Social Psychology 社会心理学 Chapter 8 Group Process

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Chap #8 Group Processes

• 8.1. Fundamentals
  • 8.1.a.
    • What
      • set of individuals who interact over time and have shared fate, goals, or identity
      • Aspects
        • roles
        • norms
        • cohesiveness
      • collectives
        • people engaging in a common activity, but having little direct interaction with each other
    • Why
      • life needs
      • innate need to belong to groups
      • evolution theory: increase chance of survival
      • social identity theory: self-worth comes from identification of groups
  • 8.1.b. Key Features
    • Roles
      • set of expected behaviors (formal or informal)
        • instrumental role
          • help group achieve task
        • expressive role
          • provide emotional support and maintain morale
        • role mismatch
    • Norms
      • rules of conduct (formal or infomal)
        • sense of identity
        • learning/finding the rule (anxiety)
        • conformity pressure
        • norm of tolerating violation of norms
    • Cohesiveness
      • the extent to whcih fores push group members closer togather (feelings of intimacy/unity/commitment to group goal)
        • task cohesion
          • about group's attraction to task
        • interpersonal cohesion
          • about each other
  • 8.1.c.
    • Culture
      • Pertii Pelto (1968)
        • tight
          • have strong nroms, little tolerance for deviating behaviors
        • loose
          • weaker norms, greater tolerance for deviating behaviors
      • value of cohessiveness
      • conflict / debate tolerance
    • Group's Norms
      • stronger support to norm followers
    • Cohesiveness
• 8.2 Individuals in Group
  • 8.2.a. Social Facilitation
    • Norman Triplet (1897-1898 article)
      • hypothesis
        • the presence of another rider releases the competitive instict, whcih increases nervous energy and enhance performance.
    • Zajonc Solution
      • 1), presence of others creates general phsiological arousal ---- energize behavior
      • 2), increase arousal ----individual's tendency of
        • dominant response
          • reaction elicited quickly, easily by a given stimulus
      • 3) performance varies according to tasks
    • Social Facilitation
      • helping performance on easy tasks, hurting performace on difficult tasks
      • facilitate dominate response, not task
      • Zajonc
        • universal of social facilitation
      • facilication effect
        • brain area
          • socia judgments and motivations
    • other explanation
      • Mere presence
        • sufficient to produce social facilitation
      • evaluation apprehension theory
        • performance affected only by the presence of who are in position to evluate
      • distraction-conflict theory
        • distraction cause attentional conflict
        • attention conflict inrease arousal
  • 8.2.b. Social Loadfing
    • 1880s Ringelman
      • group out put decline
    • social loafing
      • group production reduce in individual output
    • 2008 Praveen Aggarwal & Connie O'Brien
      • strategy to reduce
        • 1// limite scope of project (细分=化简)
        • 2// small group
        • 3// peer evaluation, deligation
    • cyberloafing
    • Collective Effort Model
      • Individual will try hard, if efforts help achieve personally valued outcome
      • social compensation
        • increase effort, compensate acticipated social loafing / poor performance of others
  • 8.2.c. Culture and Social Loafing
    • Karau & Williams
      • less in woman
      • less in East Asia, collectivist culture
  • 8.2.d. Deindividuation
    • Loss of a person's sense of individuality, reduction of normal constrains against eviant bahaviors
    • Philip Zimbardo
      • contributing fectors
        • arousal
        • anonymity
        • reduced sense of individual responsibility
    • Steven Prentice-Dunn
      • emotional cues
        • accountability cues
          • affect cost-reward calculation
          • accountability low, less punishment, more gratifying but usually inhibited bahaviors
        • attentional cues
          • a person's attention away from self
          • less stende internal standards of conduct
          • reacts more to immediate situation
          • less sensitive to long-term consequences
    • SIDE
      • social identity model of deinviduation effest
        • deinviduation effects reflects
          • characteristic + norms of group immediately surrounding you
