语言学教程 胡壮麟版语言学 第2章speech sound

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Speech Sound

• 2.1 Speech Production and Phonetic Transcription
  • Speech organs 发音器官
    • Gestures
      • Also known as Vocal Organs, are those parts of human body involved in theproduction of speech, including lungs, the trachea (or windpipe), the throat,the nose, and the mouth.是人体参与语音发生的那部分，包括肺、气管、喉、鼻和口。
    • Speech organs (发音器官)
      • Also known as Vocal Organs, are those parts of human body involved in theproduction of speech, including lungs, the trachea (or windpipe), the throat,the nose, and the mouth.
    • addition
      • Voiced sounds (浊音) The sounds produced with causing vibration of the vocal cords. 在发音过程中，发音时声带振动，这样所发出的音叫做浊音。
      • Voiceless sounds (清音) The sounds produced without causing vibration of the vocal cords. 在发音过程中，发音时声带不振动，这样所发出的音叫做清音。
  • The Definition of Phonetics and Phonology (语音学和音系学的定义)
    • Phonetics (语音学)
      • Phonetics studies how speech sounds are produced, transmitted, and perceived. 语音学研究语音的发生、传递和感知。
      • Three Major Research Fields of Phonetics (语音学研究的三大领域)
        • Articulatory Phonetics is the study of the production of speech sounds. 发音语言学研究语音的发生。
        • Acoustic Phonetics is the study of physical properties of speech sounds. 声学语音学研究语音的物质特征
        • Perceptual (Auditory) Phonetics is concerned with the perception ofspeech sounds. 感知语音学(或听觉语音学)研究语音的感知。
    • Phonology (音系学)
      • Phonology is the study of sound systems of languages, in another word, itstudies the way in which speakers of a certain language systematically use aselection of these sounds in order to express meanings. 音系学研究的是语言的语音系统。换句话说，音系学研究的是说话人为表达意义而系统地选择语音的方法。
  • IPA (International Phonetic Alphabet)(国际音标)
    • IPA is a standardized and internationally accepted system of phonetictrans cription .
    • Its basic principle is using a different letter for each distinguishable speech sounds.
    • With minor modification it is now still used by phoneticians and linguists.
• 2. 2 Consonant and Vowels
  • Consonants
    • Definition定义
      • Consonants are sounds produced by constricting or obstructing the vocaltract at some places to divert, impede or completely shut off the flow of air inthe oral cavity.
    • Manner of Articulation and Place of Articulation (发音方式和发音部位）
      • Manner of Articulation refers to the actual relationship between thearticulators and thus the way in which the air passes through certain parts ofthe vocal tract.
      • Place of Articulation refers to where in the vocal tract there is approximation, narrowing, or the obstruction of air.
    • Classification of Consonants (辅音的分类)
      • In terms of manners of articulation
        • stops/plosive:[p, b, t,,d, k, g]爆破音
        • nasals:[m, n,ŋ]鼻音
        • fricatives:[f, v,θ,ð, s, z,ʃ,ʒ, h]擦音
        • approximants:[w,ɹ, j]近音
        • trill：[r]颤音
        • tap and flap触音和闪音
        • lateral:[l]边音
        • affricates:[ts, dz, tr, dr]破擦音
      • In terms of place of articulation
        • bilabials:[p, b, m]双唇音
        • labiodentals :[f, v]唇齿音
        • dentals:[θ,ð]齿音
        • alveolars:[t, d, n, s, z,ɹ, l ]齿龈音
        • postalveolars:[ʃ,ʒ]腭龈音
        • palatal:[j]硬腭音
        • velars:[k, g,ŋ]软音
        • glottal:[h]声门音
        • uvular小舌音
        • pharyngeal咽音
  • Vowels
    • Definition定义
      • Vowels are sounds produced without obstruction, so no turbulence or atotal stopping of the air can be perceived.
    • Cardinal vowels (基本元音)
      • The cardinal vowels are a set of vowel qualities arbitrarily defined, fixed andunchanging, intended to provide a frame of reference for the description ofthe actual vowels of existing languages.
