导图社区 新编简明英语语言学大纲 戴维栋版
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新编简明英语语言学大纲 戴维栋版
这是一篇关于新编简明英语语言学大纲 戴维栋版的思维导图，包含General Linguistics，Language，Words ，Distinctions in linguistics
编辑于2022-05-14 15:05:51
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Linguistics
1. How do you interpret the following definition of linguistics: Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. 2. Why is Linguistics a Scientific Study? It is a scientific study because it is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure.
General Linguistics
The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics.
Micro-linguistics
(from the core of linguistics)
Phonetics语音学
Phonetic studies the sounds used in linguistic communication. 1. Phonetics is of a general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human language. 2. Voicing refers to the vibrating of the vocal cords when sounds are produced. 3. In terms of manner of articulation the English consonants can be classified into the following types: stops, fricatives, affricates, liquids, nasals, glides, bilabial, labiodental, dental, alveolar, palatal, velar, glottal.
Three research fields
articulatory phonetics
Articulatory Phonetics is the study of the production of speech sounds.
pharyngeal cavity-the throat
oral cavity-the mouth
nasal cavity-the nose
acoustic phonetics
Acoustic Phonetics is the study of physical properties of speech sounds.
auditory phonetics
Perceptual (Auditory) Phonetics is concerned with the perception of speech sounds.
Classification of English speech sounds
vowels
consonants
stops
nasals
fricatives
affricates
liquids, glides
phonology音位学
Phonology studies how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication. Phonology aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.
segment
phone
Phone: It is a basic unit of phonetic study, and it is a minimal sound segment that human speech organ can produce. But a phone does not necessarily distinguish meaning; Some do, some don't.
phoneme
Phoneme is a basic unit of phonological study, and it is an abstract collection of phonetic features which can distinguish meaning.
allophone
The different realizations of the same phoneme in different phonetic environments are called allophones.
Complementary distribution
When two or more than two allophones of the same phoneme do not distinguish meaning and occur in different phonetic environments, then the allophones are said to be in complementary distribution.
Free variation
If two sounds occurring in the same environment do not contrast; that’s to say, if the substitution of one for the other does not generate a new word form but merely a different pronunciation of the same word, the two sounds then can be seen as in free variation.
Phonemic contrast
If the phonetically similar sounds are two distinctive phonemes, e.g. [p] and [b] in "pit" and "bit", they are said to form a phonemic contrast.
syllable
A syllable can be divided into two parts, the rhyme and the onset. As the vowel within the rhyme is the nucleus, the consonant(s) after it will be termed the coda. All syllables must have a nucleus but not all syllables contain an onset and a coda. A syllable with a coda is a closed syllable while a syllable that has no coda is called an open syllable. Take the word cracked for example. Its syllable can be shown as follows: 
onset
nucleus
coda
rhyme
morphology形态学
Morphology studies the way in which the symbols are arranged and combined to form words. Definition of morphology（形态学定义） 【考点：名词解释】 Morphology studies the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words are formed, including inflection and word formation. 形态学研究词的内部结构以及构词规则，包括屈折变化和构词法两个领域。
morphemes
Some words are formed by combining a number of distinct units of meaning. The most basic element of meaning is traditionally called morpheme.
bound morphemes
inflectional morpheme
suffix
derivational morpheme
prefix
suffix
free morphemes
allomorphs
word formation
compounding
derivation
syntax句法学
Syntax studies the rules in the combination of words to form grammatically permissible sentences in languages. The definition of Syntax（句法的定义） 【考点：名词解释】 Syntax studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences. 【考点：用树形图分析句子结构】 
syntactic categories
word-level categories
major lexical categories
minor lexical categories
phrase categories
phrase structure rules
A certain word can only concur with certain other words. There must be certain grammatical mechanism that ensures the appropriate positions that specifiers, heads, and complements occupy in phrase structure. Such special type of grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule.
Chomsky?
XP rule
coordination rule
phrase elements
specifiers
heads
complements
syntactic structure
deep structure (D-structure)
formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head's subcategorization properties. The structure that contains all the units and relationships that are necessary for interpreting the meaning of the sentence is called the deep structure.
