrived, the party had already started. action 1: beginning of the party; action 2: Naomi's arrival

一般过去时

用法

1. 过去事件

Monica flew to London yesterday.

2. 连续的过去动作

First she checked in and then she went to the gate.

标志词

first, then

过去完成时

用法

1. 过去某个时间点或事件之前发生的动作和事件

As she had never travelled by plane before, she was a little nervous.

标志词

already, up to then, before (that day), after, once

after/before/when

一般过去时和过去完成时共享一些信号词：after, before, when

after

一般过去时：after的从句没有动词

After the safety demonstration, the plane took off.

过去完成时：动词出现在after从句中

After the flight attendants had completed the safety demonstration, the plane took off.

before

一般过去时：before从句中的动作在其他动作完成后开始发生

All passengers boarded/had boarded before the plane took off.

过去完成时：before从句中的动作在其他动作开始时尚未完成

The plane took off before all passengers had boarded.

when

一般过去时：带when从句中的动作开始发生在第一个子句中的动作之后

She had already fastened her seatbelt when the flight attendants gave the safety demonstration

过去完成时：带when从句中的动作在新动作开始之前完成

When she had fastened her seatbelt, the flight attendants gave the safety demonstration.

现在时态

对比

现在时态包括：一般现在时、现在进行时、现在完成时和现在完成进行时。也可以使用一般将来时和将来进行时对现在发生的事情进行推测

一般现在时

表示经常发生的动作、习惯、客观事实、真理

He sleeps there every day.

现在进行时

表示说话时正在进行的动作

Look! Buster is sleeping in the armchair!

现在完成时

表示最近完成的动作 (通常带 just)

He's just fallen asleep.

表示到目前为止，是否发生或者发生过多少次 (通常带 ever/never, how much/many)

The cat has never got lost.

表示与现在有联系的已完成的动作

The cat has fallen asleep. (The cat is still asleep now)

现在完成进行时

表示从过去开始并持续到说话时的动作的持续时间 (通常带how long, for, since)

How long has he been lying there?

一般将来时 will

对现在条件或过程的假设

He will probably be inside.

将来进行时

对当前正在发生的事情的假设 (美式英语中用现在进行时代替)

He will probably be dreaming of a nice bowl of milk. (is probably dreaming)

过去时态

一般过去时

用法

列举过去主要动作和事件，通常按顺序进行

He turned to us and told us that they had no record of our booking.

标志词

过去进行时

用法

通过描述与主要动作(一般过去)同时发生的情况来设定场景(过去进行)

It was raining heavily when we checked in.

描述过去同时进行的动作

While he was looking, his expression was becoming more and more confused.

标志词

while

过去完成时

用法

表达在过去某时间点/某动作之前发生的动作(结果)

My umbrella had broken earlier that day.

标志词

just, already, yet, ever, never (… before)

过去完成进行时

用法

表达在过去某时间点/某动作之前持续进行的动作的持续时间

We had been travelling for hours when we finally arrived at the hostel.

标志词

for, since, all day/night/week …

将来时态

一般将来时 (will)

用法

1. 不受影响的事件(天气)

It will be a sunny afternoon.

2. 对未来的假设

Otherwise he will probably fall asleep.

3. 承诺

He promises that he will pay attention in the future.

4. 自发的决定

But then the teacher thinks, "I will ask Jack."

一般将来时 (going to)

用法

1. 某人已经制定了未来的计划

He is going to play better today.

2. 某事表明某个特定动作即将发生

(Fiona has already raised her hand.) She is going to answer the question.

将来完成时

用法

未来某个时间点之前将已经完成的行动

一般现在时

用法

1. 设定/确定的时间计划 (火车时刻表、课程时间表等)

The lesson finishes at half past two, so It lasts another 20 minutes.

2. 约会、会议和义务, 和have (got), have (got) to一起使用

I have to go to the doctor, I have an appointment tomorrow.

现在进行时

用法

1. 已经达成一致的近期计划/安排

This afternoon he is playing football with his friends.

动词

助动词

助动词与主动词形成复合时态(have done，am going...)、否定句(don't like, didn't see …)和疑问句(don't like, didn't see …)、附加疑问句(you understand, don't you?)、强调句子及构成简短答案等。常用的助动词有 be、do、have 和 will。

助动词与主动词的区别

助动词在句子中起到辅助作用，没有自己的意义；它们的作用纯粹是语法上的。 主动词具有实际意义，表达句子的动作。

Today I am driving a blue car. I drive a red car.

be, do和have既可以是主动词，也可以是助动词——有时甚至在同一个句子中

I have had my car for three years.

助动词的使用

1. 复合时态

复合时态由两个动词组成：一个助动词(根据时态变化)和一个主动词(分词)

be

be 动词是表示进行时态的助动词，如现在进行时和过去进行时

I am driving to the coast tomorrow. (现在进行) We were looking for the keys. (过去进行)

have

have 动词是表示完成时态的助动词，如现在完成时和过去完成时

I have lost my car keys. (现在完成) We had forgotten to get petrol. (过去完成)

have 和 be

完成进行时态使用 have 和 be 作为助动词。注意：只有 have 是变化的，be 保持过去分词 been 的形式。主动词以 - ing 形式紧随其后

I have been driving for hours. (现在完成进行时) Paula had been looking for her keys. (过去完成进行时)

will

will 是将来时态的助动词。它是一种情态助动词

I will drive home later. (将来时) I will be travelling this time tomorrow. (将来进行时)

2. 否定句和疑问句

do

使用助动词 do 来形成否定句(do not)和疑问句(Do位于主语前)

I don't drive at night. / Do you have a car?

一般现在时的第一第二人称do，第三人称单数does；一般过去时，do 变为 did

She doesn't take the bus. / Tom didn't sell his old car.

3. 强调句

肯定句中，do位于动词前，表示强调

添加强调

The extra salt really does make a difference.

表达惊讶

To my surprise my order did arrive on time.

否定前面的陈述

—I bet they didn't find the final clue. —They did find it!

引出对比

Paula doesn't eat meat but she does eat fish.

4. 简短回答

助动词用于形成对yes/no问句的简短回答。 结构如下：yes/no + 主语 + 助动词

—Do you like tomatoes? — Yes, I do. / No, I don't. (simple present) —Are you coming to the party? —Yes, I am. / No, I'm not. (present progressive) —Will she pass the test? —Yes, she will. / No, she won't. (will future)

5. so 和 neither

使用助动词 so 和 neither 来表示对先前陈述的认同，并避免重复动词。 结构如下：so/neither + 助动词 + 主语代词

so + 助动词，同意肯定的说法

—I have homework. —So do I. = me too

neither + 助动词，同意否定的说法

—I don't like homework. —Neither do I. = me neither

6. 附加疑问句

附加疑问句是一种询问确认的方式。与常规疑问句不同，附加疑问句先做一个陈述，然后再添加一个匹配的助动词和主语代词

She hasn't left, has she? You've done your homework, haven't you?

如果陈述是肯定的，附加疑问句就是否定的，反之亦然。助动词总是与引导子句中的时态匹配。

You aren't leaving, are you? (present progressive) He will come, won't he? (will future)

有时助动词在主句中并不明确出现，但主动词的时态表明了需要哪个助动词

You like chocolate, don't you? (simple present = auxiliary don't They lived together, didn't they? (simple past = auxiliary didn't

I am的否定附加疑问句是aren't you; I am的肯定附加疑问句是 am I

I am clever, aren't I? / I am not too early, am I?

7. 情态助动词

情态助动词是如 will、should、can 等情态动词的别称。与标准助动词(be，do，have)不同，情态助动词具有自己的意义，从而改变了主动词的意义。引入了可能性、概率、义务等元素

You eat vegetables. → fact You should eat vegetables. → advice

情态动词

英语语法中的情态动词包括 can、could、may、might、must、needn't、shall/will、should/ought to

need既是主动词，又是情态动词，作为情态动词时，常用于否定句和疑问句

注意事项

1. 情态动词只有一种形式，在一般现在时中不加 - s，也没有过去式或过去分词形式

He must do what he is told. (not: He musts …)

2. 否定句和疑问句中，情态动词不使用助动词 (对比：助动词需要)

Max must not touch any dangerous equipment.

3. 通常将情态动词与动词原型(不带to的不定式)一起使用(除了简短回答和附加疑问句)

Max can change tyres. (not: Max can to change tyres.)

使用

1. 情态动词用于表达能力、提供建议、请求和许可、可能性、义务、推断、预测等

2. can/could 表达能力

替代形式为：be able to，可以在所有时态(现在,过去,完成,进行,将来)中使用

In two years time, Max will be able to do everything in the garage.

一般现在时使用can

Max can already change a tyre.

一般过去时使用 could，或 was/were able

Max's father could do everything in the garage

谈论过去的具体事情时，使用 was/were able to

Was Max able to change the tyre yesterday?

couldn't 和 was/were not able to 之间没有区别

Max's father couldn't work in the garage alone. Max's father wasn't able to work in the garage alone.

3. shall/should/ought to表达建议

给出建议、提出建议或说出一个好主意

Max should/ought to work more often in the garage Shall I speak louder?

对已经发生的事情提出建议，使用 should/ought to + have + 过去分词的形式

Max shouldn't/ought not to have played computer games all day

4. can/could/may/might 表示请求许可

替换形式为：be allowed to，可以在所有时态中使用

Max will be allowed to use the dangerous equipment soon.

一般现在时can/could/may/might询问许可. 礼貌程度：may/might>could>can

Can/Could/May I leave my car here for repairs?

通常只在第一人称(I, we)的疑问句中使用 may

只使用 can 或 may来给予许可，而不用 could

Max, you can/may change this tyre.

在条件从句和一般过去时中使用 could

Max could change the tyre if he wanted to. Max could/was allowed to leave early yesterday.

5. must/needn't/should 表示义务

替代形式

must → have to mustn't → be not allowed to need not → don't have to should/ought to → be supposed to/be expected to

must表示必要性，下令或给予强烈建议。使用must时，义务通常是由说话者强加的

His father says, "You must do what you are told."

当义务是一般性的 (如规则或法律)或表示过去或将来的义务时，使用 have to

Max is only 12 so he has to go to school.

mustn't/be not allowed to 表示不允许或禁止的事情

Max mustn't/isn't allowed to touch any dangerous equiptment

should/be expected to 表示类似于 must 的义务，但更弱

Max should/is expected to study hard.

当没有义务时，使用 needn't/don't have to

Max need not worry about.../doesn't have to worry about his future.

needn't是情态动词，need不是

need to do sth needn't do sth

6. may/can't/must/will/shall 表示可能性、推断

may/might 推断可能性，但不是100%确定。may not 和 might not不缩写

Max may/might not want to work in the garage forever

可以在肯定句中用 could 替换 may/might，但不能用 can 替换

Max's father may/might/could retire soon, he is almost 60.

may/might (not) + have + 过去分词，对过去的某事进行推测(可能)

Max's grandfather may/might have wanted to retire when he was 50.

can't 表示确定在现在是不可能的或不真实的事情

Max can't be retired, he's 12 years old. (but not: Max mustn't be retired.)

must 表示对推测现在某事是 100% 确定 can't/must + have + 过去分词表示推测过去(100%确定)

Max's grandfather must(推测) be retired, he's 90 years old. Max's father must have worked very hard.

will (not)/shall (not)表示对未来的预测或对未来的某事有把握

Max will/shall be a wonderful mechanic.

更礼貌的提问或请求

在提问或提出请求时，通常可以选择两个意思相似的情态动词形式。其中一种更礼貌

正常: can 礼貌: could (表能力)

Can you repair this flat tyre? Could you repair this flat tyre?

正常: can 礼貌: may/might (表许可)

Can we come in? May/might we come in?

正常: shall 礼貌: should

Shall he pick the car up tomorrow? Should he pick the car up tomorrow?

正常: will 礼貌: would

Will the car be ready tomorrow? Would the car be ready tomorrow?

注意

Will/Shall：使用 will 来提出请求或要求某人做某事(第二第三人称)。当以第一人称(I，we)使用疑问形式来提出建议时，使用 shall

Max, will you change that tyre? Shall I change that tyre?

Must 引导的一般疑问句，否定回答使用needn't； May引导的一般疑问句，否定回答用can't

过去式要用替代形式

如果想表示过去的情况，必须使用替代形式而不是常规的情态动词

重要

must → to have to

Max must do what he is told. (现在时) His father also had to do what he was told. (过去时)

must not → not to be allowed to

Max must not touch anything dangerous. (现在时) His father was not allowed to touch anything dangerous. (过去时)

can (ability) → to be able to/could*

Max can already change tyres. His father was not able to/couldn't change tyres.

can (permission) → to be allowed to/could*

Max can help in the garage at the age of 12. Max's father was allowed to help at the age of 13.

need not → not to have to

Max need not worry about his future. Max's father did not have to worry about his future either.

should/ought to → to be supposed to/to be expected to/to be to

Max should work in the garage more often. Max's father also was supposed to/was expected to/was to work in the garage often.

当然，其他时态(一般、过去、将来)也可以使用替代形式 (除了could)

Max can change tyres. = Max is able to change tyres

可以使用could和was/were able来表示can的过去式

过去具体情况使用was/were able to

静态动词

概述

静态动词 (也称为状态动词)不用于进行时态，即使是描述暂时或当前的情况也不用进行时。它们用于表达长期状态或不容易改变的特质。因此，静态动词涉及感官、感觉和情绪、长期状态以及特征。

静态动词分类

1. 品质和状态

静态动词/状态动词，指的是状态、品质和特征，表示永久的或不容易改变的事物

be*, belong, consist, contain, fit, have*, include, involve, lack, matter, measure*, need, owe, own, possess, weigh*

The chocolate cake contains nuts. not: The chocolate cake is containing nuts. The baking sheet belongs to Tricia. not:The baking sheet is belonging to Tricia.

2. 情感

表达感觉、情感和偏好

agree/disagree, like/dislike, love/hate, mind, prefer, want, wish

She wants to make sure that there is enough food. She prefers making cheesecake to biscuits.

3. 观点和思想

表达想法和观点

believe, feel*, know, mean, remember, suppose, think*, understand

She can't understand why exactly. Kathy thinks it is always better to have more options.

4. 感官

与感官或感知相关

appear, hear, look*, see*, seem, sound, smell*, taste*

The kitchen smells fantastic. It just doesn't taste right. Hopefully it looks better than her chocolate cake.

注：see、taste、hear和smell可以与情态动词"can"结合使用，以表达进行时的含义

She can hear the oven timer. (can indicates that the timer is ringing at the moment of speaking.)

5. 其他

astonish, concern, depend, deserve, impress, please, promise, satisfy, surprise

进行时形式的静态动词

1. 上述标有 (*) 的静态动词也可以使用进行时形式，通常意义会有所改变

2. be

静态动词形式：状态/品质

By nature Adam is a selfish guy.

进行时形式：表现出与行为不符的方式

Why are you being so selfish?

3. have

静态动词形式：拥有

He has two suitcases.

进行时形式：特定的表达方式

He's having a good time.

4. feel

静态动词形式：①观点 (认为)；②feel (sense)

I feel that's a bad idea. (认为) It feels like you have a temperature. (感觉)

进行时形式：触摸

I'm feeling inside my suitcase to find my passport.

5. look

静态动词形式：当前外表

You look good today.

进行时形式：当前外表

You're looking good today.

6. see

静态动词形式：①看见, 视觉；②理解

I see the train coming. I see what you mean.

进行时形式：①恋爱关系，与某人在一起；②有约会或会议

Nigel and Beatrice are seeing each other. We're seeing our aunty this afternoon.

7. smell

静态动词形式：smell (sense)

You smell like a summer breeze. (闻起来)

进行时形式：smell something (action)

Why are you smelling your sunglasses?

8. taste

静态动词形式：taste (sense)

This soup tastes delicious. (尝起来)

进行时形式：尝试或测试食物的动作 (action)

I am tasting the soup to see if it's been poisoned.

9. think

静态动词形式：认为

I think it's going to be hot today.

进行时形式：思考 think about (action)

What are you thinking about?

10. weigh

静态动词形式：多重

The baby weighs eight pounds.

进行时形式：称量 (action)

She is weighing the flour for the cake.

11. measure

静态动词形式：尺寸

The garden measures around 300 square metres.

进行时形式：测量 (action)

I'm measuring the distance from the kitchen to the door.

其他结构中的静态动词

静态动词可在其他语法结构中以 ing 形式使用，例如在介词之后或句子开头的动名词

He's good at seeming innocent, but actually he's horrible. Knowing him as I do, I don't think he will stay here.

