4.1Attribution Theory&Person Perception
Attribution theory归因理论
Fundamental attribution error基本归因错误
Factor affect attributions:culture
Actor-observer bias演员/旁观者偏差：通常，人们倾向于将他人的行为归因于内在特质，而将自己的行为归因于外部情境因素。
Social comparison: I fail or success ？
Explicit & 🌟Implicit Prejudice
Test i ways
Considering unconscious patronization:”blind” to race
Monitoring reflexing bodily responses:facial muscle &emotion-processing amygdala
Racial & Ethnic Prejudice
Why prejudice persists ？ few challenge it
Implicit Prejudice:fatigue ⬆️ conscious level⬇️ automatic reaction (racial bias)⬆️
Roots of prejudice
Just-world phenomenon 公正世界现象
Negative emotions nourish prejudice
Cognitive shortcuts
Other-race effect/cross-face effect/own-race bias
4.2Attitude Formation&Attitude Change
ATTITUDES affect actions
Foot-in-the-door phenomenon 🪙
Cognitive dissonance theory
Persuasion 说服
Peripheral route persuasion 🗣️
4.3a/Psychology of Social Situations:Conformity&Obedience🌟
Norms准则
Normative social influence: gain social approval
Informational social influence: need accurate
Obedience:complying with an order or a command
Stanley Milgram’ follow-up obedience experiment
4.3b/Psychology of Social Situations:Group Behavior
4.3c/Psychology of Social Situations:Aggression
Psychological & Social-Culture Factors
Adhesive events
Frustration-aggression principle 挫折-攻击原则
Media models for violence
4.3d/Psychology of Social Situations:Attraction
Proximity亲近性
Mere exposure effect纯粹接触效应
Similarity
Romantic love
Emotion have 2 ingredients
4.3e/Psychology of Social Situations:Altruism,Conflict&Peacemaking
Norms for helping
Social exchange theory社会交换理论
Social-responsibility norm社会责任准则
Enemy perceptions
Mirror-image perceptions镜像认知
Self-fulfilling prophecy自我实现的预言
GRIT:Graduated and Reciprocated Initiative in Tension-Reduction 紧张缓和中的渐进式和互惠式举措
4.5a/Psychodynamic&Humanistic Theories of Personality:Psychoanalytic&Psychodynamic Theories
Psychodynamic theories 心理动力个性理论
Free association 一种疗法自由联想（放松）😌
Personality structure（Freud)
Personality development
Freud’s psychosexual stages(表格）
The Neo-Freudian and Later Psychodynamic Theorists
同意childhood is important ：
Karen Horner：反对女有weak superego的理论&penis envy生殖崇拜
Carl Jung:Freud’s disciple-turned-dissenter
Collective unconscious
集体无意识：集体无意识是荣格（Carl Gustav Jung）分析心理学中的核心概念，指人类在种族进化过程中积累起来的一些共同的、普遍的心理经验和本能倾向，它存在于人类心灵的最深处，是一种超越个体意识的、具有普遍性的精神层面。可以解释文化的形成
Modern Research contradicts Many of Freud’s Idea🥀
Freud did not have access to neurotransmitter or DNA studies.
The modern unconscious mind
Terror-management theory 恐惧管理理论：由美国社会心理学家杰夫·格林伯格（Jeff Greenberg）、汤姆·匹茨辛斯基（Tom Pyszczynski）和谢尔登·所罗门（Sheldon Solomon）在20世纪80年代提出。该理论基于人类对死亡的恐惧这一基本假设，旨在解释人们如何应对这种恐惧及相关心理和行为。
Assessing unconscious processs
Thematic Apperception Test(TAT)主题统觉实验
Projective test投射实验：designed ambiguous images to trigger projection of one’s inner dynamics &explore the preconscious&unconscious mind
•前意识：指处于意识和无意识之间的一种心理状态，其中的信息虽当下未被个体意识到，但可通过一定努力或线索被提取到意识层面，如我们在某个特定时刻没有想起，但经他人提醒能立刻回忆起来的记忆。
• 无意识：是个体无法直接觉察到的心理活动和内容，包含本能冲动、欲望及过去经验等，这些信息在不知不觉中对个体的行为和情感产生影响，如我们与生俱来的本能反应，或童年经历中被压抑到无意识中的部分。
Rorschach inkblot test 🖊️⚫️罗夏墨迹实验
Identify inner feelings by analyzing how they interpreted to inkblots
4.5b/Psychodynamic&Humanistic Theories of Personality:Humanistic Theories
Humanistic theories人本主义理论
View personality with a focus on the potential for growth of healthy person
Araham Maslow需求层次理论
Self-actualization自我实现：the motivation to fulfill one’s potential
Carl Roger’s Personal-Centered Perspective 同意Maslow
Unconditioned positive regard无条件积极关注
Evaluating Humanistic Theories
Self-concept自我概念”who am i ？”
4.6a/Social-Cognitive&Trait Theories of Personality:Trait Theories
Biology and Personality:Those with a reactive autonomic nervous system respond to stress with greater anxiety & inhibition
Assessing traits
Personality inventory人格量表
Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI):origin for identifying emotional disorders🫥
Empirically derived test:from a large pool of items, Hathaway and his colleagues selected those on which particular diagnostic groups differed.
Big five factors大五因素:Ocean.
Openness, Conscientiousness,Extraversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism(emotional stability vs instability
4.6b/Social-Cognitive&Trait Theories of Personality:Social-Cognitive Theories
Albert Bandura
Social-cognitive perspective 社会认知视角
Behavioral approach 行为主义方法：focuses on the effects of learning on our personality development
Reciprocal determinism交互决定论
Assessing behavior in situs
Person’s past behavior patterns in similar situations
4.6c/Social-Cognitive&Trait Theories of Personality:Exploring the Self
The benefits of self-esteem自尊
Culture&Self
Individualism个人主义（以个人目标为先）
4.7a/Motivation:Motivational Concepts
Motivation 动机
Instinct and evolutionary theory
Drive-reduction theory（Drive and incentives)
Physiological needs生理需求：a basic bodily requirement
Drive-reduction theory驱力降低理论
A way our bodies strive for homeostasis
🌟Homeostasis :the maintenance of a steady internal state
Incentive:+or - environmental stimulus that motivates behavior
Arousal theory
Human motivation aims not to eliminate arousal but to seek optimal levels of arousal
Yerkes-Dodson law适度的唤醒水平能达到最佳表现
Abraham Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
4.7b/Motivation:Affiliation&Achievement
The benefits of belonging
Self-determination theory: 自我决定理论we feel motivated to satisfy
Intrinsic motivation 内在动机
Extrinsic motivation 外在动机
The pain of being shut out
Connecting & Social networking
Achievement motivation 成就动机
4.7c/Motivation:Hunger Motivation
Basal metabolic rate基础代谢：the body’s resting rate of energy output
4.8a/Emotion:Theories&Physiology of Emotion
Stanley Schachter Arousal+Label=emotion
Joseph LeDoux
在《情绪脑》一书中提出，存在两条通往杏仁核的感觉通路，“低路”是快速、粗糙的皮层下通路，能对威胁做出快速行为反应；“高路”则提供更慢但经过高度处理的皮层信息。情绪在理智介入前产生
Richard Lazarus
Some emotional responses do not require conscious thinking
4.8b/Emotion:Expressing&Experiencing Emotion
Paul Ekman 微表情理论
Facial feedback effect面部反馈效应：面部影响心理状态
Behavior feedback effect行为反馈效应：行为影响心理状态
Woman tend to read emotional cues
