《二语》第三章导图

二语思维导图笔记总结，很清晰的展现了第三章具体的知识点，会提高学习效率。

《二语》 Chapter 3 (The Linguistics of Second Language Acquisition)

• 一、The nature of language
  • 1、The characteristics of language （3个）
    • ①Systematic
      • Consist of recurrent elements which occur in regular patterns
    • ②Symbolic
      • Sequence of sounds in letters do not possess meaning,The symbols of language have meaning because of a tacit agreement of a group of speakers 字词、读音本身无意义。语言的意义是在一定社会背景下，人们达成的共识，对某个字或发音就代表什么事物
    • ③Social
      • Reflect the social requirements of the society
      • No one can develop a language without interactions in the society
  • 2、Different levels of a language 语言的不同层次 （5个）结合P137 （2016年简答题）
    • ①Lexicon(vocabulary) 词汇
      • word meaning,pronunciation, part of speech, combination of other words
    • ②Phonology(sound)声音
      • intonation/tones(stress),rhyme(pause,stop)
    • ③Morphology(word structure)形态学
      • inflections 变形，prefix前缀，suffix 后缀
    • ④Syntax(grammar)语法
      • word order主谓宾,agreement between sentence elements(比如主谓一致），ways to form Questions,negate assertions
    • ⑤Discourse语篇
      • connect sentences across sentence boundaries,different types of structuring(比如：句子种类是否丰富，句子之间是否有连接）
• 二、Early approaches to SLA （除对比分析外，其他几个是internal focus） 高频考点，年年考
  • 1、Contrastive Analysis既不是内部关注点，也不是外部关注点 （2011年名词解释）
    • Definition
      • An appproach to the study of SLA which involves predicting and explaining learner problems based on a comparison of L1&L2 to determine the similarities and differences. (通过对比学习者一语和二语的相同与不同，来预测和解释学习者在学习过程中遇到的问题
    • Goal
      • to improve efficiency of L2 testing&teaching 为了提高二语测试和教学的效率
    • Influenced by
      • ①Structuralism结构主义
        • Definition:
          • The linguistic model which emphasized on the description of different levels of production in learners' speed. 一种语言模式→侧重于描述学习者不同阶段的产出
        • Focus on
          • the surface form of L1&L2
            • describe&compare language one level at a time在语言的各个层次上做对比
        • Order 比较的顺序
          • smaller units to larger units 有小的单位到大单位，即由易到难
      • ②Behaviorism行为主义 （2014年名词解释）
        • Definition:
          • An influential cognitive framework that focuses on habit formation 一个影响颇深的认知框架→关注“习惯的养成”
        • Idea:
          • Practivce makes perfect 核心观点是：强调练习，熟能生巧
      • ③Transfer from L1 to L2 迁移的影响
        • Positive transfer 正迁移
        • Negative transfer 负迁移
          • →interference干扰 (5种）
            • Same form&meaning,different distribution
            • Same meaning,different form
            • Same meaning,different form&distribution
            • Different form,partial overlap in meaning
            • Similar form,different meaning
    • Problems of CA
      • ①Behaviorist theory does not explain the logical problem(没有解释出逻辑问题）（逻辑问题是什么？在第二章讲的）
      • ②Many of the predicted problems do not emerge 预测的问题没有出现
      • ③Can not account for the problems which do emerge
      • ④Predicted positive transfer is not materialized CA所预测的正迁移并没有表现出来
      • ⑤Just suit for language-specific,hard for different language to practice 只适用于某一特定的语言来进行对比分析，具有局限性
    • Advantages
      • Improve preparation→comparitive grammar studies
      • Analytical procrdure→applied to different studies 可以应用到今后各种研究
    • Teaching implication
      • provide a rational for constructing language lessons that focus on structures
  • 2、Error Analysis （2012年简答题/2013年简答题）考试重点，出大题
    • Definition
      • The first approach to the study of SLA which includes an internal focus on learners' creative ability to construct language.It is based on description&analysis of actual learner errors in L2,rather than on idealized linguistic structures attributed to native speakers of L1 and L2.
      • A classical definition was given by Corder as "breaches of code",that is,they are the signs of an imperfect knowledge of the code,for the learners have not yet internalized the information rules of the foreign languages;Brown defines errors as a npticeable deviation from the grammar of a native speaker,reflecting the interlanguage competence of the learner.