不定式、动名词

总结

名词、形容词后一般跟带to的不定式，介词后一般跟动名词，动词后有可能跟带to/不带to的不定式，也有可能跟动名词

不定式概述

不定式是动词的基本形式。在不同的单词后面，如动词、形容词或名词等，可以使用带 to 或 不带 to 的不定式，例如 (to)be、 (to)have、 (to)do

不定式的使用

1. 形容词 + to + 不定式

例句

It was impossible to go back. I am happy to see you. (It is happy to see you 在语法上有一些问题，因为 "happy" 是一个形容词，一般修饰人，通常不会直接用于句子的主语)

形容词

amazed (惊讶的), amazing (令人惊讶的), angry (生气的), astonished (惊讶的), astonishing (令人惊讶的), awkward (尴尬的), brave (勇敢的), careless (粗心的), clever (聪明的), cowardly (懦弱的), crazy (疯狂的), delighted (高兴的), difficult (困难的), disappointed (失望的), disgusted (厌恶的), easy (容易的), funny (有趣的), generous (慷慨的), glad (高兴的), happy (快乐的), hard (困难的), honest (诚实的), horrified (恐惧的), impossible (不可能的), kind (友善的), nice (好的), odd (奇怪的), relieved (宽慰的), ridiculous (荒谬的), rude (粗鲁的), sad (悲伤的), selfish (自私的), silly (愚蠢的), sorry (抱歉的), strange (奇怪的), stupid (愚蠢的), surprised (惊讶的), wicked (邪恶的), wise (聪明的), extraordinary (非凡的)

2. 名词 + to + 不定式

例句

Her effort to succeed was truly remarkable. Her attempt to solve the puzzle was unsuccessful. There was no need to get angry.

名词

effort (努力), agreement (协议), aim (目标), arrangement (安排), attempt (尝试), choice (选择), claim (要求), decision (决定), determination (决心), expectation (期望), failure (失败), guarantee (保证), hesitation (犹豫), hope (希望), longing (渴望), need (需要), neglect (忽视), offer (提供), plan (计划), preparation (准备), promise (承诺), refusal (拒绝), resolution (决心), tendency (倾向), threat (威胁), trouble (麻烦)

3. 动词 + (不带to) 不定式

例句

We might stay at home. Let me go to the party tonight. I don't dare to ask him for a favor.

动词

can (能够), dare (敢于, 也可加上 to), do (做), help (帮助, 也可加上 to), let (让), may (可能), might (可能), must (必须), need (需要, 也可加上 to), shall (将), should (应该), will (将)

4. 动词 + to + 不定式

例句

He refused to pay the bill.

动词

afford (承担得起), agree (同意), aim (目标), appear (出现), arrange (安排), attempt (尝试), be determined (决心), beg (请求), choose (选择), claim (要求), consent (同意), dare (敢于, 也可不加 to), decide (决定), demand (要求), deserve (值得), determine (确定), endeavour (努力), expect (期望), fail (失败), guarantee (保证), happen (发生), have, help (帮助, 也可不加 to), hesitate (犹豫), hope (希望), learn (学习), long (渴望), manage (设法做到), mean (意味着), need (需要, 也可不加 to), neglect (忽视), offer (提供), ought (应该), plan (计划), prepare (准备), pretend (假装), proceed (继续), promise (承诺), refuse (拒绝), resolve (解决), seem (似乎), stop (停止), swear (发誓), tend (倾向), threaten (威胁), volunteer (自愿), vow (发誓), want (想要), wish (希望), would hate (讨厌), would like (想要), would love (喜欢), would prefer (更喜欢)

5. 动词 + 宾语 + (不带to) 不定式

例句

She let me go. She made him do his homework.

动词

let (让), make (使)

感官动词

see, hear, observe, watch, listen to, look at

6. 动词 + 宾语 + to + 不定式

例句

She got me to wash the dishes.

动词

advise (建议), allow (允许), ask (要求), beg (请求), cause (导致), enable (使能够), encourage (鼓励), expect (期望), forbid (禁止), force (强迫), get (使), help (帮助), invite (邀请), mean (意味着), order (命令), permit (允许), persuade (劝说), recommend (推荐), remind (提醒), teach (教), tell (告诉), want (希望), warn (警告), would hate (讨厌), would like (想要), would love (喜欢), would prefer (更喜欢)

7. 动词 + 疑问词 + to + 不定式

例句

She asked what to do next. We didn't remember where to meet. He showed how to fix the problem. We considered whether to take the job.

疑问词

how, if, what, where, whether

动词

ask (问), advise + object (建议 + 宾语), consider (考虑), decide (决定), explain (解释), find out (找出), forget (忘记), know (知道), learn (学习), remember (记得), see (看到), show (展示), teach (教), tell + object (告诉 + 宾语), understand (理解), wonder (想知道)

8. 表达式 + (不带to) 不定式

例句

You had better study hard if you wants to pass the exam. I would rather stay at home. Why not join us for dinner? Why should I clean the entire house?

表达式

had better (最好), would rather (宁愿), would sooner (更愿意), why not (为什么不), why should I/you/... [not] (我 / 你 /... 为什么不)

9. 表达目的或回答为什么…?

Why did Claudia go to the shop? She went to the shop to buy some milk.

动名词概述

动名词是动词的-ing形式，其变化形式与现在分词相同。它在句子中充当名词，跟在某些动词、介词和形容词后面（ps：介词后一般跟动名词）

动名词的使用

1. 介词 + 动名词

例句

Instead of studying for her exams, she went out every night.

介词

about (如 "how about"/"what about"), after (在... 之后), apart from (除了... 之外), because of (因为), before (在... 之前), by (通过), in (在... 之中), in spite of (尽管), instead of (代替), on (在... 上), without (没有)

2. 形容词 + (带 / 不带介词) + 动名词

例句

I am interested in visiting the museum.

形容词 + 介词

afraid of (害怕), angry about/at (对... 生气), bad at (不擅长), busy (忙于), clever at (擅长), crazy about (痴迷于), disappointed about (对... 失望), excited about (对... 兴奋), famous for (因... 而出名), fond of (喜爱), glad about (为... 高兴), good at (擅长), impressed by (对... 印象深刻), interested in (对... 感兴趣), keen on (热衷于), like (喜欢), near (靠近), proud of (为... 感到自豪), sick of (厌倦), sorry about (为... 感到抱歉), tired of (厌倦), worried about (担心), worth (值得)

3. 名词 + (带 / 不带介词) + 动名词

例句

There's no point in waiting any longer. She had a chance of winning the competition. He had no difficulty in solving the math problem.

名词

advantage of (优势), alternative of (替代), chance of (机会), choice between (选择), danger of (危险), difficulty in (困难), doubt about (怀疑), experience in (经验), fun (有趣), hope of (希望), idea of (主意), interest in (兴趣), opportunity of (机会), place for (地方), pleasure in (乐趣), point in (要点), possibility of (可能性), problem (问题), reason for (原因), trouble (麻烦), trouble in (麻烦), use (用途), way of (方式), waste of money (浪费钱), waste of time (浪费时间)

4. 动词 + 动名词

例句

I enjoy cooking. I advise studying for the exam. Let's avoid making the same mistake. I can't help laughing at that joke. She can't stand working in a noisy environment.

动词

情感、态度：admit (承认), deny (否认), appreciate (欣赏), dislike (不喜欢), fancy (喜欢), mind (介意), can't help (无法避免), can't stand (无法忍受) 建议：advise (建议), suggest (建议) 许可：allow (允许), permit (允许) 拒绝：avoid (避免), reject (拒绝) 时间和顺序：delay (延迟), postpone (推迟), finish (完成), stop (停止), keep (例如 keep going), waste time/money (浪费时间/金钱) 行动或活动：go (例如 go swimming), practice (练习), escape (逃避), risk (冒险) 与他人的关系：miss (错过), involve (涉及) 认知、思考：imagine (想象), consider (考虑), mention (提到), understand (理解)

5. 动词 + 介词 + 动名词

例句

I'm looking forward to seeing you again soon. He accused her of stealing his wallet. She apologized for being late. He is used to working long hours. I feel like going for a walk.

动词 + 介词

accuse of (指控), adjust to (适应), agree with (同意), apologize for (为... 道歉), approve of (赞成), ask about (询问), ask for (要求), begin by (以... 开始), believe in (相信), be used to (习惯于), blame for (责备), care for (照顾), carry on (继续), complain about (抱怨), concentrate on (专注于), congratulate on (祝贺), consist of (由... 组成), cope with (应对), decide against (决定不), decide for (决定), depend on (依赖), die of (因... 死亡), dream about/of (梦想), escape from (逃离), feel like (想要), forgive for (原谅), give up (放弃), insist on (坚持), keep on (继续), look forward to (期待), object to (反对), pay for (支付), prevent sb. from (阻止某人做某事), protect from (保护), put off (推迟), rely on (依赖), spend money on (花钱在... 上), spend time on (花时间在... 上), succeed in (成功), suspect of (怀疑), take part in (参与), talk about/of (谈论), thank for (感谢), think of (考虑), use for (用于), warn against (警告), worry about (担忧)

使用不定式还是动名词

意思不变

attempt (尝试), intend (打算), bother (打扰), cannot bear (无法忍受), cease (停止), start (开始), continue (继续), begin (开始), hate (讨厌), love (喜爱), like (喜欢), prefer (宁可)

I started to read./I started reading. He began doing his homework ten minutes ago./He began to do his ...

意思不变，使用不同

带有宾语的句子中使用不定式，而在没有宾语的句子中使用动名词

advise

I advise you to go by bus. I advise going by bus.

allow/permit

They do not allow people to smoke in the building. They do not allow smoking in the building.

forbid

The teacher has forbidden his students to use mobile phones in class. The teacher has forbidden using mobile phones in class.

意思有变化

forget/remember

不定式：涉及未来

Remember to switch off the lights.

动名词：涉及过去

Do you remember losing your first tooth?

go on

不定式：做完一件事后，开始做新的事情

After his studies he went on to become a teacher.

动名词：继续做原来的事情

He stopped reading, looked up a word and then went on reading.

need

不定式：必须/不得不做某事

I need to finish my homework on time.

动名词：应该做某事

The car needs cleaning.

regret

不定式：对即将做的事感到遗憾

I regret to say that you cannot come with us.

动名词：对过去的某事感到遗憾

I regret saying that I hated her.

stop

不定式：停下来去做另一件事

I stopped to smoke.

动名词：停止做某事

I stopped smoking.

try

不定式：尝试做复杂的事情（努力去做）

I tried to solve this riddle, but I couldn't.

动名词：尝试做某事（看看会发生什么）

We tried baking the cake without flour, but it did not work.

have/get sth done 和 get sth to do 和 get sth doing

have/get sth done (done是人去做，have/get sth done是叫某人做某事，事被做)

have the watch repaired. watch是被人修理

get sth to work / get sth working (work是物体在工作)

不定式：（未来）新的事物，让其第一次工作

如果第一次安装和设置新的电视剧，如果不成功：I didn't get it to work

动名词：（过去）旧的事物，让其重新工作

如果修理之前工作正常的电视剧，但是修理不成功：I didn't get it working

use to do

used to do：过去常常做某事

be used to doing：习惯于做某事

be used to do：被用来做

分词

概述

分词是在英语语法中充当形容词、名词或作为复合动词时的动词形式。在英语语法中，有三种分词类型：现在分词（或-ing形式）、过去分词和完成分词。我们可以使用分词来构成分词从句，以缩短复杂句子

ing形容词：引起...的（物体的特质） ed形容词：感到...的（人的感觉）

interesting：（物）引起人感兴趣的 interested：（人）对...感到兴趣

现在分词

用法

1. 作为时态的连续形式（进行时）

They were just standing there

2. 作为形容词来描述效果

I seemed to be interesting for them.

3. 作为动名词

They were only interested in grazing.

4. 在感官动词（feel, find, hear, listen to, notice, see, smell, watch）+ 宾语 之后，以强调行动的进行或价值判断，如赞美或不满

I watched them grazing. 说明动作的进行 I saw them pooing on the grass! 根据重音的不同，可以表示厌恶或不赞成

5. go/come 之后表示一项活动，go dancing/shopping/swimming/walking/…

I often go walking in the countryside.

6. 为了缩短一个主动子句，附加在另一个与主语相同的从句后面

The sheep were just standing there. They were wagging their tails. → The sheep were just standing there wagging their tails.

有些动词可以与不定式或现在分词使用

1. 感官动词+宾语：feel, find, hear, listen to, notice, see, smell, watch

与不定式表示：完整的动作被观察到

I saw one sheep poo on the grass. (目睹了整个动作的发生)

与现在分词：动作的一部分被观察到

I saw one sheep pooing on the grass. (抓住了动作发生的瞬间)

2. go / come

与不定式：表达行动的目标或目的

The sheep have come to see if I have food for them.

与现在分词：与活动有关

Let's go walking to the meadow.

现在分词变化

规则动词

现在分词通常是在动词基本形式后添加 -ing 形式来构成的

不规则动词

结尾为 - e 的单词，去掉 - e，但对于 -ee、-oe 和 -ye 结尾的单词则不变

come – coming (but: agree - agreeing)

在最后一个辅音前有一个重读的短元音，通常双写最后一个辅音字母，但 -w、-x 和 -y 结尾的单词则不双写

admit – admitted(mit重读) sit – sitting (but: fix –fixing) 但是visit - visited(vi重读，所以t不双写) read-reading(ea为长元音，所以d不双写)

在英式英语中，元音字母后的 - l 通常会双写，但是美式英语不双写

travel – travelling (British), traveling (American)

以 -ie 结尾的单词通常会将 -ie 替换为 -y

lie – lying

过去分词

过去分词是不规则动词表中的第三种形式：原型、过去式、过去分词

用法

1. 完成时态

They had eaten so much grass

2. 被动形式

They were left out on the meadow.

3. 作为形容词来描述一种感觉

They were only interested in grazing.

4. 作定语（前置定语、后置定语）

只有一个过去分词，则作为前置定语

You must bring all of the required documents.

包含过去分词的短语作定语，后置

Kate has a cat called Mimi.

过去分词作定语，可以改为定语从句

Kate has a cat which is called Mimi

5. 做宾语补足语(有被动的意思)

She heard her name called. 听到了什么声音，即名字被叫了 The fire was reported controlled. 报道了什么，报道了火灾被控制

6. 当将被动从句转换为分词从句时

The sheep were called by me. They slowly came over to me. → Called by me, the sheep slowly came.

过去分词变化

规则动词

通常在动词基本不定式后加上ed

肯定句：I played 否定句：I did not play / I didn't play 疑问句：Did I play?

例外

1. 当动词以 - e 结尾时，只需添加 - d

love – loved (not: loveed)

2. 重读短元音后紧跟一个辅音字母(最后一个辅音)，需要双写，w, x, y除外

admit – admitted(mit重读) 但是visit - visited(vi重读，所以t不双写) read-reading(ea为长元音，所以d不双写)

3. 在英式英语中，元音后跟辅音 l 时，l 总是双写，但在美式英语中不双写

travel – travelled (British), traveled (American)

4. 以 - y 结尾的单词会被替换为 - i

hurry – hurried

不规则动词

不规则动词的过去式需要背诵

及物、不及物

大多数过去分词由及物动词演变而来，有被动的含义

a moving film 一部感动人的电影、the moved audience 受感动的观众

有些过去分词由不及物动词演变而来，只表示动作完成，无被动的含义

the risen sun 升起的太阳、the fallen leaves 落叶

完成分词

用法

1. have+过去分词

2. 完成时：该动作在另一个行动开始之前已经完成

They were full up because they had eaten so much grass. → Having eaten so much grass, they were full up.

3. 完成进行时：该行动发生在较长的一段时间内，直到另一个行动发生

They had been running around on the meadow all day long so that they were tired.（had been running表示过去一直在进行的动作，直到 they were tired） → Having run around on the meadow all day long, they were tired.

既可用在主动语态，也可在被动语态

在主动语态中，用 having + 过去分词来形成完成分词

Having run around on the meadow all day, the sheep were tired.

在被动语态中，用 having been + 过去分词来形成完成分词

Having been left on the meadow by the farmer, the sheep ran around all day.