XP rule
surface structure (S-structure)
corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence which results from appropriate transformations. The structure of the sentence as it is pronounced or written is called the surface structure.
Inversion
Do insertion
Wh movement
semantics语义学
Semantics studies meaning conveyed by language.
lexical meaning
sense and reference
【考点：名词解释&辨析—Sense和Reference的区别】 The distinction between sense and reference is comparable. Sense refers to the abstract properties of an entity whereas reference refers to the concrete entities having these properties. In other words, Leech’s conceptual meaning has two sides: sense and reference. Every word has a sense, i.e. some conceptual content; but not every word has a reference. For example, grammatical words like and, if, but do not refer to anything.
major sense relations
sense relations between words
synonymy
Synonymy refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning. Words that are close in meaning are called synonyms.
dialectal synonyms
synonyms used in different regional dialects. E.g. autumn, fall.
stylistic synonyms
synonyms differing in style. E.g. old man， daddy，dad，father，male parent.
synonyms that differ in emotive or evaluative meaning
E.g. collaborator and accomplice.
collocational synonyms
E.g. rotten tomatoes，addled eggs.
semantically different synonyms
E.g. amaze and astound.
polysemy
The same one word may have more than one meaning. This is what we call polysemy，and such a word is called a polysemic word. E.g., table has seven meanings.
homonymy
Homonymy refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form, i.e., different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both.
homophones
identical in sound
homographs
identical in spelling
complete homonyms
identical in both sound and spelling
hyponymy
Hyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word. The word which is more general in meaning is called the superordinate, and the more specific words are called its hyponyms. Hyponyms of the same super ordinate are co-hyponyms to each other, e.g. Superordinate: flower Hyponyms: rose, tulip, carnation, lily, morning glory…
superordinate
The word which is more general in meaning is called the superordinate.
hyponyms
The more specific words are called its hyponyms. Hyponyms of the same super ordinate are co-hyponyms to each other.
antonymy
The term antonymy is used for oppositeness of meaning; words that are opposite in meaning are antonyms.
gradable antonyms
Some antonyms are gradable because there are often intermediate forms between the two members of a pair. So it is a matter of degree. For example, “old” and “young”.
complementary antonyms
A pair of complementary antonyms is characterized by the feature that the denial of one member of the pair implies the assertion of the other. For example, “alive” or “dead”.
relational opposites
Pairs of words that exhibit the reversal of a relationship between the two items are called relational opposites. For example, “husband” and “wife”.
six sense relations between sentences
X is synonymous with Y
X: He was a bachelor all his live. Y: He never married all his life. (If X is true, Y is true, and if X is false. Y is false).
X is inconsistent with Y
X: John is married. Y: John is a bachelor. (If X is true, Y is false, and if X is false, Y is true.
X entails Y (Y is an entailment of X)
X: John married a blond heiress. Y: John married a blond. (If X is true, Y is necessarily true, If X is false, Y may be true or false.)
X presupposes Y (Y is a prerequisite of X)
X: John’s bike needs repairing. Y: John has a bike. (If X is true. Y must be true If X is false, Y is still true. )
X is a contradiction
When X is a contradiction, it is invariably false, e.g. My unmarried sister is married to a bachelor.
X is semantically anomalous
E.g. The table has bad intentions. When X is semantically anomalous, it is absurd in the sense that it presupposes a contradiction.
analysis of meaning
componential analysis
Componential analysis——a way to analyze lexical meaning Componential analysis is a way proposed by the structural semanticists to analyze word meaning. The approach is based upon the belief that the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components, called semantic features.
predication analysis
Predication analysis——a way to analyze sentence meaning The predication analysis is proposed by the British linguist G. Leech. In his framework of analysis, the basic unit is called predication, which is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence. This applies to all forms of sentence, including statements, imperative and interrogative forms.