    • Basic assumption
      • Human learning involves making errors,erroes inL2 learning are unavoidable.
      • Errors made by L2 learners help understanding the process of L2 learning
      • Errors made by L2 learners can be observed,analyzed,classified and described.
    • EA 取代CA的原因
      • ①Predictions by CA not always correct
      • ②As linguistic theory changed,the exclusive focus on surface-level forms and patterns by structural linguists shifted to concern for underlying rules.
      • ③The behaviorist assumption that habit formation accounts for language acquisition was seriously questioned by many linguists and psychologists.There was a shift to Mentalism in explanations of language acquisition,with emphasis on the innate capacity of the language learner rather than on external influences.
      • ④The study of SLA was no longer motivated as strongly by teaching concerns as it had been for CA.L2 learning came to be thought of as independent of L2 teaching to some extent,and reachers began to separate issues in SLA from pedagogical concerns.Learning processes became an important focus for study in their own right.
    • Significance重要性
      • ①System of language 通过分析，看到语言的系统性
      • ② Procedures/strategies learner use
      • ③A learning process itself (prior lnowledge-exploration)
    • Process
      • Collection
      • Identification （2017年简答题）
        • 错误的分类
          • Systematic errors (incomplete of learning)指学习者还没有学过这个知识
          • Mistakes (lapse in memory) 指学习者已经学过，但是忘记了或当时说错了
        • mistakes
        • differences between errors and mistakes
      • Classification
        • Language level (指从语言的层次上进行分类，看看是词汇还是发音或……具体见上 一、2）
        • More general linguistic categories: passive sentences/negate questions
        • More specific linguistic elements: articles例如词性
      • Exploration
        • Interlingual negative transfer 语言与语言迁移时出现的错误，即负迁移
        • Intralingual 指知识还没学
          • eg.It is been very hot.
      • Evaluation
        • acceptable? canse misinterpretation? 指错误是否可以被接受，如果造成听者误解了，那错误就不可以被接受；如果没造成误解，就可以被接受
    • The significance of learners' error
      • ①The significance of learner errors,which calls on applied linguists to focus on L2 learners' errors not as "bad habits" to be eradicated, but as source of insight into the learning processes. Corder claimed that error provide evidence of the system of language which a learner is using at any particular point in the course of L2 development,and of the strategies or procedures the learner is using in his "discovery of the language."
      • ②In a sense,errors are windows into the language learners' mind.In this approach,learner language/interlanguage is viewed as a target of analysis which is potentially independent of L1 or L2,and the state of learner knowledge is seen as transitional competence on the path of SLA.Futher,Corder claimed that the marking of errors is significant because it is part of the learning process itself.
      • ④They provide the teacher with information about how much the learner had learnt indicating to them the effectiveness of the teaching materials and techniques.
      • ⑤They serve as devices by which the learner discovered the rules of the target language.
    • Disadvantages/Limitation of error analysis
      • Ambiguity in classification (errors are cansed by L1 influence or universal development） 即对错因归类很模糊
      • Lack of positive data (not include what has been acquired;not make correction)缺乏积极的数据，即学习者学到了什么，没有针对错误做出修正
      • Potential avoidance 指学习者害怕出现这些错误，有意避免使用它；比如难的词汇容易错，学生就不用它，而选择用简单的词来代替，这样的话，就存在潜在的避免
    • The nature of learner errors/why learners make errors?（2012年简答题）
      • Error
      • Mistake
      • When to deal with the errors
  • 3、Interlanguage （2013年简答题）
    • Definition （2011/2012年名词解释）
      • It refers to the intermediate states (or interim grammars) of a learner's language as it moves toward the target L2 即学习者在学习第二语言的过程中，在达到目标语水平之前的状态就叫做“中介语”
      • A stable state in SLA where learners cease their interlanguage development before they reach target norms despite continuing L2 input and passage time.(glossary)
      • It is defined as a process occurring from time to time in which incorrect linguistic features become a permanent part of the way a person speaks or writes a language.This phenomenon relates to age of learning ,with older L2 learners more likely to fossilize than younger ones,but also to factors of social identity and communicative need.
    • Characteristics （2018年简答题）
      • ①Systematic 系统性
        • It is governed by rules that constitute the learner's internal grammar 指在这一阶段，学习者也使用一些规则，这些规则构成了学习者的 内部语法
      • ②Dynamic 动态的
        • The system of rules that learners have in their minds changes frequently.