    • semi-vowels (半元音)
      • Theorctically, any segment must be either a vowel or a consonant but the a problematic area is that the initial sound in hot gives little turbulence, and in yet and wet the initial segments are obviously vowels. (MacMahon, 1990: 10;Crystal, 1997: 154-5) The usual solution is to say that these segments are neither vowels nor consonants but midway between the two categories. For this purpose, the term SEMI-VOWEL is often used.
    • vowel glides (滑元音)
      • Languages also frequently make use of a distinction between vowels wherethe quality remains constant throughout the articulation and those where thereis an audible change of quality. The former are Known as PURE orMONOPHTHONG VOWELS and the latter, VOWEL GLIDES. In the latter,if a single movement of the tongue is involved, The glides are calledDIPHTHONGS. Diphthongal glides in English can be heard in such words asway [wel], tide [tad], hove [hau], toy [to], And toe [tou] A doublemovement produces TRIPHTHONGS. A triphthong is A glide from onevowel to another and then to A third, all produced rapidly and withoutinterruption. "(Roach. 2000: 24) They are really diphthongs followed by theschwa [o], found in English words like wire [wano] and tower [taus].
  • The sounds of English
    • Criteria of vowel description (元音的划分标准)
      • • ①the height of tongue raising（high，mid，low）
        • ②the position the highest part of the tongue（front，central，back）
        • ③the length or tenseness of the vowel（tense vs. lax or long vs. short）
        • ④lip-rounding（rounded vs. unrounded）
    • A chart of English consonants
      • • ①voiced/voiceless
        • ②place
        • ③manner
• 2.3 Phonological Analysis
  • Phoneme (音位)
    • Phoneme is a basic unit of phonological study, and it is an abstract collection of phonetic features which can distinguish meaning.
      • ①Minimal Pair: When two different forms are identical in every way exceptfor one sound segment in the same place in strings, the two words are said toform a minimal pair.
      • ②Phone: It is a basic unit of phonetic study, and it is a minimal soundsegment that human speech organ can produce.
  • Allophones (音位变体)
    • The different realizations of the same phoneme in different phonetic environments are called allophones.
      • ①Complementary distribution: When two or more than two allophones ofthe same phoneme do not distinguish meaning and occur in different phoneticenvironments, then the allophones are said to be in complementary distribution .
      • ②Free variation: If two sounds occurring in the same environment do notcontrast; that’s to say, if the substitution of one for the other does notgenerate a new word form but merely a different pronunciation of the sameword, the two sounds then can be seen as in free variation.
      • ③Phonemic contrast: If the phonetically similar sounds are two distinctivephonemes, e.g.[p] and [b] in “pit” and “bit”, they are said to form a phonemic contrast.
  • Phonological Processes and Distinctive Features (音系过程和区别特征)
    • Phonological processes (音系过程)
      • Phonological processes are the processes in which target or affected segmentundergoes a structural change in certain environments or context, whichinclude
        • (1) a set of sounds to undergo the process, (2) a set of soundsproduced by the process and (3) a set of situations in which the processapplies.
    • Assimilation (同化)
      • The assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by copying a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar, which includes nasalization, dentalization and velarization. 鼻音化，齿音化，软腭化 还有顺同化 逆同化
        • Progressive assimilation refers to the process in which a following sound isinfluenced by a preceding sound, making the two sounds similar. 顺同化是指在这个过程里前面的相邻音影响了其后音素的发音，使两者相似。
        • Regressive assimilation refers to the process, in which a preceding sound isinfluenced by a following sound, making the two sounds similar 逆同化是指这样一种过程，在这个过程中后面的相邻音影响了其前面音
    • Distinctive features (区别性特征)