British linguist G. Leech
grammatical form
semantic predication
A predication consists of argument(s) and predicate. E. g. TOM (SMOKE) is the predication of these two different sentences: Tom smokes. Tom is smoking.
argument(s)
An argument is a logical participant in a predication, largely identical with the nominal element(s)in a sentence. The argument of the example is TOM.
predicate
A predicate is something said about an argument or it states the logical relation linking the arguments in a sentence. In the above example, the predicate is SMOKE.
pragmatics语用学
Pragmatics studies the meaning in the context of language use. 【考点：名词解释，与语义学的关系】 1. Definition（定义） It is the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication. 2. Relation between pragmatics vs. semantics（语用学与语义学的关系） (1) Once the notion of context was taken into consideration, semantics spilled over into pragmatics. (2) What essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmatics is whether in the study of meaning the context of use is considered. (3) If it is not considered，the study is confined to the area of traditional semantics；if it is considered，the study is being carried out in the area of pragmatics.
speech acts
Austin's model
According to Austin’s model, a speaker might be performing three acts simultaneously when speaking: locutionary act, illocutionary act, and perlocutionary act.
locutionary act
A locutionary act is the act of uttering words, phrases, clauses. It is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology.
illocutionary act
An illocutionary act is the act of expressing the speaker’s intention: it is the act performed in saying something.
perlocutionary act
A perlocutionary act is the act performed by or resulting from saying something; it is the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance; it is the act performed by saying something.
Searle's
classification of speech acts
According to Searle, speech acts all into five general categories, i.e., there are five general types of things we do with language. Specific acts that fall into each type share the same illocutionary point, but differ in their strength.
representatives/assertives
Representatives: stating or describing, saying what the speaker believes to be true. (The illocutionary point of the representatives is to commit the speaker to something’s being the case, to the truth of what has been said. Stating, believing, swearing, hypothesizing are among the most typical of the representatives. )E.g., (I swear) I have never seen the man before.
directives
Directives: trying to get the hearer to do something. (Directives are attempts by the speaker to get the hearer to do something. Inviting, suggesting, requesting, advising, warning, threatening, ordering are all specific instances of this class. ) E.g. , Open the window!
commissives
Commissives: committing the speaker himself to some future course of action. ( Commissives are those illocutionary acts whose point is to commit the speaker to some future course of action, i. e. when speaking the speaker puts himself under a certain obligation. Promising, undertaking, vowing are the most typical cases. ) E.g. , I promise to come.
expressives
Expressives: expressing feelings or attitude towards an existing state.(The illocutionary point of expressives is to express the psycho—·logical state specified in the utterance. The speaker is expressing his feelings or attitude towards an existing state of affairs, e. g. apologizing, thanking, congratulating. ) E.g. , I am sorry for the mess I have made.
declarations
Declarations: bringing about immediate changes by saying something.(“Declarations” has the characteristic that the successful performance of an act of this type brings about the correspondence between what is said and reality.) E.g. , I fire you!
share the same illocutionary point
indirect speech acts
According to Searle, when a speaker is using indirect language, he is performing two speech acts simultaneously: one is the primary speech act and the other is the second speech act. The primary one is the speaker’s goal of communication and the second one is the means by which he achieves his goal.
primary speech act
secondary speech act
principle of conversation
Paul Grice
implied meaning/implicature
conventional implicature
non-conventional implicature
Cooperative Principle (CP) and its Maxims
Make your conversational contribution such as required at the stage at which it occurs by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged.
The maxim of quantity
(1) Make your contribution as informative as is required (for the current purpose of the exchange). (2) Do not make your contribution more informative than is required.
The maxim of quality
(1) Do not say what you believe to be false. (2) Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.
The maxim of relation
Be relevant.
The maixm of manner
(1) Avoid obscurity of expression. (2) Avoid ambiguity. (3) Be brief(avoid unnecessary prolixity). (4) Be orderly.
cross-cultural pragmatic failure
Pragmatic failure occurs when the speaker fails to use language effectively to achieve a particular purpose, or when the hearer fails to recognize the intention of the speaker’s utterance. There are two kinds of pragmatic failure: pragmalinguistic failure and sociolinguistic failure.Because pragmatics is assumed to have two dimensions: pragmalinguistics and sociopragmatics.