      • ③Variable 可变性
        • differences in context result in different patterns of language use
      • ④Reduced system 简化的系统
        • both in form&function
          • less complex grammatical structures
          • smaller range of communicative needs
    • Difference between IL development in SLA and L1 acquisition (different cognitive process)
      • Language transfer from L1 to L2
      • Transfer of training,or how the L2 is taught
      • Strategies of second language learning,or how learners approach the L2 materials and the task of L2 learning
      • Strategies of second language communication,or ways that learners try to communicate with oyhers in the L2
      • Overgeneralization of the target language linguistic material 过度概括
    • Final state 达到的最终状态
      • Fossilization 石化现象 通用知识点（2016年名词解释/2020年判断题）
        • 这种现象产生的原因：
          • negative transfer of native language
          • training transfer
          • learning strategies
          • communicative strategies
          • overgeneralization
          • age of learning,motivation
          • communication/lack of opportunity/feedback
        • Fossilization can be reduced to some degree
          • Teachers:
            • Formulating appropriate teaching strategies
            • Help students formulate appropriate learning strategies
            • Directing students communicative strategies
            • Arousing students intrinsic learning motivation
            • Cultivating students' cross-culture awareness
            • Coping with students' errors correctly
            • Improving teaching quality
          • Students:
            • Self-consciousness of language fossilization
            • Reducing the negative transfer of mother tongues
            • Increasing the quality and quantity of optimal input
            • Adopting proper learning strategies
  • 4、Morpheme Order Studies 词素习得顺序研究
    • Definition
      • An approach to SLA that focuses on the sequence in which specific English grammatical morphemes are acquired.(natural order) 指的是，不管一语还是二语学习，都遵循一个自然顺序。那么，在学习二语时，会参考一语时的自然顺序
    • Inflection 变形
      • Inflection adds one or more units of meaning to the base form of a woed,to give it a more specific meaning.This is how we code for plural nouns,past tense and progressive aspect in English.
      • 举例： Foe example,that the progressive suffix-ing and plural-s are the first of this set of morphemes to be mastered by both L1 and L2 learners of English; the irregular past tense form of verbs and possessive-s are acquired next in sequences for L1,but relatively later for learners of (L2 after forms of be and a/the).
  • 5、Monitor Model (流派第二章、十五章） 通用知识点 （2015年简答题）
    • Definition (2014/2018年名词解释）
      • An internal focus on learners' creative construction of language
    • Krashen's 5 hypothesis
      • 内容
        • Acquisition-Learning （流派P181）
          • Acquisition: subconscious,innate LAD 习得
          • Learning: conscious,take place in class context 学习
        • Monitor （2015年简答题）
          • what is learned is available only as a monitor that for purpose of editing or making changes in what has already produced.
        • Natural Order
          • Acquire the language rules in a predictable order 指二语习得时，可以遵循一语习得的顺序
        • Input （2015年名词解释）
          • Language acquisition takes place ---comprehensible inpit
          • If input is understood and adequate,then necessary grammar is automatically privided
        • Affective filter hypothesis （2013/2015年名词解释）
          • Input may not be processed if the affective filter is "up"
      • Advantage
        • Avoidance of the explicit teaching of grammar
      • Disadvantage
        • Many of its constructs(what constitutes comprehensible input) and the claimed distinction between learning and acquisition is vague and imprecise
    • Five hypothesis have obvious implications for language teaching
      • As much comprehensible input as possible must be presented
      • Whatever helps comprehension is important.(visual aids)
      • The focus in the classroom should be on listening and reading(input); speaking(output） should be allowed to "emerge"
      • In order to lower the affective filter,students work should center on meaningful communication rather than on form; input should be interesting and so contribute to a relaxed classroom atmosphere.
• 三、Universal Grammar普遍语法 （乔姆斯基提出）internal focus （2016/2019年名词解释）
  • Definition
    • A linguistic framework developed most prominently by Chomsky which claims that L1 acquisition can be accounted for only by innate capicity that human species are generally endowed with. This includes what all language have in common.