动词短语

简介

动词短语是动词和介词、副词或两者的组合。动词短语的意思通常与原始动词不同

常用的动词短语

1. break

break down

失去功能（机器）

身体或精神崩溃

break in

打断讨论

入室行窃

开始使用新物品，使其适应（新鞋软化）

break off

中断（治疗、关系等）

break out

逃离监狱

突然发生（不好的事情），爆发

break up

结束关系

2. bring

bring about

引起，导致，促成

bring forth

产生、创造或引起某物的存在

bring forward

提出（观点、建议等）

提前

引起注意

bring on

引发，导致发生或出现

bring round

使恢复知觉或意识

说服，改变某人的观点或看法

bring up

抚养，教育孩子

提及，提出（话题）

呕吐

3. call

call back

回拨电话

call for

要求，需要

呼吁

call in

通过电话联系

请教专家

call off

取消

call out

大声朗读名字

命令工人罢工

call on

拜访或访问某人

要求或请求某人做某事

call up

通过电话联系

征召(服役)

4. carry

carry away

移除

激发，情感上影响

carry off

夺走（通过武力）

获胜

移除，降级（土壤等）

carry on

继续

carry out

完成，实施（计划、任务、指示等）

carry through

完成，实现

帮助摆脱困境

5. come

come about

发生

实现

come across

偶然发现/遇见，邂逅

come after

跟随

come at

攻击

达到

发现

come back

返回

come by

路过，经过，顺便拜访

购买，获得

come down

下降（价格等）

come down to

意味着，表示

come down with

染病，生病

come in

进入，被接受

证明是

come in for

接受，成为...对象（批评等）

come off

脱落，脱掉

come out

曝光，被公开

被去除（污渍等）

come over

从远方来

come round

拜访某人

恢复知觉

come to

总计

到达，抵达

come up

被提及，被讨论

（问题）出现

come up against

面临（问题）

come upon

偶然发现/遇见，邂逅

come up to

符合（标准）

come up with

提出，想出

6. do

do away with

废除

杀死

do up

盛装打扮

系牢，固定（衣物）

翻新，修理

do with

需要

do without

不需要

7. fall

fall apart

破碎成碎片

fall behind

落后，无法跟上步伐

fall for

爱上

被欺骗

fall in with

偶然遇见

不谋而合

fall off

减少，减弱

从...掉下

fall out

争吵

fall out with

与...争吵

fall through

失败，落空

fall to

急切地开始活动，着手干

8. get

get across

沟通（想法）

get along

与某人关系融洽

get away

逃离

get away with

逃脱（惩罚）

get by

管理，应付（勉强混日子）

get down to

将注意力转向某事，开始认真考虑或对待

get in

进入（汽车、出租车等）

get off

下车（公交车、火车等）

get on

上车（公交车、火车等）

get out

下车（汽车、出租车等）

get over

康复（从疾病、心烦意乱中恢复）

get through

通过（考试）

接通电话

get to

到达

get up

睡醒后从床上起身

9. go

go against

违背（原则、规则）

go along with

持相同观点

go away

离开

go down

减少

下降（价格）

下沉（船只）

下落（太阳）

go for

追求或争取某物

go off

爆炸

（食物）变质

响起警报

go on

继续

go out

离开房子

罢工

go over

仔细检查细节

go past

经过，路过

go round

随意访问，拜访

go through

处理，应对

详细讨论

经历（不好的事情）

go up

上升，涨价

爆炸

go with

与...相匹配

10. keep

keep away

防止/避免靠近

keep back

阻止，抑制

keep down

不增加，压制

keep off

回避（话题）

远离

keep on

继续

keep up

保持，维持

keep up with

不落后于某人

11. look

look after

照顾，照料

look down on

看不起，轻视

look for

寻找，寻求

look forward to

愉快地期待

look into

调查（犯罪等）

look on

旁观

看待，对待

look out

当心，小心

look over

快速检查，粗略检视

look through

假装没有看见，忽略

检查（某物的内容）

look up

查阅参考书

look up to

尊敬，敬仰

12. make

make for

产生特定效果

有利于，导致

make off

逃跑

make out

辨认，识别

make up

化妆，打扮

构成，组成

编造谎言

make up for

补偿，弥补

追回（时间）

13. put

put across

以易懂的方式表达

put back

延期推迟

把某物放回原处

把时钟的指针拨回

put by

为将来储蓄

put down

镇压，压制

写下，记录

储存食物

put down to

归因于

put forward

提出（建议、观点等）

推动时钟的指针前进

put in for

成为选举候选人

put on

穿戴衣物

戏弄，取笑

增加（体重）

put off

推迟，延期

put out

扑灭（火、光）

put through

接通电话

put up

建造，搭建

抬起（手）

为提供住宿

出售

put up with

容忍，忍受

14. run

run after

追赶，追逐

run away

逃跑，逃离

run down

撞倒，与...相撞

因过度工作感到虚弱

run in

监禁

run into

偶然遇见，巧遇

run off

逃跑，逃离

run out

跑出去

用尽，耗尽

run out of

用尽，耗尽（库存、资源等）

run over

溢出

快速回顾或检查

车辆从上方经过，碾压

run up against

遭遇困难

15. set

set aside

保留为以后使用

set back

阻碍，拖慢进展，推迟

set down

写下

set off

动身，出发，开始旅行

启动某事物，引发，引发爆炸

set out

开始旅行或出发

以特定目标开始活动

set up

建立，创立

开业

16. take

take after

以某人为榜样

在外貌上与某人相似

take down

写下

take in

理解（含义）

欺骗

take off

脱衣

起飞（飞机）

take to

养成习惯

take up

开始从事（某项活动）

继续，继续进行

take up with

开始与...交往

对...产生兴趣

17. turn

turn down

减小强度，调小音量

拒绝

turn in

上交，提交

turn off

关掉，关闭

turn on

打开，启动

turn out

关掉，关闭

证明是，结果是

turn over

翻转，使反面朝上

turn up

增加强度

出现，露面

turn around

转身

转向

18. 对比

Run away 和 get away 都表示逃跑或逃脱

"Run away" 通常指急匆匆地逃跑，可能是因为害怕、紧急情况或追逐。这个短语强调快速的移动。"Get away" 也可以表示逃跑，但它更侧重于成功地逃脱或摆脱困境。这可能包括更谨慎、有计划的行动，以确保成功逃脱。

动词短语与宾语分开

不可分开的动词短语：介词必须直接跟在动词后面

He fell for his girlfriend. (not: He fell his girlfriend for.) He fell for her. (not: He fell her for.)

许多动词短语可以与宾语分开：宾语可以放在动词和介词之间，或介词后。当宾语是代词时，它必须放在动词和介词之间

She threw his love letters away./She threw away his love letters. She threw them away. (not: She threw away them.)

被动语态

被动语态将动作的接受者转为焦点，动作的执行者未知、不重要或显而易见，构成方式为：be的适当形式 + 过去分词

被动语态 vs 主动语态

主动

主动语态遵循"主语 - 动词 - 宾语"的词序，主语是动作的执行者，侧重于执行动作的人或物(主语)

A criminal stole my bike.

被动

被动语态的主语是动作的承受者，侧重于动作本身，强调接受动作的对象发生了什么

My bike was stolen.

当执行动作的人或物(称为施动者)是未知的、不重要的或明显的时候，使用被动语态

My bike was stolen. (未知的施动者) An investigation is being conducted. (明显的施动者，即警察) A mistake has been made. (避免命名施动者) Any information should be reported to the police. (泛指人们)

如果想包括被动句的施动者，则使用介词by

My bike was stolen by a criminal. (我的自行车被一个罪犯偷走了。) They had already been informed by my neighbour.(他们已经被我的邻居通知了

如何构成被动句

被动句的结构：be + 及物动词的过去分词。根据所使用的时态，只有 be 的形式会改变；过去分词在每个时态中保持不变。

一般现在时：The thief is arrested. am/is/are + 过去分词 现在进行时：The thief is being arrested. am/is/are being + 过去分词 现在完成时：The thief has been arrested. have/has been + 过去分词 一般过去时：The thief was arrested. was/were + 过去分词 过去进行时：The thief was being arrested. was/were being + 过去分词 过去完成时：The thief had been arrested. had been + 过去分词 (will)将来时：The thief will be arrested. will be + 过去分词 (going to)将来时：The thief is going to be arrested. is going to be 过去分词 将来进行时：The thief will be being arrested. will be being + 过去分词 将来完成时：The thief will have been arrested. will have been + 过去分词 Infinitive： The thief should/would be arrested. should/would be 过去分词 Perfect Infinitive：The thief should/would have been arrested.

现在完成进行时和过去完成进行时在被动语态中不存在。相反，使用简单形式 (现在完成时和过去完成时)

现在分词的被动语态

表示它的逻辑主语是其所表示的动作的承受者

The problem being discussed is of great importance.

及物动词

由于主动句的宾语变成了被动句的主语，只能在被动语态中使用及物动词 (例如：steal a car, write a book, make a mistake …)。不及物动词不带宾语，所以不能在被动语态中使用不及物动词 (例如：arrive, die, go …)

将句子从主动语态改为被动语态

1. 确定句子的宾语，并将其置于句首

active: Someone stole my bike. passive: My bike ...

2. 确定时态，并相应地变化 be 动词的形式

active: Someone stole my bike. 一般过去时 passive: My bike was ...

3. 确定过去分词

active: Someone stole my bike. steal – stole – stolen (偷) passive: My bike was stolen.

4. 确定是否需要包括施动者

active: Someone stole my bike. → 谁偷了自行车？不知道，someone 施动者未知，在这种情况下施动者是不必要的

5. 如果施动者很重要，则使用介词by来引入

active: A cyclist caused the crash. passive: The crash was caused by a cyclist.(不包括施动者的句子是没有意义的)

具有两个宾语的句子中的被动语态

某些动词如 ask、give、offer、pay、send、show 等与两个宾语一起使用。通常，一个是人 (间接宾语)，另一个是物 (直接宾语)

在主动语态中，这些句子可以用两种不同的方式表达

Someone gave Josie this calendar. / Someone gave this calendar to Josie. 间接宾语: Josie. 直接宾语: this calendar

在被动语态中，每个宾语(直接/间接)都可以成为被动句的主语。但多以间接宾语做主语，直接宾语需要加to或for

Josie was given this calendar. 间接宾语 (Josie)做主语 This calendar was given to Josie. 直接宾语 (this calendar)做主语

宾语代词改为主语代词

当主动句的间接宾语是宾格代词 (me、you、him、her 等)时，必须在被动语态中将其改为主格代词

They told me about the crime. → I was told about the crime by them.

人称和非人称被动语态

在新闻报道或学术文章等正式场合，使用报告动词和语言思考动词的被动语态来中性、客观地表达信息。这些动词有：agree、announce、assume、believe、claim、consider、declare、expect、feel、find、know、mention、say、suppose、think 和 understand 等。这样的句子可以以 it开头 (非人称被动)或主语开头 (人称被动)

It is said that this area has a high crime rate. (非人称被动语态) This area is said to have a high crime rate. (人称被动语态) = They say that this area has a high crime rate.

非人称被动语态

以 it 开头：It is said/believed/agreed 等 + that + 从句

It is believed that the suspect has blonde hair. It is said that the neighbourhood is a hotspot for crime. It is assumed that the thief is local to the area.

注意：非人称被动语态中，只有报告动词形式是被动语态；句子的其余部分保持不变

人称被动语态

以主语开头，包含不定式从句：主语 + is said/believed/thought 等 + to + 不定式

The suspect is believed to have blonde hair. The neighbourhood is said to be a hotspot for crime. The thief is assumed to be local to the area.

在报告动词之后，使用完成时不定式 (have + 过去分词)来指代过去

The theft is believed to have occurred at midnight last night. The thief is said to have acted alone.

一个物品或事物的历史，它对当前仍有影响，用完成时

Experts believe that this jewellery belonged to Cleopatra. 人称被动句如下： This jewellery is believed to have belonged to Cleopatra

have/get sth done被动语态

" have/get + 宾语 + 过去分词 " 用于表达别人为我们做某事，通常用于付费服务，如剪头发、洗车、房屋粉刷、狗美容等。此时句子的意思相当于被动语态。get 比 have 更加口语化

主动语态：I do my hair. (我自己梳头) 被动语态：I have/get my hair done. (我请别人给我梳头)

使用

这种被动结构是一种使役结构

与标准的被动语态一样，行动的执行者未知或不重要，重点在于行动本身

I should have my bicycle repaired. They would have the man followed. (派人跟踪the man，the man被跟踪)

如果想包括执行者，则使用 by

He had his suit made by a tailor.

在此结构中，动词 have 不是助动词。否定句和疑问句需要助动词 did 或 do

Did you have your house painted? It looks great. (不能说Had you your house painted)

可以在每个时态中使用这种结构

I'm getting my hair done tomorrow.现在进行时) We had our kitchen renovated last year. (一般过去时) They've had the dishwasher repaired several times. (现在完成时)

带 have 的被动语态，表示消极、痛苦或不愉快的经历

She had her house robbed in New York. (= her house was robbed) They had their car crashed by a drunk driver. (在这些例子中，不能使用 get)

get + 过去分词 除了表示被动句式外，还可以表示主动行为

get dressed (穿衣服)、get divorced (离婚)、get engaged (订婚)、get confused (迷惑不解)、get lost (迷路)、get washed (洗脸) 、get married

make sb do sth

make sb do sth"使某人做某事"，没有to。但是在被动语态中，不加to的不定式要还原to，即：sb be made to do sth

The boy is made to clean the room every day.

祈使语气

概述

祈使语气表达命令、指示、请求、劝告、警告、禁止等。由动词原形（不加 to）构成，并且通常没有主语

使用

命令

使用祈使句来命令某人做或不做某事

Stop! /Get in! /Don't drive too fast!

礼貌的请求

祈使句表示命令时，在英语中会听起来非常直接和粗鲁。为了避免显得不礼貌，最好使用问句，而不是祈使句来发出请求

Could you take me to the station, please? Take me to the station, please!

构成

肯定句

使用动词的基本形式（不加 to）来构成祈使句

to stop → Stop!（停下！） to get in → Get in!（上车！） to fasten the seatbelt → Fasten your seatbelt!（系好安全带！）

否定句

为了命令某人不要做某事，在动词前使用 do + not. 大多数情况下，使用缩写 don't

Don't drive too fast!（不要开得太快！） Don't be sick in my taxi!（不要在我的出租车上吐！）

be

当动词是 be 时，也使用助动词 do

Don't be silly! I cannot drive fast in the rush hour traffic!

虚拟语气

概述

虚拟语气是一种动词形式，用于谈论虚拟的情况。在英语中，虚拟语气并不常见。相反，现代英语使用者更倾向于使用情态动词如 would 和 should。虚拟语气偶尔会在复杂或文学语言中使用，尤其是在美式英语和某些固定短语和表达中。

动词变化

虚拟语气中，使用动词的基本形式，这意味着在第三人称单数中不添加s，并且be动词不变形

I recommend that she be employed.

对于愿望式虚拟语气，使用过去式。对于除了动词 "be" 外的所有动词，这个形式与陈述句的一般过去式形式相同。在虚拟语气中，"be" 的过去式是 "were"

He spoke English – I wish he spoke English. I was there – I wish I were there.

使用

1. 固定式虚拟语气

在某些习惯用语中使用

God save the Queen! Long live the King! Thy will be done. Be that as it may.

2. 命令性虚拟语气

用于表示"必须做某事"。在某些动词(例如, demand, insist, recommend, suggest)或形容词(例如, essential, important, vital)后，在带有 that 的句子中使用虚拟语气

People demand that the troops be withdrawn. It is important that everyone register.

由于上面这些句子听起来非常正式，通常更倾向于使用陈述句的形式，带有助动词，而不是虚拟语气

People demand that the troops should be withdrawn.

如果需求明显，即使没有助动词，动词也可以简单地以陈述句的形式使用

People demand that the troops are withdrawn. It is important that everyone registers.

然而，在下面的示例中，使用虚拟语气或陈述句会导致含义的不同

She insisted that he be present. Demanding that someone must be there in the present or future She insisted that he was present. Claiming/insisting that someone was there in the past

对于命令性虚拟语气，总是使用动词的不定式形式，即使谈论的是过去的情况。否定句的构成不需助动词 do

She insisted that he not be present.

3. 意愿性虚拟语气

用于表示不真实的愿望和希望。除 be 之外的所有动词，使用一般过去式；否定句使用didn't

I wish I had a million dollars. I wish they didn't live that far away.

在虚拟语气中，动词 be 的过去形式是 were

I wish I were a millionaire.

