Cambridge Chemistry Nature of matter and Atomic structure

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Chemistry

Atomic structure

Atomic Composition: Atoms consist of protons, neutrons, and electrons. Protons and neutrons reside in the nucleus, while electrons orbit around the nucleus.

Protons and Neutrons: Protons carry a positive charge, neutrons are neutral, both forming the atomic nucleus. Their quantity defines an element's chemical properties.

Electron Arrangement: Electrons exist in energy levels (main and sub-levels) within various atomic orbitals. Their filling follows rules of energy levels and the Pauli Exclusion Principle.

Atomic Number and Periodic Table: Atomic number indicates the number of protons, and the periodic table arranges elements by atomic number, displaying periodic properties.

Isotopes and Mass Number: Different isotopes of the same element possess the same atomic number but differ in mass number. The mass number equals the total of protons and neutrons.

Ionization and Ions: Atoms form charged ions by losing or gaining electrons. Electron loss results in cations, electron gain forms anions.

Radiation and Atomic Stability: Radioactive isotopes undergo decay processes to attain more stable states, including α, β, and γ decay.

Quantum Structure: Quantum theory explains behaviors within atoms, such as electron wave-particle duality, uncertainty principle, among others.

Nature of matter

Particle Theory of Matter: Matter is made up of tiny particles (atoms, molecules, or ions) that are in constant motion. Particles have space between them and attract each other. Changes in temperature affect their movement.

States of Matter: Solid: Particles are tightly packed, vibrating in fixed positions. Liquid: Particles are close but can move past each other, taking the shape of the container. Gas: Particles are widely spaced and move freely, filling the entire space available.

Changes of State: Melting: Solid to liquid. Freezing: Liquid to solid. Evaporation: Liquid to gas. Condensation: Gas to liquid. Sublimation: Solid to gas without passing through the liquid state.

Properties of Matter: Mass: The amount of matter in an object, measured in kilograms or grams. Volume: The amount of space an object occupies, measured in liters or cubic meters. Density: Mass per unit volume, calculated as mass/volume. Conductivity: Ability to conduct heat or electricity.

Mixtures and Solutions: Mixtures are combinations of substances that retain their individual properties. Solutions are homogeneous mixtures where one substance dissolves in another.

Energy Changes in Matter: Changes in state involve energy transfer (e.g., heat energy absorbed during melting, released during freezing).

Chemical vs. Physical Changes: Physical changes do not alter the substance's composition (e.g., melting ice). Chemical changes result in the formation of new substances (e.g., rusting iron).