  • Two important concepts /principles
    • linguistic competence
    • such knowledge goes beyond the input that children receive——logical problem of language (刺激贫乏论）
  • poverty-of the-stimulus argument
  • UG and SLA （普遍语法与二语习得的联系）
    • Initial state
      • Learners have
        • knowledge of L1
          • transfer depends on the relationship of L1&L2;
          • the circumstance of L2 learning
        • May have access to UG(uncertainty) (innate capacity? uncertainty)可能会有这种能力，但不确定
    • Nature and development of interlanguage （intermediate state)
      • If full access to UG
        • resetting parameters on the basis of new input
      • If partial access to UG
        • limit learners' choice & IL grammars never deviate from structures allowing UG (UG限制学习者选择，中期发展阶段的IL语法发展不会偏离UG所允许的结构或规则）
      • If no access to UG
        • IL development totally different from L1
      • If indirect access to UG
        • Minimalist program ---→Constructionism (IL development as prograssive mastery of L2 vocab along with morphonological features.
        • Constructionism 建构主义
          • 定义
            • An approach considers IL as a progressive mastery of L2 vocabulary along with morphological features that are part of lexical knowledge 一种方法：把中期的整个的语言发展过程看成是一个逐渐地对于L2中词汇的掌握的过程
          • Fossilization
            • 指后期词汇方面不能取得更大进步或被局限的时候，学习者就进入石化状态
    • Final state
      • why some learners are more successful （within UG framework)
        • Degree of L2 input 输入的程度
        • relationship between L1&L2 → differential transfer or interference 一语和二语的差别产生不同的迁移和干预
        • L2 input quality （二语接受的质量）
        • Perceptive of mismatches between L2 input and existing L1 parameter settings.（感知度）
        • Different degrees of specification for lexical features 不同学习者学习到不同程度的词汇特点规范
  • Principles and Parameters原则与参数
    • 20世纪80年代以来，被称为“普遍语法”的结构被简化为一套原则，它是世界上所有语言具有的属性，这些原则中有一些包含参数，或者根据所涉及的特定语言而有限设置选择的点
    • 1、Definition
      • UG has been conceptualized as a set of principles which are properties of all languages in the world.Some of these principles contain parameters,or points where there is a limited choice of settings depending on which specific language is involved. 普遍语法的概念被描述为全世界所有语言所共有的一系列原则，当依赖于某一具体语言的有限设定选择出现的时候，这些原则中一部分就会包含参数
    • 2、Example
      • principle:一样/共性 英语和日语phrase中都有head(即中心词） parameters:不一样/个性 英语是head-initial,日语时head-final
    • 3、Questions
      • What
        • Not UG itself,but a process of sececting among the limited parametric options in UG that match the settings which are encountered in linguistic input. 在一语习得中学到的并不是通用语法本身，但是通用语法作为一种内在的语言能力，是每个人生来就具有的，儿童习得某一具体的语言的时候，会根据语言的设定，从有限的通用语法的库里面选取相应的参数选项
      • How
        • Natural;instinctive;internal to the cognitive system attitude,motivation,social context play no role 自然的、本能的、包含在认知系统内部的
      • Why
        • Irrelevant with L1 acquisition,for all native speakers attain essentially the same final state 与一语习得无关，因为从普遍语法角度来说，所有的语言学习者都会到达一个“最终阶段”
• 四、Functional approaches（external focus） （2018年简答题）
  • Definition
    • ①A linguistic framework with an external focus that dates back to the early twentieth century and has its roots in the Prague School of Eastern Europe.It emphasizes the information content of utterances and considers language primarily as a system of communication.Functionalist approaches have largely dominated European study of SLA and are widely followed elsewhere in the world.
    • ②The term function has several meanings in linguistics, including both structural function (such as the role which elements of language structure as a subject or object) and pragmatic function (what the use of language can accomplish,such as convey information,control others' behavior,or express emotion)
  • Focus
    • Structural function
    • Pragmatic function(linguistic performance)
  • Characteristics
    • ①Focus is on the use of language in real situation (performance) as well as underlying knowledge(competence). No sharp distinction is made between the two.
    • ②Study of SLA begins with the assumption that the purpose of language is communication,and that development of linguistic knowledge (in L1 or L2) requires communicative use
    • ③Scope of concern beyond the sentence to include discourse structure and how language is used in interaction,and to include aspects of communication deyond language.
  • Four of the funnctional approaches
    • Systemic Linguistics系统语言学
      • Leader
        • Systemic linguistic has been developed by M.A.Halliday,beginning in the late 1950s.This is a model for analyzing language in terms of the interrelated system of choices that are available for expressing meaning.