第二类虚拟条件句（If）

If I were you, …

不规则动词

英语动词有五种主要形式：不定式、一般现在时、一般过去时、过去分词和现在分词

规则动词通过在动词后加 - ed 形成一般过去时和过去分词

然而有一些不规则动词只能背诵，可以将不规则动词分为三种主要类型， 类型1：不定式、一般过去时和过去分词都相同； 类型2：一般过去时和过去分词形式相同，但与不定式不同； 类型3：不定式、一般过去时和过去分词都不同。

初级

类型1

put put put read read read (不定式读作 /ri:d/ 一般过去时和过去分词读作 /red/ )

类型2

can could (no participle) feel felt felt find found found get got got, gotten (US English) have had had hear heard heard learn learnt, learned learnt, learned leave left left make made made meet met met pay paid paid say said said send sent sent shall should (no participle) sit sat sat sleep slept slept teach taught taught tell told told think thought thought understand understood understood

类型3

be was/were been come came come do did done draw drew drawn drink drank drunk drive drove driven eat ate eaten fly flew flown forget forgot forgotten give gave given go went gone know knew known run ran run see saw seen show showed shown sing sang sung speak spoke spoken swim swam swum take took taken wake up woke up woken up wear wore worn write wrote written

预中级

类型1

cost cost cost cut cut cut hit hit hit hurt hurt hurt let let let shut shut shut

类型2

bring brought brought build built built catch caught caught hold held held keep kept kept lose lost lost may might (no participle) mean meant meant sell sold sold spend spent spent stand stood stood win won won

类型3

become became become begin began begun break broke broken choose chose chosen ride rode ridden steal stole stolen throw threw thrown

中级

类型1

quit quit quit split up split up split up wet wet wet

类型2

bleed bled bled burn burnt, burned burnt, burned deal dealt dealt dig dug dug dream dreamt, dreamed dreamt, dreamed feed fed fed fight fought fought hang hung hung kneel knelt, kneeled knelt, kneeled lay laid laid lead led led lend lent lent seek sought sought shine shone shone shoot shot shot spin spun spun spoil spoilt, spoiled spoilt, spoiled stick stuck stuck

类型3

beat beat beaten bite bit bitten blow blew blown fall fell fallen grow grew grown hide hid hidden prove proved proven, proved ring rang rung sew sewed sewn shake shook shaken sink sank sunk speak spoke spoken stink stank stunk swell swelled swollen

高级

类型1

bet bet bet broadcast broadcast, broadcasted broadcast, broadcasted burst burst burst forecast forecast forecast spread spread spread sweat sweat, sweated sweat, sweated wed wed wed

类型2

bend bent bent breed bred bred flee fled fled leap leapt, leaped leapt light lit, lighted lit, lighted slide slid slid speed sped, speeded sped, speeded sting stung stung strike struck struck sweep swept swept swing swung swung weep wept wept wind wound wound

类型3

awake awoke awoken bear bore borne freeze froze frozen rise rose risen shrink shrank shrunk sing sang sung spring sprang sprung swear swore sworn tear tore torn

进阶

类型1

bid bid bid cast cast cast rid rid rid shed shed shed shred shred shred slit slit slit thrust thrust thrust

类型2

bind bound bound cling clung clung creep crept crept fling flung flung grind ground ground plead pled, pleaded pled, pleaded shoe shod, shoed shod, shoed sling slung slung slink slunk slunk spit spat spat string strung strung wring wrung wrung

类型3

arise arose arisen forsake forsook forsaken saw sawed sawn shear sheared shorn sow sowed sown stride strode stridden strive strove striven tread trod trodden weave wove woven

TOP50

最常用的 50 个英语动词 ask 过去式：asked 过去分词：asked 现在分词：asking be 过去式：was/were 过去分词：been 现在分词：being become 过去式：became 过去分词：become 现在分词：becoming bring 过去式：brought 过去分词：brought 现在分词：bringing buy 过去式：bought 过去分词：bought 现在分词：buying call 过去式：called 过去分词：called 现在分词：calling can 过去式：could 过去分词：无 现在分词：无 choose 过去式：chose 过去分词：chosen 现在分词：choosing come 过去式：came 过去分词：come 现在分词：coming do 过去式：did 过去分词：done 现在分词：doing drink 过去式：drank 过去分词：drunk 现在分词：drinking eat 过去式：ate 过去分词：eaten 现在分词：eating feel 过去式：felt 过去分词：felt 现在分词：feeling find 过去式：found 过去分词：found 现在分词：finding get 过去式：got 过去分词：got/gotten 现在分词：getting give 过去式：gave 过去分词：given 现在分词：giving go 过去式：went 过去分词：gone 现在分词：going have 过去式：had 过去分词：had 现在分词：having hear 过去式：heard 过去分词：heard 现在分词：hearing help 过去式：helped 过去分词：helped 现在分词：helping know 过去式：knew 过去分词：known 现在分词：knowing learn 过去式：learned 过去分词：learned/learnt 现在分词：learning like 过去式：liked 过去分词：liked 现在分词：liking listen 过去式：listened 过去分词：listened 现在分词：listening live 过去式：lived 过去分词：lived 现在分词：living look 过去式：looked 过去分词：looked 现在分词：looking make 过去式：made 过去分词：made 现在分词：making need 过去式：needed 过去分词：needed 现在分词：needing pay 过去式：paid 过去分词：paid 现在分词：paying play 过去式：played 过去分词：played 现在分词：playing put 过去式：put 过去分词：put 现在分词：putting read 过去式：read 过去分词：read 现在分词：reading say 过去式：said 过去分词：said 现在分词：saying see 过去式：saw 过去分词：seen 现在分词：seeing send 过去式：sent 过去分词：sent 现在分词：sending show 过去式：showed 过去分词：shown 现在分词：showing sleep 过去式：slept 过去分词：slept 现在分词：sleeping start 过去式：started 过去分词：started 现在分词：starting stay 过去式：stayed 过去分词：stayed 现在分词：staying take 过去式：took 过去分词：taken 现在分词：taking talk 过去式：talked 过去分词：talked 现在分词：talking tell 过去式：told 过去分词：told 现在分词：telling think 过去式：thought 过去分词：thought 现在分词：thinking try 过去式：tried 过去分词：tried 现在分词：trying use 过去式：used 过去分词：used 现在分词：using walk 过去式：walked 过去分词：walked 现在分词：walking want 过去式：wanted 过去分词：wanted 现在分词：wanting watch 过去式：watched 过去分词：watched 现在分词：watching work 过去式：worked 过去分词：worked 现在分词：working write 过去式：wrote 过去分词：written 现在分词：writing

句子

句子

什么是句子？

句子是语法的一个单位。一般来说，句子以大写字母开始，以句号、感叹号或问号结束。在英语语法中，句子必须至少包含一个主句

句子主要成分

概述

英语句子主要由：主语、谓语、表语、宾语、宾语补足语、定语和状语等组成。主语和谓语/表语是句子的主体部分，宾语和宾语补足语是谓语里的组成部分。其他成分，如定语和状语，是句子的次要部分

主语

主语是谓语讲述的对象，表示“是谁”或“是什么”

谓语

谓语说明主语“做什么”，谓语必须是动词，和主语在人称和数方面保持一致

分类

简单谓语

一个动词或动词词组构成

复合谓语

情态动词+动词原型

have to/be able to 等to结尾的词组+动词原型

系动词+表语，系动词：be、感官类动词、become、grow、get等

表语

表语说明主语处于什么状态，“是什么”或“怎么样”，位于系动词后面

宾语

动作的承受者，表语说明行为或者结果，一般用在及物动词的后面

定语

用来修饰或限定名词或代词，定语可以前置或后置

状语

用来修饰动词、形容词、副词或者整个句子

句子结构

1. 简单句是由一个主句构成的句子

Magda loves dogs.

2. 复合句是由两个或更多个主从句通过并列连词连接而成的句子

Magda loves dogs but Adam loves cats.

3. 复杂句是由一个主从句和一个或多个从属从句通过从属连词连接而成的句子

Although Magda likes cats, she thinks dogs are better.

限定动词、非限定动词

概述

英语上根据动词在句法上是否受到主语的限定，英语动词有可以分为限定动词和非限定动词

限定动词

限定动词又叫谓语动词，在句中充当谓语，根据人称和时态变化的动词，在人称和数上必须和主语保持一致，同时还表现出时态、语态和语气的变化。

非限定动词

非限定动词，又叫非谓语动词，在句中不能单独充当谓语（但可以和情态动词或助动词一起充当谓语），它们不受主语的限定，没有人称和数的变化，具有名词、形容词和副词的特征，在句中可以充当主语、宾语、表语、定语、状语、补足语等。 同时非限定动词也保留了动词的部分特征，有时态和语态的变化，也可以有自己的宾语、表语、状语等，构成非限定动词短语，在逻辑意义上也有其动作的执行者或承受者（主谓关系或动宾关系），叫非限定动词的逻辑主语

分类

1. 不定式

Jean aims to go tomorrow.

2. 动名词

Swimming is a good sport in summer.

3. 分词

现在分词

I saw the dog digging holes in the yard.

过去分词

Half of the guests invited to the party were foreigners.

什么是从句？

从句

从句是语法的基本单位。在英语语法中，从句必须包含一个动词，该动词可以是限定动词或非限定动词。从句分为主从句和从属从句。这些从句可组合成不同的句子结构

主从句

主从句也被称为独立从句，因为它们可以独立构成一个句子。主从句通常包含一个主语、一个动词和一个宾语、补语或状语。主从句中的动词总是限定动词，这意味着它给出了关于人和时态的信息

Magda loves cats.

从属从句

从属从句有时被称为依赖从句，因为它们不能单独构成一个句子。从属从句总是包含一个从属连词和一个动词。限定从句也有一个主语，而非限定从句则没有。当主句和从属从句的主语相同时，通常使用非限定从句。

Magda loves cats because they pur so sweetly. (finite) Magda fed the cat before feeding the dog. (non-finite)

类型

从属从句有许多不同的类型，例如分词从句、关系从句和条件从句

Having already fed the cat, Magda made herself some breakfast. (participle) Magda found the cat, whose name is Kitty, on the street one morning.(relative If Magda didn't love cats,she never would have taken Kitty home. (conditional

句子类型

有四种句子类型（每种类型均可肯定句和否定句）

1. 陈述句

陈述句是陈述一个事实的句子。结构为：主语 + 动词 + 宾语 / 补语 / 状语

Adam loves cats. He doesn't like dogs.

2. 疑问句

疑问句以问号结尾，并且有倒装的词序。结构为：助动词 + 主语 + 动词 + 宾语 / 补语 / 状语

Does Adam prefer cats or dogs?

3. 祈使句

祈使句是使用祈使语气表示命令或指示的句子。通常使用动词的原型，并省略主语。祈使句的结构为：动词 + 宾语 / 补语 / 状语

Don't pat the dog.

4. 感叹句

感叹句可以用来表达强烈的意见。在书面英语中，感叹句后面跟着一个感叹号。感叹句通常遵循以下三种词序之一

1. what + 名词 + 主语 + 动词

What a lovely cat you have!

2. how + 形容词 + 主语 + 动词

How pretty your cat is!

3. 助动词/情态动词 + 主语 + 动词（疑问词序）

Could she sing!

主谓一致性

名词作主语

1. 可数名词作主语时，谓语动词单复数与主语单复数一致

His son is a teacher. His sons are teachers.

2. 不可数名词作主语时，不管单复数，谓语动词均为单数形式

Water is neccessary to everyone. Too much salt does a lot of harm to your health.

3. 集体名称作主语时，若指一个整体用单数，若指其成员用复数

The family is very big. Her family are watching TV.

4. 单复数相同的名词，根据修饰词，谓语动词单复数与数量单复数一致

The sheep he lost in the flood has been found. All his sheep were lost in the flood.

5. 表示民族、语言的名词作主语时，表示民族时用复数，表示语言时用单数

The Chinese love peace. Chinese is a very difficult language to learn.

不定代词作主语

1. 不定代词some-/evert-/any-thing/body/one作主语，谓语动词单数

Something is wrong with my bike.

2. neither, each, each one, no one, another等代词作主语时，谓语动词单数

Neither of the answers is right. Each day is better than the one before.

3. both, few, a few, many, several, others以及它们修饰的名词做主语，谓语动词复数

Few people can live to 100. Both of them have gone to the shop.

不定式、动名词、从句

1. 不定式、动名词以及从句作主语时，谓语动词单数

Swimming is a good exercise. To die for the people is a great honor.

定冠词+形容词

1. 定冠词the+形容词表示一类人作主语时，谓语动词复数

The rich are not as happy as the poor have expected.

插入语

1. 主语和谓语之间有插入语时，如as well as等，插入语不影响谓语动词单复数

The teacher with his students has gone to the library.

就近原则

1. 由either or, neither nor, not only but also, or等连接两个成分作主语时，谓语动词的单复数就近原则

Not only the students but also the teacher is greatly delighted.

2. 如果and把两个相同成分连接起来，谓语动词复数

Why he did it and how he did it were the questions only himself could answer.

其他

1. 分数修饰

当主语有分数修饰时，单复数取决于所修饰的名词的单复数

Two thirds of the children come from worker's families. Half of the persons in this room are women.

2. 量词修饰

当量词修饰名词时，不管可数还是不可数，取决于量词的单复数

One pair of glasses is not enough for this girl.

3. one of the

one of 结构作主语，一般情况下，谓语动词都是用单数。但是如果这个结构用作定语从句的先行词，从句谓语动词用复数。但如果前有the only、the very等修饰时，谓语动词用单数。

This is one of the bridges that has been built in this city. Linda is the only one of the foreigners that speaks Chinese well.

陈述句词序

陈述句中的词序

陈述句可以是肯定句或否定句。陈述句的词序一般是：主语-谓语-宾语-地点-时间

肯定句：Many people walk their dogs in the park on Sundays. 否定句：Many people do not walk their dogs in the park on Sundays.

多个宾语

当句子中有多个宾语时，间接宾语通常位于直接宾语之前

My dog has brought me the ball. / Jack gave his dog a present.

当间接宾语带有介词时，它(间接宾语)会位于直接宾语之后

My dog has brought the ball to me. / Jack gave a present to his dog.

从属从句

从属从句与主句形成一个复杂的句子。从属从句的词序与主句相同，只是从句以连词开始

Many people walk their dogs in the park on Sundays because they don't have the time during the week.

在理论上，每个英语句子应该以主语开始，但是长篇文字会听起来非常无聊。为了使文本更加多样化和有趣，可以将时间或从属从句放在句子的开头

On Sundays, many people walk their dogs in the park. Because they do not have to go to work at the weekend, many people walk their dogs in the park on Sundays.

否定句

概述

否定句是通过在主动词前加上助动词和 not 来构成的。助动词的选择取决于我们使用的时态。在一般时态中，使用 do + not；在进行时态中，使用 be + not；在完成时态中，使用 have + not；而在完成进行时态中，使用 have + be + not。如果是要否定 be 动词或其他所有的情态动词，只需要添加在 be/情态动词 后添加 not

情态动词和 be 动词的否定

情态动词或 be 动词作为主动词时不使用助动词

当需要否定情态动词时，将 not 放在情态动词和主动词之间

I can not speak French. → I can't speak French.

当 be 动词作为一般现在时或一般过去时的主动词时，否定形式将 not 放在 be 之后

They were old. → They were not old.

口语和非正式语言中，常使用缩写形式

I can not speak French. → I can't speak French. He is from England. → He's from England.

do 的否定

一般现在时或一般过去时，在主动词之前使用 do+not ，否定所有其他动词

We speak English. → We do not speak English.

do 的否定句中，主动词为不定式，因此只有助动词 do 形式是变化的。一般现在时第三人称单数使用 does，其他人称使用 do。一般过去时的所有人称使用 did

They speak English. → They do not speak English. He speaks English. → He does not speak English. They spoke English. → They did not speak English.

do + not 的缩写在口语中使用

I do not → I don't he does not → he doesn't I did not → I didn't

be、have、will 的否定

进行时、完成时、将来时和被动语态的句子已经有了助动词。为了否定它们，只需将not 放在助动词和主动词之间

They are speaking English. → They are not speaking English. (现在进行时) They have spoken English. → They have not spoken English. (现在完成时) They will speak English. → They will not speak English. (一般将来时) English is spoken in that country → English is not spoken in that country(被动)

如果有多个助动词，则 not 放在第一个助动词之后

He will have played the guitar. → He will not have played the guitar.

have、will的缩写

I have not spoken. I haven't spoken./I've not spoken. She has not spoken. She hasn't spoken./She's not spoken. We had not spoken. We hadn't spoken./We'd not spoken. They will not speak. They won't speak./They'll not speak.

have(拥有)的否定

当动词 have 表示拥有或所有权时，有两种构造否定句的方式

1.将动词have与助动词do一起使用，遵循一般现在时的否定模式

They have a dictionary. → They do not have a dictionary.