pragmaticlinguistic failure
sociopragmatic failure
Macro-linguistics
(from the relation with other fields)
Historical linguistics
Historical linguistics, as a branch of linguistics, is mainly concerned with both the description and explanation of language changes that occurred over time.
phonological changes
Sound changes tend to be systematic; it is possible to see a regular pattern of pronunciation changes throughout the history of the English language.
morphological and syntactic change
addition of affixes
In English many affixes are borrowed, e. g. the suffix –ment in French. Besides, some lexical forms became grammaticalized over time. In the case where two words are frequently adjacent, over time they can become fused to form a single unit. Fusion refers to the type of gammaticalization in which words develop into affixes.
loss of affixes
Some affixes simply fade out of use for no apparent reasons. Some loss can be explained via sound changes. Many of earlier case and gender markings are obliterated.
change of word order
Since case markings are lost during the Middle English period, fixed subject-object-verb order became the means of grammatical relation marking.
change in negation rule
As late as the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries，one could merely add not at the end of an affirmative sentence to negate it, as in: I love thee not. He saw you not. In modern English, not must precede the main verb, and ado, marked for the proper tense, must be inserted: I love you. —l do not love you He saw you—He did not see you.
lexical and semantic change
addition of new words
coinage
A new word can be coined outright to fit some purpose, e. g. Walkman, Kodak, Xerox, Ford.
clipped words
Clipping refers to the abbreviation of longer words or phrases, e.g. gym——gymnasium expo——exposition memo——memorandum disco——discotheque
blending
A blend is a word formed by combining parts of other words, e.g. smog——smoke+fog motel——motor+hotel brunch——breakfast+lunch
acronyms
Acronyms are words derived from the initials of several words. e.g. CBS—Columbia Broadcasting System ISBN—International Standard Book Number IT—information technology
back-formation
New words may be coined from already existing words by “subtracting” an affix thought to be part of the old word. Such words are thus called back-formation, e.g. to edit(derived from editor on the mistaken assumption that or was the agentive suffix); to hawk(derived from hawker).
functional shift/conversion
Words may shift from one part of speech to another without the addition of affixes, e.g., noun—verb: to knee, to bug, to tape.
borrowing
When different cultures come into contact, words are often “borrowed” from one language to another. The loan word may label a new concept, or it may replace or become a synonym of a native word. English has borrowed a very large number of words from many different languages throughout its history. The examples below are some of the loan words in English. E.g., Latin: bonus, education, exit Greek: tragedy, cycle, physics
loss of words
Words can be lost from a language. The following words, taken from Romeo and Juliet, have faded out of the English language. 
semantic changes
semantic broadening
When the meaning of a word becomes broader, that word means everything it used to mean，and then more. An interesting example is the word holiday, which originally meant holy day, i.e. a day of religious significance. Today this word signifies any day on which we don’t have to work.
semantic narrowing
In the course of several generations, semantic change has narrowed the meaning of a word to what it is in Modern English. “Hound”, for example, which used to be the general term for “dog”, has been narrowed to a special kind of dog.
semantic shift
The fact that a lexical item may undergo a shift in meaning is the third kind of semantic change. The word inn refers to a small hotel or pub，usually an old one. But now a well-known nice hotel may use inn as its name，such as Holiday Inn.
some recent trends
moving towards greater informality
Since the Second World War there has been a trend towards much greater informality of expression. Conversational forms like ain’t，don’t and can’t are now commonly used in articles in the press, and often people prefer to use informal styles such as “It’s me” and “Who did you see?”
the influence of American English
For many years American English has been assaulting the British Isles with ever，increasing weight and persistence. E.g., to host means to be host at.
the influence of science and technology
As science and technology develop, they use new words to express new concepts, new techniques as well as new inventions. As they have developed more rapidly during the last 50 years, consequently, new words and expressions have been coined one after another.
space travel
There has been a tendency to coin nice simple words and phrases like: space suit, heat-shield, splash-down.
computer and internet language
The development of computer and internet technology has produced a new vocabulary of their own. E.g. , program, input, output, hacker.
ecology
Ecology refers to the study of the relationship between plants, animals, people, and their environment, and the balances between these relationships. As more and more people are concerned with the preservation of the environment and natural resources, quite a lot of words have appeared in this regard. E.g. , ecocide, ecoactivist, eco-friendly.