      • They are those features which are phonologically relevant properties and candistinguish meaning, for example, plosiveness, bilabiality, and voicelessnessin English phonology. 区别性特征是指和音系有关的，即能够区别意义的语音特征，如英语音系中的爆破、双唇、清音等特征。
• 2.4Suprasegmentals
  • Suprasegmental features (超音段特征)
    • The features that occur above the level of the segments and can distinguishmeanings are called suprasegmental features, which include syllable, stress,intonation and tone. 指的是大于切分层面上的，能够区别意义的特征，其主要包括音节、重音、声调和语调。
  • The Syllable Structure (音节结构)
    • A syllable can be divided into two parts, the rhyme and the onset. As thevowel within the rhyme is the nucleus, the consonant(s) after it will betermed the coda. All syllables must have a nucleus but not all syllablescontain an onset and a coda. A syllable with a coda is a closed syllable whilea syllable that has no coda is called an open syllable. Take the word crackedfor example. Its syllable can be shown as follows: 一个音节可以分成两个部分，韵基和节首。韵基中的元音是核心，它后面的辅音用术语韵尾来表示。所有音节必须有结核，但不是所有的音节都有节首和节尾。有节尾的音节叫做“闭音节”，没有节尾的音节叫做“开音节”。
  • Sonority Scale （响音阶）
    • In English, consonant clusters in onset and coda positions disallow manyconsonant combinations, which is explained by the work of sonority scale.The degree of sonority of different classes of sound affects their possiblepositions in the syllable. 在英语中，有很多辅音组合在音节的节首和节尾部分是不允许的，这是由于响音阶的作用。语音的不同音阶会影响它们在音节中的位置。
  • Stress （重音）
    • It refers to the degree of force in producing a syllable. 重音指在音节发音时所用的力度。
    • Change of the stresses due to suffixes （后缀对重音的影响）
      • Some suffixes may change the position of the stress. For example,'chaos,cha'otic, com'municate, communi'cation,'humid, hu'midity. But the suffix -ive does not make such a change, so we have com'municative, not communi'c ative. 后缀有时也会改变单词的重音，但有的后缀例外，如后缀-ive。
    • Stresses in compounds and phrases （复合词和词组中的重音）
      • Besides, alternations of stress often occur between compounds and phrases aswell. A 'blackboard is used in the classroom for teachers to write on whereasa black'board is any piece of board that is black in color. 重音的改变也出现在复合词和词组中。例如单词blackboard,当重音在词首时，特指教室的黑板；而当重音在第二个音节处时，泛指颜色是黑色
  • Intonation and Tone (语调和声调)
    • Intonation (语调)
      • Intonation involves the occurrence of recurring fall-rise patterns, each ofwhich is used with a set of relatively consistent meanings, either on singlewords or on groups of words of varying length.
    • Tone (声调)
      • Tones are pitch variations, which are caused by the different rates of vibration of the vocal cords. 声调是指声带振动的频率不同引起的音高变化。
        • ①Tone change （音调变化）
          • Tones in tone language are not always fixed because identical adjacent tonesdo produce tone changes. In Mandarin Chinese, for instance, if two syllables(Chinese characters) with the same 214 tone occur consecutively, then therule is for the first syllable to change to the 35 tone. This phenomenon iscalled tone sandhi. 音调语言中的音调并不总是固定不变的，因为相同的相邻音调会产生音调变化。例如，在普通话中，如果两个音节(中文字符)有相同的214音调即第三声，那么规则就是第一个音节变为35音调即第二声。这种现象叫做变调。
        • ②OCP in tone change （必异规则）
          • Tone sandhi leads to a general rule that also covers epenthesis in segmentalphonology: Obligatory Contour Principle (OCP), which is the opposite ofassimilation and applies to many cases involving phonological change due toadjacent occurrences of identical sound segments or suprasegmentals like tone and stress patterns. 变调与音段音系学中的增音都遵循一个共同的原则：必异规则。该规则与同化相反，适用于具有相同特征的相邻语音所引起的超音段特征的变化。
• 语言学教程 第二章

Words and Morphology

• What is a word？
  • Word is a unit of expression that native speakers may recognize by intuition,whether in spoken or written form. 词是个语言表达单位，无论是在口语还是在书面语中，说母语的人都能够凭直觉识别这个语言单位。
  • Three Senses of “Word” (词的三种含义)
    • (1) a physically definable unit; 词是自然的有界限的对立单位；
    • (2) both a general and specific term; (2)词既是一个普通术语又是一个专门术语；
    • (3) a grammatical unit. (3)词是一个语法单位。
  • Identification of Words (词的识别)
    • stability (稳定性)
    • relative uninterruptibility (相对连续性)
    • a minimum free form (最小的自由形式)
  • Classification of Words (词的分类)
    • Variable and invariable words (可变词和不变词)
      • Variable words：Write ，writes. writing. wrote. written. cat cat
      • Invariable words：since. when. seldom. through. etc