2.另一种形式是 have got，这种情况不使用do，而是将not放在have和got之间

They have got a dictionary. → They haven't got a dictionary. （注意，They haven't a dictionary这样的表达不常见，而是用1.或2.）

疑问句

概述

疑问句用来获取信息，颠倒语序："wh疑问词 + (助动词) + 主语 + 谓语" 的结构

不要把化成宾语从句的句子当成疑问句，这里讨论的是直接疑问句，因为宾语从句一般是用在陈述句里！而陈述句的语序是 主 + 谓 + 宾，如果是陈述句里包含宾语从句，则结构为 主 + 谓 + 宾语从句( 引导词 + 主 + 谓 + 宾)，陈述句不需要颠倒语序

疑问句类型

1. yes/no 疑问句（封闭式疑问句）

yes/no 疑问句不使用疑问词(如 what)构成，并且只能用yes/no回答。对于这类的疑问句，助动词位于句子的开头：助动词+主+谓+宾 ?

Do you like ice-cream? Have you had an ice-cream today?

如果疑问句的主动词是be，那么be放在句子的开头

Is this your ice-cream?

2. wh 疑问句（开放式疑问句）

wh 疑问句的构成方式与 yes/no 疑问句相同，只是在助动词之前添加一个疑问词，并且可以自由回答，结构为：疑问词+助动词+主+谓+宾？

How often do you eat ice-cream? Whare are you doing?

在带有介词的疑问句中，介词通常出现在句子的末尾

Who is the ice-cream for? 这个冰淇淋是给谁的？

3. 间接疑问句

间接疑问句是由：一般疑问句间接引语变成，表示转述人间接引述另一个人的问题或者礼貌提问。间接一般疑问句的疑问部分主语和助动词不需要倒装(因为是陈述句)

直接疑问句：Where are you going？ 间接疑问句：He asked me where I was going.

常见的疑问词

1. who：主语、宾语（人）

Who gave you the book? Who did you give the book to? Who did you see?

Who or Whom?

在口语中，who通常用作主语和宾语。然而在正式体中，宾语使用 whom 更为正确

Who did you see? → Whom did you see?

如果在带有介词的句子中使用 whom，那么介词通常位于 whom 之前

Who did you give the book to? → To whom did you give the book?

2. what：主语、宾语（不用于人）

What is it? What did you see? What are you doing?

3. what kind/sort/type of ：(无预定选择)

What kind of clothes do you usually wear?

4. what day/colour/：(无预定选择)

What day is it today? 今天星期几？

5. which：(有预定选择)

Which car do you like better – the red one or the blue one?

6. whose：所属/拥有

Whose car is it? （对比 What is it?）

7. where：地点（位置、方向）

Where is the station? Where are you going?

8. where … from：地点（起源）

Where are you from?

9. when：时间点

When did you have breakfast?

10. how：方式

How are you? How did you get home last night?

11. how old/much/long：(更多细节)

How old are you? How much is it?

12. why：行动的原因

Why are you so late?

13. what … for：行动的目的

What do you need this for?

疑问句的词序

在复合时态、被动语态和情态动词中，将已经在句子中的助动词或情态动词移到主语之前构成疑问句

I have had an ice-cream today. → Have you had an ice-cream today? (现在完成时) The ice-cream is made with milk. → Is the ice-cream made with milk? (现在时的被动语态) Ice-cream men can eat ice-cream every day. → Can ice-cream men eat ice-cream every day? (现在时的情态动词)

如果需要疑问词，则疑问词放在开头，接着主语和助动词/情态动词换位置

He can tell us something about it. (ask about something) What can he tell us about it?

然而，一般现在时或一般过去时的肯定句中不包含助动词，因此肯定句转换成疑问句时需要借助助动词 do。 请注意，在一般时态中，do 也用于构造否定句

I like ice-cream. → Do you like ice-cream?

在一般现在时的疑问句，第三人称单数使用 does，而所有其他人称都使用 do；在一般过去时的疑问句，所有人称都使用 did。主动词保持不定式形式

He eats an ice-cream every day. → Does he eat an ice-cream every day?（一般现在时 - 第三人称单数） She ate an ice-cream yesterday. → Did she eat an ice-cream yesterday?（一般过去时）

间接疑问句不需要倒装，因为间接疑问句是陈述句语序

没有助动词的疑问句

在一般现在时/过去时，当主动词是 be 时，不需要助动词来构造疑问句，只需颠倒主语和动词位置即可构成疑问句

I am/was addicted to ice-cream. → Are/Were you addicted to ice-cream?

当疑问词同时也是疑问句的主语时，不使用助动词，这被称为主语疑问句，疑问词替换原句的主语构成疑问句，句子剩余部分保持不变。当询问谁/什么在执行该动作时会出现这种情况。要注意，动词要使用第三人称单数形式

What tastes delicious? The ice-cream tastes delicious. (but: What does the ice-cream taste like? The ice-cream tastes like strawberries.) Who eats ice-cream every day? Jane and Phil eat ice-cream every day. (but: Who do Jane and Phil eat ice-cream with? Jane and Phil eat ice-cream with Lorrie.)

带有 have 的疑问句

在涉及到使用动词 "have" 的疑问句时，有两种可能性。一种是使用助动词 do 与主动词 have 一起。这是官方的方法，更常见于美式英语

My mom has an ice-cream machine. → Does your mom have an ice-cream machine? (American English)

然而，对于涉及到拥有/归属的疑问句，英式英语中更常见的做法是使用 have got 结构，其中 have 扮演助动词的角色，放在主语之前

My mum has got an ice-cream machine. → Has your mum got an ice-cream machine? (British English)

附加疑问句

概述

附加疑问句，也称（反意疑问句），将常规的陈述句转化为疑问句。使用它来邀请对方回应或确认。

使用

1. 当我们期望对方确认我们所说的内容时，使用疑问附加句

Your dog is very big, isn't he?

2. 对于肯定句，疑问附加句使用否定的缩写形式。对于否定句，使用肯定形式

He just wants to play, doesn't he? He doesn't bite, does he?

构成

1.

前一部分是陈述句，后一部分是疑问句

附加疑问句是通过添加助动词do、或使用助动词、或使用be动词、或使用情态动词，并使用陈述句的主语或相应代词而构成简短的附加疑问句

2. be动词

如果句子使用be动词，则附加疑问句也使用相同的形式

Your dog is very big, isn't he?

注意：在 I am 的句子，疑问附加句使用使用 are 的否定形式

I am clever, aren't I?

3. 助动词、情态动词

如果句子使用助动词或情态动词，则在疑问附加句中使用该助动词或情态动词

You have already fed him, haven't you? The dog can't talk, can he?

4. 无be、无助动词、无情态动词

如果句子不用be动词，也没有助动词、情态动词，那么附加疑问句中使用相应的 do 的形式

He just wants to play, doesn't he? You taught him to behave, didn't you?

代词

1.

在附加疑问句中总是使用代词。句子中的名字或名词，在附加疑问句中会被替代为对应的代词

2. 对于知道性别的人和其他生物，使用 he/she 表示单数，they 表示复数

Your dog is very big, isn't he? (We already know that it's a male dog.)

3. 对于其他所有情况，使用 it 来表示单数

His name is Fluffy, isn't it? 这里我们谈论的不是这只动物，而是它的名字。名字不是一个有生命的存在，所以使用“it”

4. 如果句子中的主语已经是代词，则在附加疑问句中使用相同的代词

He doesn't bite, does he? You have already fed him, haven't you?

回答

回答原则

原则：是就是(yes)，不是就不是(no)。不管问题的提法如何，只要事实上是肯定的，就用 yes 回答，事实上是否定的，就用 no回答。不会出现先说yes，后面却接上否定not的情况

You want to go on holiday, don't you?

肯定回答

Yes, I do.（是的，我想去。） Yes, that's right.（是的，正确。）

否定回答

No, I don't.（不，我不想去。） No, not really.（不，不是很想。）

表达需进一步考虑的回答

I'm not sure yet.（我还不确定。） I haven't decided.（我还没决定。）

He doesn't like chocolate, does he?

但当陈述部分是否定句时，回答译成汉语时不一样。

肯定回答

Yes, he does. Actually, he likes chocolate

否定回答

No, he doesn't Yes, you are right; he dosen't like chocolate.

寻求澄清或者不确定

Does he? I'm not sure, does he?

条件句

概述

概述

条件句是if从句，由两个从句构成：条件从句和主从句，表示一种情况或条件及其可能的结果。条件从句通常以 if 开头，并提出一个条件；而主从句则表达当满足该条件时会发生什么。主从句通常包含情态动词，如 will 或 would

If I have time later, I will help you with the presentation. I'm sorry, if I had time, I would help you.

条件句类型

1. 零条件句：一般现在时 + 一般现在时

表示一般真理/重复动作

If I have time, I help. (有时我有时间)

2. 第一条件句：一般现在时 + will

真实条件句，表示现实的未来可能性

If I have time, I will help. (也许以后我会有时间，但不确定)

3. 第二条件句：一般过去时 + would

虚拟条件句，表示不真实的可能性或虚拟情况

If I had time, I would help. (我没有时间，不能帮忙)

4. 第三条件句：过去完成时 + would have 过去分词

不可能条件句，回顾过去的情况，想象为不同的结果

if I had had time, I would have helped. (我当时没有时间，不能帮忙)

5. 其他

1. 混合条件句

混合使用第二和第三条件句，表达一个想象中的过去情况及其想象中的现在结果，或者反过来

If I had put on suncream this morning, I wouldn't be sunburned now. If I spoke Mandarin, I would have done the translation myself.

2. 倒装条件句

正式场合使用。if从句变成：去掉if，助动词+主语+动词（倒装）

Had we known about the bad reviews, we wouldn't have made a reservation!

3. 条件连词

可以在条件从句中使用条件连词替代 if，这些连词包括：Provided that, As long as, Unless, In case, On condition that

Provided that you finish your work on time, you can leave early. （只要你按时完成工作，你可以早点离开。） As long as you study hard, you will pass the exam. （只要你努力学习，你会通过考试。） Unless it rains, we'll have a picnic in the park. （除非下雨，否则我们会在公园野餐。） In case you get lost, here's a map to help you find your way. （以防你迷路，这儿有一张地图帮助你找到路。） On condition that you promise to be careful, I'll lend you my car. （在条件下，你答应小心，我会借给你我的车。）

4. Wish/if only

带有 wish 和 if only 的句子与第二和第三条件句语法模式相同，表达对过去情况的遗憾或虚拟情况的希望

第二条件句

If I had more money, I would travel around the world. I wish I had more money to travel around the world. If only I had more money to travel around the world.

第三条件句

If I had known you were in town, I would have visited. I wish I had known you were in town so I could have visited. If only I had known you were in town, I would have visited.

零条件句

概述

零条件句：满足特定条件下，总是发生的事情

用法

1. 事实

If you heat water, it boils.

2. 习惯

If it is warm, I go to the beach.

3. 规则

Children can ride the rollercoaster if they are over 140cm tall.

构成

1. if从句：一般现在时，主从句：一般现在时

2. 可以颠倒从句的顺序，而不改变其含义 当if从句在前，则后面跟一个逗号；如果主从句在前，则不使用逗号

If you take the bus, you need a ticket. = You need a ticket if you take the bus.

If, when, whenever

零条件if从句与when, whenever时间的意思几乎一样

when 强调动作的确定性

Harry feels better if he exercises. = Harry feels better when he exercises.

whenever 意思是任何时候或每次

Whenever it is warm, I go to the beach.

第一条件句

概述

第一条件句，也称为真实条件句，其表示：只有在特定条件得以满足时，才会发生的未来行动。因为它涉及了未来可能性

If it rains tomorrow, we will cancel the picnic. 明天下雨的可能性是真实存在的，但不是100%确定

用法

1. 未来事件

If I take the job at the investment bank, I will make a lot of money.

2. 警告、威胁

If I don't decide soon, they will take back their offers.

3. 谈判

If you provide more vacation days, I will accept the job.

4. 迷信

If you break that mirror, you will have seven years of bad luck.

构成

1. if从句：一般现在时，主从句：一般将来时(will/won't)或祈使句

If I take the job at the community centre, I will have more free time. If you have any questions, please get in touch.

2. 单个从句或者两个从句都可以是否定句

If they don't offer paid vacation time, I won't take the job. (两个否定从句) If I take the job at the investment bank, I won't have much free time. (一个否定从句，一个肯定从句)

3. 主从句可以是疑问句：疑问词 + will + 主语 + 谓语

If I say no to the job, will I find another one?

4. 可以颠倒从句的顺序，而不改变其含义 当if从句在前，则后面跟一个逗号；如果主从句在前，则不使用逗号

5. 注意：if 和 will 永远不会同时出现在同一个从句中

If you are late, the teacher will be angry. not: If you will be late, …

6. 第一条件句可以使用 unless, as long as 和 provided that 等连词来替代 if

I'll take the job unless I get a better offer. = I'll take the job if I don't get a better offer.

if, when

在谈论未来时，if 和 when的意思不同

1. if 表示可能发生的未来行动或事件

If we see the Northern Lights, I will take lots of photos.(不能保证看到极光)

2. when 表示一定会发生的未来行动或事件

We will leave when the concert ends.(音乐会不可能永远进行，因此结束是确定的)

第一条件句vs零条件句

零条件句用来表达一般性的事实、真理和总是发生的事情，不受特定情况或时间的限制。一般性的事实和真理。

If you leave ice cream in the sun, it melts. (zero conditional) 这是一个一般性的事实，适用于所有冰淇淋，不受特定情况的限制

第一条件句用来谈论特定的未来情况，只有在特定条件得以满足时才会发生。它强调特定情境下的未来可能性。

If you leave your ice cream in the sun, it will melt. (first conditional) 这是在谈论一个特定的冰淇淋，指的是特定情况下的可能性

第二条件句

概述

第二条件句，也称为虚拟条件句（现在），其表示：不太可能或虚拟的条件以及它们的结果。其想象往往与现实情况不同

If I had a million pounds, I would buy a beautiful house on the coast. (in reality I do not have a million pounds, and I can't buy such a house)

用法

1. 提供建议

If I were you, I would go to Europe.

2. 假设

Where would you go if you had six weeks off?

3. 想象与现实生活的不同情况

If I lived abroad, I would miss my family a lot.

4. 寻找借口

I'm so sorry, if I didn't have to work, I would come to your party.

构成

1. if从句：一般过去时，主从句：would+动词不定式(不带to)

If you had an Interrailing ticket, the planning would be easy.

2. 单个从句或者两个从句都可以是否定句

I wouldn't relax if I had to buy new tickets every day. (一个否定，一个肯定) If I didn't have a free summer, I wouldn't be able to travel. (两个否定)

3. 主从句可以是疑问句：疑问词 + would + 主语 + 谓语

If you had six weeks off, where would you go?

4. 可以使用could 和 might 来替代 would。could 表达能力，而 might 表达可能性

If you went to Europe, you could see multiple countries in one day. Travelling might be easier if you had a bigger budget.

5. 在第二条件句中，不使用 should

6. 可以颠倒从句的顺序，而不改变其含义 当if从句在前，则后面跟一个逗号；如果主从句在前，则不使用逗号

7. 注意：if 和 would 永远不会同时出现在同一个从句中

If I knew the answer, I would tell you. not: If I would know the answer, …

If I were you 或 If I was you

I, he, she, it 可以用 were，而且were更加正式

第三条件句

概述

第三条件句，回顾了过去的情况及其结果，并将它们想象成不同的情况。它是唯一涉及过去，而不是现在或未来的条件句。因为第三条件句谈论的是未发生的过去情况，所以它也被称为不可能条件句（过去）

I didn't study. I didn't pass the exam. (reality) but: If I had studied, I would have passed the exam. (imagined past)

用法

1. 表达遗憾

If I had been smarter, I would have taken more time off!

2. 给予批评和反馈

Your party would have been better if you had invited more people.

3. 反思过去

If I hadn't spent a year abroad, I wouldn't have had so many adventures

构成

1. if从句：过去完成时，主从句：would have + 过去分词

If I had done law, I would have become a lawyer.

2. 单个从句或者两个从句都可以是否定句

I would have graduated sooner if I hadn't taken a gap year. (一肯一否) If I hadn't spent a year abroad, I wouldn't have had so many awesome adventures. (两个否定句)

3. 主从句可以是疑问句：疑问词 + would + 主语 + 谓语

If you had known all the facts at the time, would you have done things differently?