Causes of language change
Rapid development of science and technology
Social and political changes & political needs
Women go out for work, leading to new neutral job titles
Language acquisition of children
Economy of memory
Regularization of exceptional plural forms
sociolinguistics
the study of all social aspects of language and its relation with society form the core of the branch. 【考点：名词解释】 Sociolinguistics is a sub-field of linguistics that studies the relation between language and society, between the uses of language and the social structures in which the users of language live.
speech community
The social group that is singled out for any special study is called the speech community. A speech community is a group of people who form a community and share the same language or a particular variety of a language.
speech variety
or language variety, refers to any distinguishable form of speech used by a speaker or a group of speakers. Linguistic features of a speech variety can be found at the lexical, the phonological, the morphological, or the syntactical level of the language.
dialectal varieties (user)
regional dialects
① Definition: A regional dialect is a linguistic variety used by people living in the same geographical region. ② Features:(a) Regional dialect boundaries often coincide with geological barriers (owing to lack of communication caused by difficulty in transportation); (b) in most cases, the regional dialects spoken in two neighbouring areas are mutually intelligible to a great extent, and the change from one dialect to another is very often a gradual, rather than an abrupt process. ③ Reasons: Although geographical barriers are the major sources of regional variation of language, loyalty to one’s native speech and physical and psychological resistance to change are among other reasons of such variations.
sociolects
① Definition: Sociolect, or social-class dialect, refers to the linguistic variety characteristic of a particular social class. It has to do with separation brought about by different social conditions. ② Features: Two people who were born and brought up in the same geographical region and speak the same regional dialect may speak differently because of a number of social factors. Consciously or unconsciously, their social backgrounds influence their choice of linguistic forms, and the linguistic features of the language they use reveal their identities. ③ Accent is an important marker of sociolect. A case in point is the so called “Received Pronunciation”(RP) in British English, which had become characteristic of upper class speech through out the country by the 19th century. Subsequently this non-localized particular way of pronouncing standard English was an indicator of a public school education and thus a high social status on the part of the speaker.
language and gender
① The language of women is more standard than that of man. ② In the use of intonations: The female speakers tend to have a wider range in their intonation. And female speakers are heard to use the low-rise intonation with statements much more frequently than male speakers. ③ In the use of certain lexical items, the word girls is commonly used by females to females as an address form, men would mainly use ladies Some adjectives of evaluation are used more frequently by females than by males, such as nice，lovely，cute，fantastic and also some intensifiers, such as awfully. ④ Female speech is less assertive and thus sounds to be more polite than male speech. Female speakers tend to use more often the question tag, and such syntactic forms as I’m afraid…and I’m not sure but…
language and age
In many communities the language used by the old generation differs from that used by the younger generation in certain ways. ① The most striking difference is found at the lexical level. ② Lexical variation is more noticeable across three-generation time span than two generation time span.
idiolect
① Definition: Idiolect is a personal dialect of an individual speaker that combines elements regarding regional, social, gender, and age variations. ② Features: An individual speaker's regional and social back ground, his/her gender and age jointly determine the way he/she talks. And the language he/she uses, which bears distinctive features of his/her own, is his/her idiolect. What makes up a person’s idiolect also includes such factors as voice quality, pitch and speech tempo and rhythm.
ethnic dialect
① Definition An ethnic dialect cuts across regional differences and is mainly spoken by a less privileged population that has experienced some form of social isolation such as racial discrimination or segregation. ② Features of Black English a) Black English is spoken mostly by a large section of non-middle-class American Blacks. b) Black English simplify consonant clusters at the end of a word. c) Black English often delete the link verb “be”.
registers (use)
In a broad sense, according to Halliday, “Language varies as its function varies: it differs in different situations.” The type of language which is selected as appropriate to the type of situation is a register. In a restricted sense, register refers to the variety of language related to one's occupation.
field of discourse
Field of discourse refers to what is going on: to the area of operation of the language activity. It is concerned with the purpose and subject matter of communication.
