语言学教程 语言学 第4章From words to sentence

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From Word to Text

• 4.1 Syntactic Relations （句法关系）
  • positional relation（位置关系）
    • Positional relation or word order（词序），refers to the sequential arrangement of words in a language.
  • relation of substitutability（替代关系）
    • The relation of substitutabilityrefers to classes or sets of words substitutable for each other grammartically in sentences with the same structure.
  • relation of Co-Occurrence（同现关系）
    • The relation of co-occurrence means that words of different sets of clauses may permit, or require, the occurrence of a word of another set or class to form a sentence or a particular partof a sentence.不同词的搭配使用
      • Eg.girl
        • A pretty
        • The tallest
        • The African
      • The relations of co-occurrence partly belong to syntagmatic relations, partly to paradigmaticrelations.同现关系部分属于横组合关系，部分属于纵聚合关系。
• 4.2 Grammatical Construction and lts Constituents （语法结构和成分）
  • Constructions
    • External syntax（外部结构）：短语、小句等
    • Internal syntax（内部结构）：主语、谓语、宾语、限定词等
  • Constituents
    • Constituents is a term used in structural sentence analysis for every linguistic unit, which is a part of a larger linguistic unit. 若干个成分共同组成一个结构。
      • Immediate Constituents（直接成分）
      • Immediate Constituent Analysis/IC analysis（直接成分分析法）p69
        • tree diagram（树形图）
        • bracketing（括号法）
  • 句法结构根据成分的分布分为
    • Endocentric and Exocentric Constructions（向心结构和离心结构）
      • Endocentric construction（向心结构）
        • Endocentric construction is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent to that of one ormore of its constituents, i.e. a word or a group of words, which serves as a definable CENTRE or HEAD.（有中心词）
          • noun phrase（名词短语）
          • verb phrase（动词短语）
          • adjective phrase（形容词短语）
      • Exocentric construction（离心结构）
        • Exocentric construction is just the opposite of endocentric construction. It refers to a group ofsyntactically related words where none of the words is functionally equivalent to the group as a Whole, that is, there is no definable "Centre" or "Head"inside the group. It usually includes basic sentence, prepositional phrase, predicate construction, and connective construction.（无中心词）
          • basic sentence（句子）
          • prepositional phrase（介词短语）
          • predicate construction（动宾结构）
          • connective construction（系表结构）
  • 句法结构根据成分的关系把向心结构分为
    • coordination（并列关系）
    • subordination（从属关系）
• 4.3 Syntactic Function（句法功能）
  • Subject（主语）
    • grammartical subject（语法主语）eg.John was bitten by a dog. John是语法主语
    • logical subject（逻辑主语）eg.John was bitten by a dog. a dog是逻辑主语
    • 主语的特征p75
  • Predicate（谓语）
  • Object（宾语）
• 4.4 Category（范畴）
  • Category refers to classes and functions in its narrow sense, e.g.noun, verb, subject, etc. Morespecifically, it refers to the defining properties of these general units: the categories of the noun,for example, include number, gender, case and countability; and of the verb, for example, tense,aspect, voice, and so on.
    • Number（数）
      • Number is the grammatical category for the analysis of word classes displaying such contrasts as singular, dual and plural, etc.Number is also reflected in the inflections of pronouns and verbs.
    • Gender（性）
      • Natural gender
        • she/he
      • Grammatical gender
    • Case（格）
      • Case is a special form of the noun which frequently corresponds to a combination of prepositionand noun, and it is realized in three channels:
        • (1) teacher: teacher's (2) with / to a man (him) (3)John kicked Peter; Peter kicked John.
• 4.5 Phrase，Clause and Sentence （短语、小句和句子）
  • phrase（短语）
    • Phrase is a single element of structure containing more than one word, and lacking the subject predicate structure typical of clauses.超过一个词，没有主谓结构
      • (1)A phrase must be a group of words which form a constituent.
      • (2)A phrase is lower on the grammatical hierarchy than clauses
    • group vs. phrase
      • A group is an extension of a word whereas a phrase is a contraction of a clause.A group is a bloated word whereas a phrase is a shrunken clause.
        • Group: the boy; has worked; very happy
        • Phrase: on the mat; for him
  • clause(小句)
    • A clause is a constituent with its own subject and predicate, if it is included in a larger sentence.Clause can be classified into FINITE and NON-FINITE clauses, the later including the traditional infinitive phrase, participial phrase, and gerundial phrase.有主谓结构
      • FINITE clauses（限定） ：主谓清楚 有主框架
      • NON-FINITE clauses（非限定）：不定式、现分、动名词
        • infinitive phrase（不定式短语）
        • participial phrase（分词短语）
        • gerundial phrase（动名词短语）
  • sentence（句子）
    • Sentence is the minimum part of language that expresses a complete thought.
      • sentence
        • indicative（直陈句）
          • interrogative（疑问句）
            • yes/no
            • wh-
          • declarative（陈述句）
        • imperative（祈使句）
          • jussive（命令句）
          • optative（请求句）
• 4.6 Recusiveness（递归性）
  • It mainly means that a constituent can be embedded within another constituent having the same category.一个短语成分可以嵌入到相同范畴的成分中。
    • conjoining（连接）
    • embedding（嵌入）
      • complement clause（补语从句）
      • adjunct/adverbial clause（状语从句）
      • relative clause（关系从句）
    • hypotactic and paratactic（主从和并联）
• 4.7 Beyond the sentence（句子之外）
  • Text（语篇）：文本要连贯 衔接is more than a random set of words，it should be overtly connected and convertly cohered：it shows connctedness.
  • Discourse（话语）：不是文本
  • sentential connection（句子的连接）
    • cohesion（衔接）
      • reference（指称）
      • substitution（替代）
      • ellipsis（省略）
      • conjunction（连接）
      • lexical collocation(词汇搭配)
    • coherence（连贯）
• 第四章
• Immediate Constituent Analysis/IC analysis （直接成分分析法）
  • 成分A句子本身：The schoolmaster drove the car.
    • 成分B：the schoolmaster
    • 成分C：drove the car
  • 成分B和C是成分A的直接成分
• paradigmatic relations（纵聚合关系）
  • is not allowed. smoking singing
    • vertical relation
    • choice relation
  • relation of substitutability
• syntagamatic relations（横组合关系）
  • SVO,VSO,OVS,OSV
    • horizontal relation
    • chain relation
  • positional relation
• syntax（句法学）
  • Syntax is the study of rules governing the ways different constituents are combined to form sentences in a language,or the study of the interrelationship between elements insentence structures.

Words and Morphology

• What is a word？
  • Word is a unit of expression that native speakers may recognize by intuition,whether in spoken or written form. 词是个语言表达单位，无论是在口语还是在书面语中，说母语的人都能够凭直觉识别这个语言单位。
  • Three Senses of “Word” (词的三种含义)
    • (1) a physically definable unit; 词是自然的有界限的对立单位；
    • (2) both a general and specific term; (2)词既是一个普通术语又是一个专门术语；
    • (3) a grammatical unit. (3)词是一个语法单位。
  • Identification of Words (词的识别)
    • stability (稳定性)
    • relative uninterruptibility (相对连续性)
    • a minimum free form (最小的自由形式)
  • Classification of Words (词的分类)
    • Variable and invariable words (可变词和不变词)
      • Variable words：Write ，writes. writing. wrote. written. cat cat
      • Invariable words：since. when. seldom. through. etc