4. 可以颠倒从句的顺序，而不改变其含义 当if从句在前，则后面跟一个逗号；如果主从句在前，则不使用逗号

5. 注意：if 和 would 永远不会同时出现在同一个从句中

If I had known he was a criminal, I never would have married him. not: If I would have known …

6. 可以使用could 和 might 来替代 would。could 表达能力，而 might 表达可能性

If you had asked me, I could have helped you. I might have graduated sooner if I hadn't done a gap year.

混合条件句

概述

混合条件句是包含两种不同类型条件句的句子：一个从句为第二条件句，而另一从句为第三条件句。混合条件句是为了在同一条件句中指代两个不同的时间。

类型

1. If I were a better baker, I would have made the cake myself.

I am not a good baker, I didn't make the cake myself.

if从句为第二条件句：想象的现在情况，想象为不同的现在

主从句为第三条件句：想象过去的结果，想象为不同的过去

2. If we had stayed together, we would be miserable.

We did not stay together, we are not miserable

if从句为第三条件句：想象过去的情况，想象为不同的过去

主从句为第二条件句：想象现在的结果，想象为不同的现在

倒装条件句

概述

虽然条件从句通常被称为if从句，但它并不总是包括if这个词。在正式语境中，使用倒装技巧，通过颠倒主语和动词的顺序来构造这些条件从句。这些从句称为倒装条件句或缩略条件句

构成

1. 第一条件句的倒装

if从句：should + 主语 + 谓语

Should you book with us again, we will provide you with a 3% discount. = If you book with us again, …

2. 第二条件句的倒装

if从句：were + 主语

Were this my hotel, I would be ashamed! = If this were my hotel, …

不太可能发生的未来事件，倒装结构were + 主语 + to + 不定式

Were I to leave a review one day, it would be 1 star! = If I left a review, … (at some point in the future)

倒装的第二条件句不常见，通常限于正式的书面英语

3. 第三条件句的倒装

if从句：had + 主语 + 过去分词

Had we known about the bed bug infestation, ... = If we had known about the bed bug infestation, …

不要在否定的倒装条件句中使用缩写

Had the hotel not been so awful, I would have enjoyed myself. not: Hadn't the hotel been so awful, …

were it not for

were it not for 是倒装条件句的一个习语短语，意思是"如果没有"或"要不是"

Were it not for the building work, the pool area would be open. (第二条件句) = If it weren't for the building work, …（要不是施工工程，游泳池区域就会开放 Were it not for the quick actions of guests such as yourself, the fire would have been much worse. (第三条件句) = If it hadn't been for the quick actions …（要不是像您这样的客人迅速采取行动，火情会更糟

条件连接词

概述

条件连接词是在条件句中可以用来替代"if"的词语。常见的包括：provided that（只要）、providing that（倘若）、as long as（只要）、supposing（假如）、on condition that（在条件下）

连接词

provided that、providing that、on (the) condition that

(only …) if ，（仅...）如果

Your order will be dispatched in 2 days provided that all items are in stock. = Your order will only be dispatched if all items are in stock.

as long as、so long as

(only …) if，（仅...）如果

Items may be returned as long as they are unworn. = Items may only be returned if they are unworn.

unless

if … not，如果...不，除非

Unless it contains heavy goods,your package will be delivered by local courier = If it does not contain heavy goods, …

supposing

(what) if，如果...会怎么样

Supposing my order is delayed, will they refund the delivery costs? = What if my order is delayed, …

wish/if only+过去式或过去完成

概述

动词 "wish" 和连词 "if only" 表示：我们希望不同的情况，但我们无法改变的情况。与第二和第三条件句中的if从句语法规则相同

wish & if only

现在

wish/if only + 一般过去/过去进行：把现在想象成与其当前现实不同的样子

I wish I were better at languages. 当前现实：我不擅长语言 If only it wasn't raining. 当前现实：正在下雨

对于现在情况的愿望，可在wish/if only之后使用was或were，仅第一人称和第三人称单数

I wish I were better at languages = I wish I was better at languages. If only it weren't so difficult. = If only it wasn't so difficult.

过去

wish/if only + 过去完成：想象过去成与其过去不同的样子

I wish I had studied more. 过去现实：我没有学得足够多 If only I had chosen Spanish instead. 过去现实：我没有选择西班牙语

would/would have从句通常跟在wish/if only从句后面，表达wish从句的想象结果

I wish the test was next week, I would be more prepared. If only I had chosen Spanish, it would have been easier.

可以说I wish that，但在大多数情况下省略that

I wish that I were better at languages. I wish that I had chosen Spanish.

wish和if only的区别

尽管wish比if only更常用，但意思没有区别。有时if only更强调并表达更强烈的情感

If only I had paid more attention in class! = I wish I had paid more attention in class.

wish/if only … would(n't)

概述

与标准的 if 从句不同，可以将 would 与 wish/if only 一起使用。然而，意义会略微改变

用法

1. wish/if only … would(n't)表示说话者对他人的行为感到恼火，但无法改变它

I wish my teacher would stop choosing such difficult topics. If only my neighbour wouldn't play the drums at night.

2. 希望他人改变行为或开始/停止特定行动时，使用wish/if only...would(n't)

Danielle wishes Malcolm would propose. (action)

3. 希望不同的状态state或情况，使用wish/if only + 过去式

Danielle wishes they were married. (state) not: Danielle wishes they would be married.

4. 注意，表示状态中，天气是个例外

I wish it would snow. I wish it would stop raining.

5. 第一人称使用wish + 过去式，而不是wish + would。因为wish … would(n't)表示说话者无法控制的行为和动作，而说话者是有能力改变这种行为的，所以使用wish + 过去式

I wish I would do more sport. = I wish I did more sport.

间接引语

概述

在英语中，使用转述语来表达另一个人所说的话，可以用直接引语或间接引语。直接引语使用引号标记对方的确切言辞；间接引语，改变时态和代词来表明一段时间已经过去。间接引语通常由由报告动词或短语引入

He says/said … She explains/explained … She tells/told me … He asks/asked …

直接引语改为间接引语

1. 注意事项

改变代词

He said, “I saw a famous TV presenter.” He said (that) he had seen a famous TV presenter.

改变时间和地点的信息

He said, “I saw a famous TV presenter here yesterday.” He said (that) he had seen a famous TV presenter there the day before.

改变时态（后移）

He said, “She was eating an ice-cream at the table where you are sitting.” He said (that) she had been eating an ice-cream at the table where I was sitting.

2. 时态改变（后移，backshift）

间接引语一般改变时态

直接引语：一般现在时 间接引语：一般过去时

He said, “I work every day.” He said that he worked every day.

直接引语：现在进行时 间接引语：过去进行时

He said, “She was sitting where you are sitting.” He said that she had been sitting where I was sitting.

直接引语：一般过去、现在完成、过去完成 间接引语：过去完成

He said, “I saw a TV presenter.” He said that he had seen a TV presenter.

直接引语：一般将来（going to） 间接引语：was/were going to

直接引语：一般将来（will）、条件句（would） 间接引语：条件句（would）

直接引语：过去进行、现在完成进行、过去完成进行 间接引语：过去完成进行

He said, “She was sitting where you are sitting.” He said that she had been sitting where I was sitting.

3. 时态不改变

情态动词一般不改变时态

情态动词could, should, would, might, must, needn't, ought to, used to通常不会改变时态

He said, “I could have asked her for an autograph.” – He said that he could have asked her for an autograph.

引导性从句是一般时(He says)，则间接引语时态不改变，因为引导性从句一般时表明直接引语和间接引语是一样的

He says, “I saw a TV presenter.” He says that he saw a TV presenter.

动词形式改变

He says, “I work every day.” He says that he works every day. He says, “She was sitting where you are sitting.” He says that she was sitting where I am sitting.

间接疑问句

概述

间接疑问句（Indirect Questions ）是指直接引语是疑问句，变成间接引语。 表示转述人间接引述另一个人的问题。

注意事项

1. 和陈述句一样，间接疑问句需要改变代词、时间和地点的信息，并将时态后移

2. 间接疑问句使用疑问词(wh+how)；如果没有疑问词，则使用whether/if代替。 注：陈述句的间接引语使用that，或省略that

She asked him, “How often do you work?” → She asked him how often he worked. He asked me, “Do you know any famous people?” → He asked me if/whether I knew any famous people.

3. 间接疑问句将主语放在助动词之前（直接疑问句中主语在放在助动词之后）

I asked him, “Have you met any famous people before?” → I asked him if/whether he had met any famous people before.

4. 间接疑问句不使用助动词do，因此有时需要改变动词形式(第三人称单数或一般过去

I asked him, “What do you want to tell me?” → I asked him what he wanted to tell me.

5. 主语疑问句(who, what是主语)将动词直接放在 who 或 what 之后

I asked him, “Who is sitting here?” → I asked him who was sitting there.

6. 非主语疑问句，将主语放在疑问词之后，动词放在主语之后

I asked him, “How old are you?” → I asked him how old he was

不仅可使用间接疑问句来转述其他人提出的问题，而且可以以礼貌的方式提问题

Where is the train station? → Could you tell me where the train station is? Can you help me? → I wonder if you can help me.

要求/请求

将要求和请求转化为间接引语时，只需要改变代词以及时间和地点信息。不必关注时态 - 只需使用不定式to+直接引语

He said, “Watch the TV presenter's show tonight.” He told me to watch the TV presenter's show that evening.

如果是否定要求，那么在间接引语中，使用 not + 不定式

He said, “Don't watch the TV presenter's show tonight.” He told me not to watch the TV presenter's show that evening.

带有 who/what/how + 不定式的表达方式

为了表达在间接引语中表达某人应该或可以做什么，通常省略主语和情态动词，而是使用 who/what/where/how + 不定式 的结构

Just tell me when I should stop. → Just tell me when to stop. She doesn't know what she should do. → She doesn't know what to do. I asked him how I could get to the post office. → I asked him how to get to the post office.

时间和地点的变化

直接引语 间接引语 today that day now then 或 at that moment/time yesterday the day before … days ago … days before last week the week before next year the following year tomorrow the next day 或 the following day here there this that these those last ... -> the ... before

Say or Tell?

say 和 tell 两个词不能互换。say = 说某事；tell = 对某人说某事

He said (that) he had seen a TV presenter. （他说） He told me (that) he had seen a TV presenter.（他告诉我）

简短回答

概述

在英语语法中，使用简短回答来回答yes/no疑问句，或同意某个陈述。肯定的简短回答由 "yes+主语+助动词" 组成，而否定回答则 "no+主语+否定的助动词" 组成

用法

1. ①回答 yes/no 疑问句只用 yes 或 no 可能听起来很粗鲁。 ②另一方面，用完整的句子回答 yes/no 疑问句会显得重复和不自然。 ③因此，使用简短回答以中性和自然的方式回答 yes/no 疑问句。

Have you got a girlfriend? – Yes, I have. (听起来中性而自然) Have you got a girlfriend? – Yes. (听起来粗鲁，或者像这个人不想回答问题) Have you got a girlfriend? – Yes I have got a girlfriend. (听起来重复和不自然)

2. 还可以使用简短回答来表示同意或不同意陈述

My girlfriend is beautiful. – Yes, she is./No, she isn't.

构成

1. 简短回答的结构：yes/no + 主语 + 助动词。助动词从问题或陈述中取出

肯定的简短回答不使用缩写

Is she nice? – Yes, she is. (not: Yes, she's.)

否定的简短回答常使用缩写

Does she live in the same town as you? – No, she doesn't.

2. 如果没有助动词，并且主动词不是 be 或情态动词，则采用 do 构成简短答案

They love cates. – Yes, they do./No, they don't.

更改代词

有时需要更改简短回答中的代词，常适用于代词 I，you 和 we

当提问的人使用代词 I 时，回答的人必须使用 you 形式来回答

Can I meet her one day? – Yes, you can.

当提问的人使用代词 you 时，回答的人必须根据上下文将其更改为 I 或 we

Have you got a girlfriend? – Yes, I have. Do you see each other very often? – No, we don't.

如果以Are you…开始提问，则简短回答需要用 am 替换 are (如果问题只涉及一个人

Are you in love? – Yes, I am./Yes, we are.

Did the men go out last night?

Yes, they did. No, they didn't

连词

连词用于连词单词、短语和从句。

并列连词

并列连词连接单词、短语、从句或句子。常见的有and, but, or。在口语中，以 and、or 或but 开头的句子是非常常见的，但在正式书面英语中要避免这样做

What should we give Jane for her birthday, flowers or chocolate? (连接单词) Her birthday party will be very fun and full of people. (连接短语) Lots of people are coming but not all of our friends were invited. (连接从句) Jane's birthday is on Friday. But the party is on Saturday. (连接句子)

分类

(for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so)巧记：FANBOYS

Addition

and

We gave Jane flowers and chocolate for her birthday.

Alternative

or

Should we give Jane flowers or chocolate?

nor

We didn't buy Jane flowers(,) nor did we buy her a present.

contrast

but

We bought flowers(,) but we did not buy chocolate.

yet

We bought flowers for Jane(,) yet we did not buy chocolate.

虽然 "but" 和 "yet" 都可用于对比想法，但 "but" 更常见和中性，通常用于口语；而 "yet" 可能会带有一种惊讶或出人意料的感觉，通常用于更正式的写作中

reason

for

We bought Jane flowers, for it was her birthday.

so

It's Jane's birthday, so we bought her flowers.

并列连词的词序

1. 并列连词总是位于在它连接的两个成分之间(不能位于开头，虽然口语可以)

Lots of people are coming to the party, but not all of our friends are coming. But not all of our friends are coming, lots of people are coming.

2. 一般的可以改变顺序而不改变意义：由于并列连词连接的是相同的语法类型的词语、短语和从句 (并列从句)，因此可以改变连接的成分的顺序而不改变意义

Not all of our friends have been invited, but lots of people are coming. Lots of people are coming, but not all of our friends have been invited.

3. for和so不能改变顺序：for连接原因(因为)，so连接结果(所以)

James won't be at the party for he wasn't invited. James wasn't invited so he won't be at the party.

4. 倒装：nor(也不)必须跟在否定的从句后，nor从句中的主语和助动词倒装

We did not buy Jane flowers, nor did we buy her a birthday present. We did not buy Jane flowers, nor we did buy her a birthday present.

相关连词

相关连词由两个词组成，它们与并列连词类似，连接相同语法结构的两个项目

分类

Addition

both … and

Both Michael and Julia arrived late.

not only … but also

Jane received not only flowers but also chocolates.

alternative

neither … nor 不,也不

Neither Michael nor Julia arrived at the party on time.

either … or 要么...,要么...

To get to Jane's you can either take the bus to Old Street or I will pick you up.

whether … or 不管...,还是...

Whether we buy flowers or (we buy) chocolates, it's the thought that counts

reason

such … that

We had such fun dancing that we stayed until 5 am.

comparison

as … as

The party was as fun as last year.

rather … than 而不是,宁可...也不愿

I would rather stay here dancing than go home and go to sleep.

time

scarcely … when 刚...就...

The music had scarcely begun to play when everyone started dancing.

no sooner … than 一...就...

No sooner had the music started than everyone began to dance.

词序

1. 倒装：当句子以no sooner...than、not only...but also或 scarcely ... when开始时，not only等后面句子的主语和助动词会倒装，but also等不用

No sooner had the music begun than everybody started dancing. Not only did Jane receive flowers but also chocolate. Scarcely had the music begun when people started dancing.

2. 当句子以主语开头时，词序不倒装

Jane received not only flowers but also chocolate.

从属连词

从属连词将主句与从句连接(连接两个句子)。从句用于强调或支持主句的观点

分类

reason

as

As the traffic is bad, we are going to be late to the party.

because

We are going to be late to the party because the traffic is bad.

since

Since the traffic is bad, we are going to be late to the party.

comparison

although/though

We arrived at the party on time although/though the traffic was bad.

even though

We arrived at the party on time even though the traffic was bad.

whereas

We arrived at the party on time whereas Michael and Julie were late.

while

We arrived at the party on time while Michael and Julie were late

purpose

so (that)

Jane threw a party so that we could celebrate her birthday.

in order that

Jane threw a party in order that we could celebrate her birthday.

so as to

Jane threw a party so as to celebrate her birthday.

in order to

Jane threw a party in order to celebrate her birthday.

condition

if

If we go to the party, we will have fun.

provided that

Provided that we go to the party, we will have fun.

as long as

As long as we go to the party, we will have fun.

unless

Unless the party is boring, we will have fun.

except if

Except if the party is boring, we will have fun.

as if 表示假设或虚拟条件,表示比喻或类比

She was so happy as if her heart would fly away.

time

as soon as 一...就...