tenor of discourse
Tenor of discourse refers to the role of relationship in the situation in question: who the participants in the communication groups are and in what relationship they stand to each other.
mode of discourse
Mode of discourse mainly refers to the means of communication. It is concerned with “how” communication is carried out. Fundamental to the mode of discourse is the distinction between speaking and writing.
social variables that determine the register
degree of formality
(1) Features Language used on different occasions differs in the degree of formality, which is determined by the social variables, e.g. who we are talking with and what we are talking about. (2) Five stages of formality (by Martin Joos) 1. intimate, 2 casual, 3 consultative, 4. formal, and 5. frozen. According to Joos, it is routine to alternate, within a single discourse, between two styles which neighbour on this scale.
standard dialect
【考点：名词解释，特征】 1. Definition The standard variety is a superimposed, socially prestigious dialect of a language. It is the language employed by the government and the judiciary system, used by the mass media, and taught in educational institutions, including school settings where the language is taught as a foreign or second language. 2. Nature The standard dialect is a particular variety of a language in that it is not related to any particular group of language users，but it is the variety which any member of a speech community can possibly use regardless of his social and geographical backgrounds, his gender and age. 3. Features (1) The standard dialect is based on a selected variety of the language, usually it is the local speech of an area which is considered the nation's political and commercial center. (2) The standard dialect is not a dialect a child acquires naturally like his regional dialect. It is a superimposed variety; it is a variety imposed from above over the range of regional dialects. (3) The standard dialect has some special functions. Being designated as the official or national language of a country, the standard dialect is used for such official purposes as government documents, education, news reporting; it is the language used on any formal occasions.
pidgin
(1) Definition A pidgin is a special language variety that mixes or blends languages and it is used by people who speak different languages for restricted purposes such as trading. (2) Origin Pidgins arose from a blending of several languages in the sense that some of its grammar and vocabulary is derived from the European language used by traders and missionaries in order to communicate with peoples whose languages they did not know. (3) Features ① A limited vocabulary; ② A very reduced grammatical structure characterized by the loss of inflections, gender and case.
creole
(1) Definition When a pidgin has become the primary language of a speech community， and is acquired by the children of that speech community as their native language，it is said to have become a Creole. (2) Features ① The structure of the original pidgin is expanded to enable it to fulfill its new functions. ② The vocabulary is vastly enriched，and new syntactic-semantic concepts developed.
Choosing a Code
Bilingualism and multilingualism
(1) Definition Bilingualism is a situation where two languages are used side by side with each having a different role to play; and language switching occurs when the situation changes. Multilingualism refers to a situation where three or more languages are used by an individual or by a group of speakers such as the inhabitants of a particular region or nation. (2) Typical examples of Bilingualism Paraguay is one of the places where research on bilingualism has been carried out. A typical example of a bilingual community is an ethnic ghetto where most of the inhabitants are either immigrants or children of immigrants.
Diglossia
Definition: The term diglossia, first used by Ferguson in 1959, refers to a situation where two varieties of a language exist side by side throughout the community, with each having a definite role to play, which are high variety and low variety. Feature: specialization of function of the two varieties.
H-variety
Usually, the more standard variety can be called the high variety or H-variety, which is used in government, the media, education, and for religious services.
L-variety
The other one is usually a non-prestige variety, the low variety or L-variety used in the family, with friends, when shopping, etc.
Code-switching
Code-switching refers to a change made by a speaker or writer from one language or language variety to another one. There are two major kinds of code-switching. (1) The situational code-switching occurs when the language used changes according to the situation in which the participants find themselves; they speak one language in one situation and another in a different one. (2) When a change in topic requires a change in the language used, this is called metaphorical code-switching.
Linguistic Taboos and Euphemisms
neurolinguistics
Neurolinguistics is the study of the relationship between brain and language. It includes research into how the structure of the brain influences language learning, how and in which parts of the brain language is stored, and how damage to the brain affects the ability to use language.
brain structure and its function
It is within the human cortex that the secrets of language representation and processing are to be found.
brain stem
cerebrum
the study of the brain
autopsy studies
The technique is used to examine the brain after the patient’s death in order to find the relationship between the area of brain damage and the type of disorder the patient displayed while alive.