          • group's power to act according to these norms
• 8.3 Conflicts
  • 8.4.a. Mized motives and social dilemmas
    • social dilemma
      • persuit self-interest --> sometimes self-destructive
      • good for one, bad for all
    • presioner's dilemnma
    • resource dilemmas
      • how two or more people share rss
        • commons dilemmas
          • tragety of the commons, take ask much as you want, nothing left for anyone
        • public goods dilemmas
          • all contribute to pool
    • response
      • factors
        • fear (exploition)
        • greed (max)
        • reduce
          • Trust
          • Communication
      • cultural & individual differences
      • individual's social value orientation
        • prosocial / cooperative
        • individualist
    • solution
  • 8.4.b.ngotiation
    • intergrative agreement
      • both better than 50/50
    • fixed-[ie syndrome
      • one won, one lose
  • 8.4.c. Culture and Negotiation
    • cultural assumption
    • word frequency
    • emotion
    • p349-350-351 三个图表
• 8.3 Group Preference
  • 8.3.a. Losses and Gains in group
    • Process Loss (Ivan Steiner 1972)
      • reduction of group productivity due to problems in the dynamics
    • Process Gaine
      • increase in group production, group outperform sum of individuals
    • task
      • additive task
        • group product = sum of contribution
      • conjunctive task
        • group product ---- pooresr (木桶效应)
      • disjunctive task
        • group product --= best
  • 8.3.b. Brainstorming
    • technique attemps to increase production of creative ideas, by encouraging group members to speak freely without criticizing their own or other's contributions
  • 8.3.c. Group Polarization
    • the exaggeration through group discussion of initial tendenecies in the thinking of group member.
    • group discussion tends to enhance or exxagerate the initioal leanings of the group
    • why
      • persuasive argument theory
        • exposure + persuasiveness ---> extreme attitudes
      • how /> comparision of self and other, categorize self distinct from outers
  • 8.3.d. Groupthink
    • geoup decision making style, excessive tendency to seek concurrence / agreement
      • Irvin Janis (1982)
    • why (Irvin)
      • 1// highly cohesive
      • 2// group structure
        • similar background, isolated, directed by strong leader, no systematic proceduer
      • 3// stressful situation
    • why (example)
      • closed-mindedness
      • presure towards uniformity
      • illusion of unanimity
    • prevent
      • 1// consult outsider
      • 2// reduce conformity presure, encourage criticisim; ledaer no stong stand early
      • 3// norm of critical review, seperate group for same issue, devil's advocate, secodn chance
  • 8.3.e.
    • Communicating info
      • Garold Stasser (1992)
        • Biased Sampling
          • tendency to discuss more on shared info than unshared
      • conmmunication network
        • who can speak with whom
    • Utilizing Experties
    • Transactive Memory
      • delegated storage of large info
        • 1// know who knows what
        • 2// trust
        • 3// coordination
  • 8.3.f. Goals and Plans in Group
    • when asked to do their best, they don't
    • accountability + encouragement
      • example
  • 8.3.g. training and Technology
    • Ruth Wegeman (2009)
    • interactive computer software
      • group support system / group discussion supoort system
      • remove communication barriers
      • provide structure + incentives
  • 8.3.h. Culture and Diversity
    • dicersity --=negatiev group dynamics
    • diversity --= complexity of group discussion, pool info, perspective, skills
    • racial / gender diversity ---- greater profit / market share
    • improve
      • cultural metacongnition
        • awareness of own and other;s cultral assumptions
          • living abroad
          • intercultural friendship
          • romantic relationship
  • 8.3.i. Collective Intelligence: Are some groups smarter than others?
    • geenral ability od a group across wide range of tasks
    • individual----stronger predictor
    • factors
      • 1// strong social perspectiveness
      • 2// take turns
      • 3// more woman
• solving social dilemmas
• Prisoner's Dilemma
• Conditions for team effectiveness
• Sticking to a plan
• Group Polarization
• why electronic is better
• 4 factors, kill effectiveness
• Alex Osborn: Brainstorming
  • Nominal Group out-perform brainstroming group
    • why
    • electrinic effectivity
• Zajonc Solution