Everyone started dancing as soon as Jane put the music on.

once

Everyone started dancing once Jane put the music on.

when

Everyone started dancing when Jane put the music on.

after

Everyone started dancing after Jane put the music on.

before

Nobody was dancing before Jane put the music on.

since

Everyone has been dancing since Jane put the music on.

as

We danced as the music played.

while

We danced while the music played.

until

Everyone danced until Jane turned the music off.

只用一个从属连词

不要在一个句子中使用两个不同的从属连词来连接两个从句，一般使用一个就够了

Because the party was very fun, we stayed until 5 am. But not: Because the party was very fun, so we stayed until 5 am.

从句的顺序不固定

1. 从句可以在句首或句尾

We arrived late at the party because the traffic was so bad. 主+连+从 Because the traffic was so bad, we arrived late at the party. 连+从+主

2. 当从句在前面时，主句和从句之间用逗号分隔

Since the music was so great, we danced until 5 am.

3. 以 as 或 since 开头的从句通常放在句首(对比because在句尾)

Since the music was so great, we danced all night long.

4. 表示目的的从句(so/so that/in order that等)通常放在句尾。句首更为正式

She sent the invitations out early,so that everyone would be able to come日常 So that everyone would be able to come,she sent the invitations out early正式

5. so as to 和 in order to 后面跟一个不定式表示目的。此时可省略连词

Jane threw a party (so as) to celebrate her birthday.

6. 以 until 开头的从句通常放在句尾

We danced until Jane turned the music off.

7. before 和 after 通常后面跟一个分词从句

After having danced all night, the guests were exhausted. Before leaving the party, everyone ate a slice of cake.

将来时间从句

概述

将来时间从句是一个包含，如 when，as soon as，before，after，until 等连词的从句。这些从句特殊之处在于，使用现在时来表示将来的动作或事件

将来时间从句的时态

1. 在包含将来时间从句的句子中，主句使用将来时（通常为 will + 不定式），但时间从句使用现在时态

Nora will stay with her parents until she finds a good job. 主句：will将来时，时间从句：until一般现在时

2. 一般不重复将来时

When she finds a good job, she will move out. (not: When she will find...)

3. 可以在将来时间从句中使用不同的现在时态：一般现在时、现在进行时和现在完成时

Nora will stay with her parents until she finds a good job.（一般现在时） While she is living with her parents, she will save a lot of money.(现在进行时 Rosie will move abroad as soon as she has finished uni.（现在完成时）

4. 同样地，可以在主句中使用不同的将来时态，甚至是祈使句

Salim will take a gap year before he starts working.（will将来时态） After he finishes his gap year, he's going to start a Master's in law.（going to + 动词不定式） While Nora is living at home, Rosie will be enjoying life abroad.（将来进行时） When I am settled, come and visit me!（祈使句）

5. 一般现在时还是现在完成时？

一般现在时和现在完成时有时可在将来时间从句中互换

Rosie will move abroad as soon as she finishes uni. = Rosie will move abroad as soon as she has finished uni.

然而，现在完成时表明这些动作是顺序发生的，而不是同时发生的

Nora will call Salim when she cooks/is cooking dinner. 打电话和做饭同时进行 Nora will call Salim when she has cooked dinner. 先做完饭，然后打电话

标点符号

有时可以改变将来时间从句的顺序，而意思不会改变。但是当时间从句放在前面时，需要用逗号将其与主句分开

Once Rosie has settled in, Nora and Salim will visit her.（有逗号） Nora and Salim will visit once Rosie has settled in.（没有逗号）

将来时间从句的连词

1. when, as soon as

When：当...时候（确定某事件将在未来发生）

They will tell Rosie when their flight lands.

As soon as 与 when 类似，但它强调主句将紧随时间从句之后的动作立即发生

I promise that I'll call you as soon as I have more information. = the minute that I have more information

2. before, after, once

1. Before 表示主句的动作必须在时间从句之前完成

Salim will take a gap year before he starts working. (first he does a gap year, then he starts work)

2. After 与 before 相反，主句中的动作发生在时间从句之后

After they have graduated, the three friends will go their separate ways. (first they graduate, then they go their separate ways)

3. Once 与 after 的意思类似

You'll feel better once the exams are over. (= after the exams are over)

3. while, until

1. While 表示两个动作在未来同时发生

Nora will save money while she is living with her parents.

2. Until 表示从现在开始直到未来的特定时间点

Rosie will live abroad until she gets bored.

分词从句

概述

分词从句是非限定性从句，它使用现在分词或过去分词来缩短主句。分词从句在书面英语中很常见，因为它让我们能够包含信息，而不必构建冗长或复杂的句子

用法

分词从句在书面语言中很常见。可简化主动句和被动句

1.主动句

使用现在分词（-ing形式）表示两个动作同时发生

Holding the hair-dryer in her left hand, Susan cut her hair with the scissors in her right hand. Long form: Susan was holding the hair-dryer in her left hand and cutting her hair with the scissors in her right hand.

使用完成分词(Having开头)表示分词从句中的动作在主句中之前发生

Having washed her hair, Susan reached for the hair-dryer and scissors. Long form: After Susan had washed her hair, she reached for the hair-dryer and scissors.

2.被动句

使用过去分词来缩短被动句，表示同时发生或者顺序发生(之前)

Blown to the right by the hair-dryer, her hair could easily be cut. Long form: Her hair was blown to the right by the hair-dryer and could easily be cut.

使用完成分词（having been + 过去分词：被动句的现在完成时）来强调分词从句中的动作发生在主句中的动作之前。然而，这种形式很少使用

Having been cut, her hair looked strange. Long form: After her hair had been cut, it looked strange.

分词从句的构成

1. 主动词改为分词。需要注意分词从句中的动作是与主句中的动作同时发生还是在主句动作之前发生，以及使用主动语态还是被动语态（用法）

Holding the hair-dryer in her left hand, Susan cut her hair. (同时发生的动作，主动语态 - 现在分词)

2. 分词从句中没有主语。主句的主语同时也是分词从句的主语

Having washed her hair, Susan reached for the hair-dryer and scissors.

3. 在否定的分词从句中，在分词之前加上 not

Not having any money, Susan decided to cut her hair herself.

4. 使用or不使用连词、关系代词

1. 连词as, because, since以及关系代词who和which不用在分词从句中

As the hair was blown to the right by the hair-dryer, it could easily be cut. → Blown to the right by the hair-dryer, the hair could easily be cut. The dinner, which was prepared by the chef himself, will be a real treat. → Prepared by the chef himself, the dinner will be a real treat.

2. 连词before和when可以用在分词从句中

Before she cut her hair, she washed it. → Before cutting her hair, she washed it. When they had found the secret island, they started searching for the treasure → Having found the secret island, they started searching for the treasure.

3. 连词after和while可以使用也可以不使用

After she had washed her hair, she cut it. → (After) having washed her hair, she cut it. She was whistling a song while she danced through the house with the mop. → Whistling a song, she danced through the house with the mop.

分词从句中的不同主语

在某些特殊情况下，分词从句的主语可以与主句的主语不同。这种情况通常出现在主句中包含感官动词，加上一个宾语：feel，find，hear，listen to，notice，see，smell，watch。在这种情况下，分词从句必须直接跟在它所指的宾语之后

Have you ever seen anyone cutting their hair this way? Long form: Have you ever seen anyone who would cut their hair this way?

分词从句的主语与主句的主语不同，但与宾语（主句感官动词后的宾语）相关联，通常是主句主语感知或注意到了宾语所进行的动作

I heard him singing in the shower. She noticed the cat sleeping on the couch. They saw the kids playing in the park. He felt the ground shaking beneath his feet.

关系从句(定语从句)

概述

由从属从句担任的定语被称为定语从句，又因为定语从句一般是用关系代词或关系副词引导的，所以也称为关系从句。关系从句提供关于主语、宾语或主句的更多信息。

用法：关系从句通常直接放在所指的主语 / 宾语之后

The boy who is wearing glasses is Tony. The boy is Tony. Tony is wearing glasses.

限定性从句 vs 非限定性从句

限定性从句

1. 不用逗号隔开

2. 限定性从句用来限定主句中的名词（主语或宾语），使其更具体，是必需的。如果去掉限定性从句，主句的意思就会不明确

The boy who is wearing glasses is Tony. 由于照片中有两个男孩，如果没有关系子句，我们就无法知道哪一个是托尼。

非限定性从句

1. 用逗号隔开

2. 非限定性从句用来为主句中提供额外的信息。如果去掉它不影响主句，因为这些额外信息不是必需的，即使没有它，也能理解指代的人或物

Phil, who I met at summer camp, is very funny.一个名字通常足以识别一个人，所以使用关系从句不是为了识别，而只是为了增加一些关于Phil的额外信息。然而，如果两个男孩都叫Phil，那么我们就需要一个定语从句来指出我们谈论的是哪个Phil

3. 非限定从句中，只能使用 who 或 which，而不能使用 that

not: Phil, that I met at summer camp

构造

关系从句由一个关系代词或关系副词引导

关系代词

1. who

作为（人）的主语或宾语

The boy who is wearing glasses is Tony.

2. which

在非限定性从句中作为（动物或事物）的主语或宾语

They often have a disco in the club, which is very popular.

指代整个句子(这里是指代主从句)

Linda dances well, which doesn't surprise me.

3. whose

表示拥有/归属关系，用于人、动物和事物，作定语

Linda, whose mother is a ballerina, can dance very well.

4. whom

正式场合中，作为人的宾语，尤其在非限定性从句中

Phil, whom I met at summer camp, is very funny.

5. that

在限定性从句中，作为（人、动物和事物）的主语或宾语

The boy that is wearing glasses is Tony.

6. 其他

1. who, whom, that 都可以指代人

who, whom

在口语中，who常用来替代主语和宾语；而在正式语言中，提及宾语时，使用whom更为正确。如果选择使用whom，那么介词会放在关系从句的开头

Phil, who I met at the summer camp, is very funny. → Phil, whom I met at the summer camp, is very funny. These are my friends who I spend a lot of time with. → These are my friends with whom I spend a lot of time.

主语

①The woman who lives next door is very friendly. ②The woman, who lives next door, is very friendly. ③The woman that lives next door is very friendly.

宾语

This car belongs to a woman. Where is the woman? 转换为关系从句： ①Where is the woman this car belongs to. (限定性从句+宾语，则关系代词可省) ②Where is the woman that this car belongs to. ③Where is the woman who this car belongs to. ④Where is the woman to whom this car belongs. ⑤Where is the woman, to whom this car belongs.

2. which, that 都可以指代物

I bought a yoghurt yesterday. Did you eat it? 转换为关系从句： ①Did you eat the yoghurt I bought yesterday(限定性从句+宾语,则关系代词可省 ②Did you eat the yoghurt which I bought yesterday. ③Did you eat the yoghurt that I bought yesterday. ⑤Did you eat the yoghurt, which I bought yesterday.(非限定性从句使用which

3. 主语 or 宾语

who,which,that都可指代主语或宾语,根据后面是否直接跟动词来确定指主语或宾语

主语

1.关系代词之后直接出现动词，则关系代词表示主语，不可省

the boy who is wearing glasses

宾语

2.关系代词之后没有动词，而是名词或代词，则关系代词指代宾语

The boy (who) you are looking for isn't here. The book, which I read last night, is here.（不能省略）

3.指代宾语的关系代词在限定性从句中可以省略，在非限定性从句不能省

4. 带介词的关系代词

1. 当关系代词与介词连用时，介词通常在关系从句的末尾

These are my friends who I spend a lot of time with.

2. 但如果关系代词是 whom，介词应该在关系从句的开头

These are my friends with whom I spend a lot of time.

3. 当描述地点、时间或原因时，介词也出现在关系从句的开头。然而，更常见的是使用关系副词

I can still remember the day on which I met Phil. This is the youth club in which I meet my friends. This is the reason for which I go there.

关系副词

关系副词可以指整个子句，也可以指时间、地点或原因，替代了介词+which 的结构

I can still remember the day when I met Phil. (instead of: I can still remember the day on which I met Phil.)

1. when

替换：in/on which。时间副词

I can still remember the day when I met Phil.

2. where

替换：in/at which。地点副词

This is the youth club where I meet my friends.

3. why

替换：for which。表示原因或理由的关系副词，只在限定性从句中使用

That's the reason why I go there.

how是关系副词吗

一种说法说how是关系副词，但我认为这种说法是错误的，在这种错误的说法里，how引导的定语从句常常省略how

This is the way (how) we solved the problem.

另一种说法是，how不是关系副词，定语从句的关系副词要求不具有疑问意义，而how常常用于疑问句。因此how无法作关系副词，无法引导关系从句(定语从句)

接触从句

关系代词 who/whom/which/that 有时可以省略。这称为接触从句Contact clauses

可以省

口语中

当 who/whom/which/that 是从句的宾语时

The boy and the girl are friends. I spend a lot of time with them. → These are the friends (who/whom) I spend a lot of time with.

在限定性从句中

The boy (who/whom) I met at summer camp.

不可省

当它们是从句的主语时

Tony is a boy. He is wearing glasses. → The boy who is wearing glasses is Tony. (not: The boy is wearing glasses is Tony.)

在非限定性从句中

Phil, who I met at summer camp, is very funny. (not: Phil, I met at summer camp, is very funny.)

宾语从句

语序

宾语从句为陈述句语序

Please tell me what is the matter with you (what是从句的主语，what is the matter with you 本身就是陈述句语序)

引导词

1. that

可以省that（存疑，定语从句是当从句的宾语可以省that）

当that在主句谓语动词之后，且不当从句主语时可以省

He said (that) he would buy me a nice gift for my birthday.

不可省that

that引导的宾语从句不与主句的谓语动词直接连接

I told him in my letter that I could not attend his party.

that是宾语从句的主语

2. whether, if

（看下边）

3. 连接代词, 连接副词

连接代词who, whom, whose, which等，连接副词when, where, why等引导宾语从句，这些代词副词在句中充当一定的成分，一般不能省

4. what, whatever, how

时态

1. 主句是一般现在时

宾语从句的时态不受主句限制

I know you are learning English now. I know you have learned English for five years. I know you will learn English next term.

2. 主句是一般过去时

宾语从句的谓语动词通常是过去时

He told me that he was doing his homework at that time. He said that he would buy a computer the next term.（一般过去）

宾语从句表示客观真理时，使用一般现在时

My father told me that the earth goes round the sun.

先行词it

宾语从句太长时，通常用先行词it来取代宾语从句的位置，而把真正的宾语从句后置

She took it for granted that her son would study medicine. = She took that her son would study medicine for granted.

宾语从句的否定

大多数宾语从句的否定形式为一般陈述句的否定的形式

但是，当谓语动词为assume, believe, expect, think, guess, imagine, suppose等表示"认为", "相信", "猜想"的动词时，其后面的宾语从句的否定词not移至主从句，而在宾语从句中不出现否定词

I don't think that you can do it. He did not believe that anyone would object to the plan.

易混淆的词

1. Some, Any

概述

some和any是量词，用来表示某事物的数量或数量未确定。当想要泛泛地表达时，通常因为数量未确定或因为数量不重要，我们会使用 some 或 any

Some, Any

Some

1. 在肯定句中使用some

There are some strawberries in the fridge. There is some milk in the fridge.

2. 在疑问句中使用some是为了期待对方回答yes (提议或请求)

Would you like some tea?

Any

1. 在否定句和疑问句(一般疑问句)中使用any

There aren't any eggs in the fridge. (否定句中any的意思在下边) Is there any milk in the fridge?

2. 在具有否定意义的肯定句中使用any，如never,hardly,without,little

You never have any time for me

Some-, Any-

概述

通过在 some 和 any 后添加后缀 -thing, -one, -body 和 -where 来创建不定代词。这些不定代词能指代人（someone/somebody，anyone/anybody）、地点（somewhere，anywhere）以及事物（something，anything）

使用方式

与Some, Any相似

Some-

1. 在肯定句中使用Some-

You've got something in your hair.

2. 在疑问句中使用Some-是为了期待对方回答yes

Do you want to go somewhere new for dinner tonight?

Any-

1. 在否定句和疑问句中使用Any-

He didn't say anything.

2. 在具有否定意义的肯定句中使用Any-，如never,hardly,without,little

Mary-Anne had never been anywhere so posh before.

-body和-one

后缀 -body 和 -one 具有相同的含义，唯一的区别在于 -body 更常见于口语英语，而 -one 更常见于书面英语

I didn't see anybody at the station. ↔ I didn't see anyone at the station.