      • Definition
        • A model for analyzing language in terms of the interrelated systems of choices that are available for expressing meaning.
      • Framework
        • Functionalism
      • What
        • Not a system of rules ,but meaning potential
      • Process
        • Mastering certain basic functions of language &developing a meaning potential foe each.
      • Pragmatic functions evolution in L1 acquisition语用功能的进化表现
        • Instrumental(I want)
          • regulatory(do as I tell you)
            • interactional
              • personal(here I come)
        • heuristic(learn thinngs)
          • imagination(let's pretend)
            • representational(express proposition,communicate about things)
      • Linguistic structures 语言结构
        • Directly reflections of the functions that language serves;related to the social and personal needs.
      • Structural emergence sequence
        • Nonlinguistic→L2 formula or memorized routine→Single L2 word →L2 Phrase or clause→Complex L2 construction
    • Functional Typology
      • Definition
        • A functional approach that involves classification of languages and their features into categories with a major goal deing to describe patterns of similarities and differences among them,and to determine which types and patterns occur more or less frequently or are universal in distribution.
      • 名字由来
        • The approach is called "functional" becaude analysis integrates considerations of language structure,mening,and use.
      • Framework
        • Functionalism
      • Basis
        • The comparative study of a wide range of the world's language,this study involves the classification of languages and their features into categories/typology.
      • Aim
        • Describe patterns of similarities and differences among languages;to determine which types and patterns occur more/less frequently or are universal in distribution.描述各个句型的共同点和不同点，然后决定什么类型和句型出现的更多，更少，或者说是其分布具有普遍性
      • Markedness标记
        • Deals with whether any specific feature of language is marked or unmarked(unmarked就是频繁出现的，简单的，预期之内的；marked 就是难的）
      • 与Contrastive analysis 的区别
        • Functional typology goes beyond the surface-level structure(CA) to more abstract patterns,principles and constraints 功能类型学超越了对比分析局限于表面结构的分析，更注重抽象的句型，原则和约束条件
      • Implications
        • ①Some aspects of some languages are more different
        • ②Why some types and patterns of features are more/less frequent in native and second language(factors:
    • Function-to-form mapping
      • Definition
        • Basic to SLA,a process that involves correlating external form and internal function.
        • A basic concept from this perspective is that acquisition of both L1 and L2 involves a process of grammaticalization in which a grammatical function is forst conveyed by shared extralinguistic knowledge and inferencing based on the context of discourse,then by a lexical word(such as yesterday),and only later by a grammatical marker(such as the suffix-ed)
      • Grammaticalization语法化
        • A grammatical function is first conveyed by shared extralinguistic knowledge and inferencing based on the context of discourse,then by a lexical word,and only later by a grammatical marker.
        • 驱动：communicative need and use
        • relat to :the development of more efficient cognitive processing
      • General principle
        • reliance on grammatical forms
        • reliance on context and lexical words
      • Pragmatic mode
        • A style of expressing meaning which relies more on context. a style which relies more on formal grammatical element.
      • Language acquisition
        • Importantly involves developing linguistic forms to fulfill semantic or pragmatic functions 发展语言形式以满足语意或语用功能
    • Information organization
      • Definition
        • It refers to a functional approach which focuses on utterances structure or "the way in which learners put their words together".
      • Focus
        • utterance structure(the way learners put their words together)话语结构
      • The task of studying SLA from this perspective include
        • Describing the structures of interlanguage (learner varieties学习者语体）结构
        • Discovering what organizational principles guide learners' production at various stages of development(组织原则）
        • Analyzing how these principles interact with one another.(分析原则相互作用）
      • European Science Foundation project(ESF project)
        • Developmental levels
          • In this study,no matter what their L1 and L2,the learners go through a remarkably similar sequence of development in their interlanguage.
            • NUO 用名词、介词、副词、形容词，少用动词
            • IUO加动词，少语法词素
            • FUO加语法词素
        • Organizing principles
          • There is a limited set of principles which learners make use of for organizing information
          • Individual variation :how the principles apply in their L1 and influence the interlanguage usee.
        • Why
          • communicative needs
          • cross-linguistic influence
          • extrinsic factors
          • limits on processing
  • Question 回答
    • What
      • A system for conveying meaning
    • How
      • Creative learner involvement in communication
    • Why
      • Communicative needs,cross-linguistic influence,extrinsic factors,limits on processing