跨文化交际（美）chapter2

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Chapter2 Communication and Culture

• Culture
  • Definition
    • Culture is a set of human-made objective and subjective elements that in the past have increased the probability of survival and resulted in satisfaction for the participants in an ecological niche, and thus became shared among those who could communicate with each other because they had a common language and they lived in the same time and place.
    • Cultures exist to serve the vital, practical requirements of human life—to structure a society so as to perpetuate the species, to pass on the hard-learned knowledge and experience of generations past and centuries past to the young and inexperienced in order to spare the next generation the costly and dangerous process of learning everything all over again from scratch through trial and error—including fatal errors.
  • Characteristics
    • shared
      • Your culture is shared with other people who have been exposed to similar experiences.
      • Culture is to a human collective what personality is to an individual.
    • transmitted from generation to generation
      • For a culture to endure it must make certain that its crucial messages and elements are not only shared, but are passed to future generations.
      • It is communication that makes culture a continuous process, for once cultural habits, principles, values, and attitudes are formulated, they are communicated to each member of the culture.
    • based on symbols
      • Cultural symbols, as we have noted, can take a host of forms, encompassing gestures, dress, objects, flags, and religious icons.
    • learned
      • Learning Culture through Proverbs.
      • Learning culture through folktales, legends and myths
      • Learning Culture through Art
      • Learning Culture through Mass Media.
    • dynamic
      • Because much of culture is habitual and deeply rooted in tradition, you can find countless examples where change is not welcomed and is even confronted with hostility.
      • Since cultures seek to endure, they often adopt those outside elements that are compatible with their existing values and beliefs, or that can be modified or incorporated into their culture without causing much disruption.
      • Perhaps most importantly, although many aspects of culture are subject to change, the deep structure of a culture resists major alterations.
  • Elements
    • world view
    • religion（most important）
      • Religion is like culture itself, since it provides the followers of the faith with a set of values, beliefs, and even guidelines for specific behaviors.
    • history
      • History highlights the culture's origins, "tells" its members what is deemed important, and identifies the accomplishments of the culture of which they can be proud.
    • values
      • Values are critical to the maintenance of culture as a whole because they represent the qualities that people believe are essential to continuing their way of life.
    • social organizations
      • These are institutions such as family, government, schools, tribes, and clans.
      • Within our social structure, furthermore, culture assigns roles to the various players—expectations about how individuals will behave, what they will stand for, and even how they will dress.
    • language
      • Language underlies every other aspect of a people’s way of life—their relationship with the natural environment, family life, political organizations, worldview, and so forth. Most socialization of children depends on language, which means language is the main vehicle of cultural transmission from one generation to the next.
  • Developing Intercultural Competence
    • Basic components
      • being motivated
      • having a fund of knowledge to draw on
      • possessing certain communication skills
    • Summary
    • Activities
      • attending a meeting of a culture or co-culture different from your own
      • make a list of the changes you observed in your culture during your lifetime.
      • search for "culture and folk tales"
      • .......
    • Concepts and Questions
• Human Communication
  • Uses
    • helps fulfill interpersonal needs
    • assists with personal perception
    • establishes cultural and personal identities
    • has persuasive qualities
  • Definition
    • For us, human communication is a dynamic process in which people attempt to share their thoughts with other people through the use of symbols in paticular settings.
  • Ingredients
    • source
      • There is a source - a peson who has an idea, feeling, experience etc. that they wish to share with another person. The source, as well as the other person, is sending and receiving messages. The reason, of course, is that communication is an interactive process.
    • encoding
      • Encoding is an internal activity. It occurs when the source creates a message through the selection of verbal or nonverbal symbols. Although the process of converting feelings into words and actions is universal, the words and actions selected and how they are strung together have their origins in the culture of the language being used.
    • message
    • channel
      • Messages must have a means of moving from person to person. It is the channel that provides that necessary connection.The channel can take a variety of forms. For example, as you read this book,the words on the printed page constituteour message，while the printing on these pages is the channel. Channels，in face-to-face interaction, are sights and sounds. However，channels can include multiple types of media. From television to the Internet to iPhones, a person's messages are moved from place to place.
    • receiver
      • After a message has been generated and moved along through a channel, it must encounter a receiver. The receiver is the person who takes the message into account and thereby is directly linked to the source. Receivers may be those with whom the source intends to interact, or they may be other people who, for whatever reason, come in contact with the source's message.
    • decoding
      • In this stage of the communication process, the receiver decodes the message. This operation (the converting of external stimuli to meaningful interpretations) is akin to the source's act of encoding, as both are internal activities.The decoding process within the receiver is often referred to as information processing. In this stage the receiver attributes meaning to the behaviors generated by the sender.
    • feedback
      • When you send a message to another person you usually perceive there sponse that person makes to your actions. That response may be words, a nonverbal reaction, or even silence. It matters little; what is important is that your message produced some response that you took into account. The perception of the response to.your message is called feedback.
      • Feedback typically has two stages. First, it applies to the reactions you obtain from your communication partner. Second, in most instances you use that reaction to decide what to do next. In this way feedback controls the ebband flow of the conversation. You smile at someone,your smile is greeted with a frown, and you respond by asking, "Are you okay?"
    • noise
      • The source is not alone in sending messages to the receiver. Every communication event is characterized by a multiplicity of competing stimuli. We intentionally use the word"competing"as a way to call attention to the fact that numerous stimuli are seeking to be noticed. The concept of competing stimuli isreferred to as noise. Noise is often thought of as interference with the communication process. Noise can be external or internal, and it can influence your capacity to process messages,as it is a kind of competing stimulus. Noise can be produced by people sitting behind you talking on a cell phone or by an air con-ditioner in need of servicing.
  • Components
    • dynamic process
    • symbolic
    • contentual
      • Location
      • Occasion
      • Time
      • Number of Participants
    • self-reflective
    • irreversible
    • has a consequence
    • complex
  • Misconceptions
    • Communication can solve all problems
    • Some people are born effective communicators
    • The message you send is the message received