2. Every, Any

概述

用any和every笼统地谈论一个群体中的事物。它们的含义不同：every 指一组中的所有项，而 any 可以指一个组中的某些项目，也可以指一个随机、未指定元素

Any

1. 肯定句中any指 "任何一个(未指定)"

We were allowed to choose any sweet we wanted. (this sweet or that sweet or the other sweet)

2. 否定句中any指 "没有" 或 "一个也不"

She doesn't know any people in her building. (not one person) She doesn't eat any fruit. (not apples, not oranges, no fruit at all)

3. 可以使用any构建不定代词，以指代未知或未指定的人或事物

anybody/anyone = 任何一个人 anything = 任何一个事物 anywhere = 任何地方 any time = 任何时候

Every

1. every指 "一个组(指定的)中的所有项目或人"，表示 "all the ..."

Sebastian wanted to buy every sweet in the shop. (this sweet and that sweet and the other sweet …)

2. 否定句every指 "一些"，不是全部

She doesn't eat every fruit. (她吃一些水果，但不是所有水果) She doesn't know every person in her building. (她认识一些人，但不是所有)

3. every 指所有事物/人的总称，可以用 every 构建不定代词

everybody/everyone = 所有人 everything = 所有事物 everywhere = 所有地方 every time = 所有时刻

3. Much, Many, A Lot Of

概述

much, many, 和 a lot 都是表示 "大量" 的量词

主要区别

"much" 修饰不可数名词， "many" 修饰可数名词的复数形式，而 "a lot" 可以修饰这两种类型的名词

Much and Many

否定句和疑问句

much 和 many 通常在否定句和疑问句中使用

much用于不可数名词

How much money do you have? Louis can't speak much Spanish.

many用于可数名词复数

How many children do they have? Louis doesn't know many Spanish words.

肯定句

much 和 many 也可用在肯定句中

肯定句中，可以在so, too, as等后面使用much, many. (a lot of不可以)

As usual she has made too many cakes. Take as much time as you need. We had so much fun at the party. They had so a lot of fun in Spain.

much 和 much 可以单独出现在肯定句中，但仅限于正式的场合。但这在日常英语中并不常见，并且在非正式环境中听起来很奇怪

Much has been said about ... Many politicians believe ...

A lot

肯定句

a lot 和 lots of 是英语中最灵活的量词，可以在肯定句中与可数名词和不可数名词连用。它们有相同的意思，但 a lot of 更常见

They have met lots of people. They have a lot of friends. I have a lot of money. I have a lot of time.

否定句

尽管可以在否定句和疑问句中使用a lot或lots of，但更常用的是much和many

Do you know many people in your neighbourhood? ↔ Do you know lots of people in your neighbourhood?

其他表达a lot的方式

正式: plenty, a great/considerable number, a large/fair amount, numerous, a great deal 非正式: loads, a pile/piles, stacks, tons, mountains, more … than you can poke a stick at

4. If, Whether

概述

当宾语从句由一般疑问句变化而来，if和whether通常情况下可以互换

区别

whether指两种可能的选择，而if则表达多种可能性或条件句

一般规则

只有两个选择时使用whether，而在条件句中使用if

If, Whether

whether表示两个选项

Isabella asked their friends whether they would come on Saturday or Sunday. 两个选项：星期六来或星期日来

if表示多个选项

Isabella asked their friends if they would come on Saturday or Sunday. "if" 引入了第三个选项：星期六来、星期日来，或者干脆不来

If/whether … or not

or not多余

当谈论两种可能性时，if/whether从句可在末尾添加or not. 但这不是必须的，只是为了强调

Henry and Isabella don't know if their friends are coming (or not). Henry and Isabella don't know whether their friends are coming (or not).

同样的，可以直接在whether后直接添加or not. 这也通常是多余的，但用于口语中

It depends on whether or not their friends are coming.

or not不多余

唯一不多余的情况是whether 直接连接 or not表示"无论如何"或"不管是否"

They will eat the cake whether or not their friends come.

综上，只能whether直接连用or not，不能使用 if 直接连接 or not

not: They will eat the cake if or not their friends come.

间接疑问句

间接疑问中可以使用 if 和 whether. whether 可能比 if 更正式，同上whether只表达两种可能性

Henry asked Isabella if they should save some cake. ↔ Henry asked Isabella whether they should save some cake.

只使用 If

条件句只使用if

If they eat the whole cake, there won't be any to give their friends later. but not: Whether they eat the whole cake …

只使用 whether

后接不定式：whether+ to 不定式

They can't decide whether to save some cake for their friends. but not: … if to save some cake…

作介词的宾语：介词 + whether

The amount of cake they can eat depends on whether their friends come. but not: … on if their friends come.

宾语从句位于句首，只能使用whether

Whether he is rich, I'm not sure.

5. When, If

概述

when 指的是未来相当确定的条件，而 if 则引入不确定的、不太可能的或假设的情况

if

1. 使用 if 表示未来不确定的动作或事件

If it's sunny, Jenny will relax on the beach. if = in case of or in the event that

2. 使用 if 在不同的条件句中引入不太可能的、假设的或虚构的条件

引入假设条件（第二条件句）

If they lived by the sea, they would spend all their time at the beach.

引入了一个不可能的条件，来想象另一个过去情况（第三条件句）

If the weather had been better, Paul would have gone sailing.

when

1. 使用 when 表示确定的将来会发生的动作或事件

When it's time to leave, they pack their bags and head to the train station. （We know that Jenny and Paul will eventually go home）

whenever

使用 if 或 when + 一般现在时，来谈论重复的动作。在这种情况下，if和when的意思是"whenever"（每次, 任何时候）

Whenever Jenny and Paul go on holiday, they go to the sea. When the wind conditions are right, Paul goes sailing. If it's sunny, Jenny goes to the beach.

6. Watch, Look, See

see

1. see = 通过视觉感知事物的能力

Agnes can't see without her contact lenses.

2. 被动的；一次性的动作；有东西穿过你的视线；自动的，不经意的

When she looks out the window, she sees her neighbours gardening.

3. can + see 具有进行时的含义（注意，不使用进行时来表示感官），表达在说话的那一刻看见了某物

Agnes can see some new wrinkles around her eyes. (not: Agnes is seeing some new wrinkles.)

4. see + whether/if：检查或弄清楚

Agnes is trying to see whether her expensive eye cream works.

5. see的进行时会改变其含义，变成“约会”,“会见”

Agnes is seeing a new man.（dating） I'm seeing Phoebe later.（meeting）

look

1. look = 将眼睛转向特定方向，集中注意力在能看到的东西上。与 see 不同，look 动词是主动的，可以选择看某些东西

Agnes looks in the mirror every morning. （looking是一种刻意的行为）

2. 当提到注意力的对象时使用介词 at（look + at + object）

She looks at herself in the mirror. Agnes enjoys looking at the flowers in her garden.

3. 使用 look + 形容词 来谈论某人的外貌

Agnes wants to look good.

4. look after = take care of 照顾

Agnes looks after her grandchildren on Mondays.

5. look for = search for 寻找

Her neighbours are looking for their cat in the garden.

watch

1. watch = 长时间观察某人/某物

Sometimes, Agnes watches her neighbours doing the gardening. The police have been watching their suspect for more than a week(监视)

2. 关注的对象通常以某种方式在运动，它们在发展、改变、移动或正在进行

This weekend, she's taking her grandson to watch a football match.

3. 看电视：watch TV，看TV program或film：watch/see a film

Agnes watches TV with her friends, but tonight they are going to the cinema to see/watch a film.

7. Get, Become

概述

抛开上下文不谈，get和become有着相似的意思：grow增长、change变化、develop发展或start to be开始成为。在口语中使用 get，而在正式语中通常使用 become。get 还有其他意思：接收receive，获得obtain，到达arrive，旅行travel，开始start，reach，或者作为动词短语的一部分

get, become

1. get/become+形容词

从一种状态或情况变化到另一种状态或情况

get非正式、口语

She got angry and yelled at the children.

become正式、书面

She became furious and scolded the children.

2. become+名词

可以使用 become + 名词谈论变化或发展，但不能使用 get + 名词

In 2009, Barack Obama became the 44th President of the United States. (not: He got the 44th President …)

3. grow, turn

turn 和 grow 也可以表示变化。用 grow 表示较长时间的变化，用 turn 表示较快的发展。有时这些词是可以互换的

In Autumn, the leaves turn brown. (also: … the leaves go brown.) It felt as if her hair had turned grey overnight. (also: her hair had gone gray… I want to grow old with you. (fixed expression) The rich are growing richer and the poor are growing poorer. (also: the rich are getting/becoming richer …)

4. 年龄和生日

不能使用动词 get 或 become 来谈论年龄和生日。而是使用动词 turn

Layla is turning 30 next year. (not: Layla is getting 30 next year.) He turned 22 on his last birthday. (not: He became 22 on his last birthday.)

get其他用法 (become不能在这些情况使用)

1. get = acquire, offer, receive（获得、提供、收到）

get + 名词 / 代词 表示acquire, obtain, collect or receive

Rachel got a pony for her birthday. (get = receive) Can I get you something to drink? (get = offer) Michael has gone to get some milk. (get = collect)

2. get = arrive at, reach, travel by（到达、达到、乘坐）

公共交通使用get表示乘坐

Justin gets the train to work every day. ↔ Justin travels to work by train.

get表示旅程的结束，意思是"到达"

They got to late that morning. (get to = arrive at) Can you tell me how to get to the train station from here? (get to = reach)

3. get的短语

（见动词短语）

4. get+分词

1. get与dressed, washed, married等结合，get具有反身意思，表示对自己做的事情

He got washed quickly, then got dressed in the dark. （He washed himself, then dressed himself.）

2. get + 过去分词也可以是被动结构。在句子的主语是未知或不重要时使用这种结构

People commit crimes and think that they will never get caught. (= … will never be caught) He got offered a new job, but said no. (= He was offered …)

3. get + 现在分词：表示开始做某事（非正式语境中）

We should get going or we will miss the train. Come on, get moving!

4. get + 不定式to：表示设法或被允许

Unfortunately, we didn't get to see the elephants on the safari. As I child I never got to watch TV after school.

5. get+宾语+不定式 / 分词

1. get + 宾语 + 不定式：表示克服困难，让sb/sth做某事

The detective got the suspect to talk. （The detective managed to persuade the suspect to talk.） I can't get my computer to work! （I can't make my computer work）

2. get + 宾语 + 现在分词：表示让sb/sth开始做某事

Once you get him talking about the weather he doesn't stop. She's very stylish, she got all the girls copying her clothes.

3. get + 宾语 + 过去分词：表示完成某事

It took my brother four hours to get his homework done.

8. Good, Well

概述

good 是形容词，well 是副词。 在名词前使用good，在动词、形容词和其他副词前使用well

Good

1. 作为形容词，修饰名词

Michaela is a good tennis player. (the adjective good describes the noun tennis player)

2. 在系动词(appear, be, become, seem, feel, look, smell, taste 等)之后使用

The tennis racquet feels good. (not: feels well) Ben is good at his job. (not: Ben is well at his job.)

3. 系动词将名词与形容词连接起来

The soup tastes good. The soup is good.

4. 检查一个动词是否是系动词，可以将动词替换为 "be"。如果句子仍然有意义，那么该动词是系动词

Well

1. well作为副词，可修饰动词、形容词或其他副词

Michaela plays tennis well. (the adverb well describes the verb plays)

2. well与过去分词连用，用于修饰名词

The tennis racquet is well-made.

3. well作为形容词，表示身体健康

Michaela isn't feeling well today.

9. Go, Drive, Ride, Take

Go 去

1. 从一个地方到另一个地方，不提及交通方式，使用动词 go

We're going to Scotland next week. We want to go to Ireland next year.

2. 许多语法书教的是使用 go by + 交通方式，但这并不自然。为了更具体，使用动词 drive，take，cycle 等

I go to work by train. → I take the train to work. Are you going to Berlin by car? → Are you driving to Berlin?

Drive 驾驶

1. 通常用动词 drive 来谈论汽车旅行，无论是乘客还是驾驶汽车的人

We're going to rent a car and drive around the Highlands. My friend will drive because I don't have my licence yet.

2. 当使用 drive 时，就隐含了 car 一词，因此不需要重复它

I drive to work every day. not: I drive with my car to work every day.

3. 如果指的是驾驶其他类型的机动车辆，如火车或公共汽车，也可以使用动词 drive。在这种情况下，通常会指定车辆类型

Chris drives a delivery truck for the post office. Pauline drives buses in Manchester.

Take 乘坐

1. 使用 take 来谈论公共交通工具

We're taking the train from London to Edinburgh. You can take the ferry to the island.

2. 使用 take + 公共交通工具时要使用冠词（the、a 或 an）

We're taking the train from London to Edinburgh. not: We're taking train from London to Edinburgh.

Ride 骑

1. 美国等一些国家也使用动词ride来谈论公共交通，或指机动车辆中的乘客

When we are too tired to cycle, we will ride the bus. I like riding in my friend's car. （乘客，我喜欢乘坐我朋友的车）

2. ride 也用于自行车、摩托车和马匹

We love riding our bikes.

3. 但是，在谈论脚踏车时，简单使用动词 cycle 更容易，这里暗示了脚踏车

We want to spend 5 days cycling around the Irish countryside. not: We want to spend 5 days cycling our bikes around the Irish countryside. When we are too tired to cycle, we will ride the bus.

其他

take

the bus the train the subway/metro/tube the tram the ferry a taxi

He takes the bus to school. My train was cancelled so I had to take a taxi.

ride

a/your bike a/your motorbike a/your horse the bus the train the subway/metro

The kids ride their bikes in the street. I hate riding the subway in the summer.

drive

car* a/the bus/train/taxi/lorry (仅当主语驾驶交通工具时)

I drive to the supermarket on Saturday mornings. Chris has been driving buses since he was 22.

fly

a plane*

We're flying to the Canary Islands on Tuesday. Patrick flies for a private airline.

cycle

bike*

We should all cycle more often, it's good for the environment.

sail

a boat*

In my free time I like to sail.

*

*指使用这些动词时，交通工具通常是隐含的，不需要在句子中提到它

10. Must, Have to

子主题

子主题

“必须” 和 “必须做某事” 之间有什么区别？ 我们用 “必须” 和 “必须做某事” 来谈论义务。 “必须做某事” 比 “必须” 更常见。 在肯定句中，“必须” 和 “必须做某事” 的意思相似。 然而，在否定句中，“不得” 和 “不必” 有非常不同的用法。 在 Lingolia 中掌握区别，然后在免费练习中测试你的知识。 例子 我知道如果我想通过下周的考试，我必须多学习。 老师告诉我们，我们每晚必须学习至少 2 小时。 如果玛丽亚想通过，她必须比这更多地学习。 去年，她不得不雇一个家教来帮助她通过考试。 必须 内在义务 当义务来自说话者自己而不是来自外部来源时，我们可以使用 “必须”。 例子： 我如果想通过考试，我必须多学习。 我必须停止吃太多糖。 未来义务 / 命令 “必须” 没有未来形式。使用 “将不得不” 来谈论未来的义务。 例子： 如果玛丽亚想通过下个月的考试，她将不得不多学习。 使用 “必须” 来给出未来的命令、指示或建议。 例子： 考试在 9 点开始，所以你必须在 8 点 45 分到这里。 过去的确定性 使用 “必须有 + 过去分词” 来推断或表达对过去某事的确定性。 例子： 他们一定很努力才能得到那些考试成绩。 看起来他们肯定很努力。 必须 来自外部的义务 为了通常谈论外部义务和一般责任，我们使用 “必须” 或 “必须”。 例子： 我们每晚必须学习。 老师告诉我们。 我必须戒掉糖。 医生吩咐我。 “必须” 和 “必须” 之间没有意义上的区别，但请注意 “必须” 只能用于现在时态，而 “必须” 不能缩写。 未来义务 / 安排 要谈论将来的义务，请使用 “将不得不”。 例子： 如果玛丽亚想通过下个月的考试，她将不得不多学习。 未来安排使用 “必须”。 例子： 明天我必须帮助巴里学化学。 过去的义务 使用 “不得不” 来谈论过去的义务。 例子： 他们不得不雇一个家教来帮助他们学拉丁语。 雇一个家教是必要的。 不得 当外部规定或规则不允许或不允许做某事时，请使用 “不得”。 例子： 在考试期间，你不能使用字典。 不允许在考试中使用字典。 不必 当某事是可选的时，请使用 “不必”。没有 “不得” 的否定形式。 例子： 在考试中你不必使用字典。 使用字典不是强制的，但如果你想用可以用。

英语语法规则

主谓一致原则

动词的时态与语态规则

形容词与副词的比较级与最高级规则

复合句的连接词与连接方式规则

特殊句型的构成与使用规则