"Sodium Amytal" Test (SAT)
Computerized Axial Tomography (CT scanning)
Positron Emission Tomography (PET)
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)
functional MRI (fMRI)
methods to study the brain
It has been found that when subjects speak, much blood flows to the left hemisphere of the cortex and to Broca’s area in particular. When subjects read, much blood flows to the occipital lobe, to the angular gyrus, and to other areas of the left hemisphere. These observations support the view that the left hemisphere is primarily responsible for language and that there are specific language areas within the left hemisphere.
dichotic listening
Dichotic listening is a technique in which stimuli either linguistic or non-linguistic are presented through head phones to the left and right ears to determine the lateralization of various cognitive functions.
split brain studies
The experiments that investigate the effects of surgically severing the corpus callosum on cognition are referred to as split brain studies.
methods to examine the behaviour associated with the brain
Aphasia
Aphasia refers to a number of acquired language disorders due to the cerebral lesions caused by vascular problems, a tumour, an accident and so on.
non-fluent aphasia
In the case of non-fluent aphasia, form is compromised but the content of language remains relatively. intact
global aphasia
Broca's aphasia
Phonologically, the speech of Broca’s aphasics is very halting and lack of normal sentence intonation. Syntactically, Broca’s aphasics produce telegraphic speech, i. e. they omit the functional words that we would be likely to omit when we write a telegram and besides, they tend to omit in flectional affixes such as-ing. and. -ed in words such as reading and worked. They often show difficulty judging the grammaticality of sentences.
fluent aphasia
In contrast, fluent aphasia is characterized by a rapid flow of form with little content.
Carl Wernicke
Wernicke's aphasia
The patients can speak very fluently with normal pronunciation and intonation and correct word order but often with little semantic meaning. They often have great difficulty in comprehending a speech.
acquired dyslexia
Damage in and around the angular gyrus of the parietal lobe often causes the impairment of reading and writing ability, which is often referred to as acquired dyslexia.
phonological dyslexia
Phonological dyslexia is a type of acquired dyslexia in which the patient seems to have lost the ability to use spelling-to-sound rules.
surface dyslexia
Surface dyslexia is the opposite of phonological dyslexia. Surface dyslexia, the patient with which seem unable to recognize words as wholes but must process all words through a set of spelling-to-sound rules.
psycholinguistics
Psycholinguistics is the study of language processing. It is concerned with the processes of language comprehension and production. It relates the study of language to psychology.
psycholinguistic research methods
field work
Since language processing does not involve observable physical events, but rather involves mental computations and representations that cannot be observed and measured directly, psycholinguists have to infer from the observable behaviour. Thus the scientific analysis of such behaviour as slip of tongue becomes one of the earliest and most influential ways to study language processing.
experimental methods
lexical decision
Lexical decision task is a kind of experiments psycholinguists employ to investigate lexical access. In this task, a participant sees a string of letters and is required to decide whether the string is a word or not.
the priming experiment
First, the prime is presented, to which no response is usually required or recorded. Second, the target is presented, to which the participant is required to give some response(e. g. by naming the word or deciding whether the string is a word)and the time taken to make this response is recorded. The times to respond to the target in the priming condition are then compared with a condition in which no priming stimulus or a different priming stimulus was presented.
how words are organized, assessed and represented in the mind
timed-reading experiment
A timed-reading experiment is a technique that is used to study the determinants of sentence processing difficulty. The underlying assumption of the experiment is that the more difficult sentence processing is, the longer it should take. One of the commonly used timedreading experimental methods is the bar-pressing paradigm.
eye movement experiments
This technique has revealed that fixation times are typically longer for less frequent words, and the points of fixation are typically centred on content words. Difficult sentence structures create longer fixation time as well as many more regressive saccades. Thus fixation duration is one index of the difficulty of information processing during reading.
event-related potential experiment
ERP experiments have shown that sentence processing is immediate and online. When reading a sentence we do not wait until the entire string is complete, but rather constantly building interpretations of the sentence as it unfolds. Whenever what is presented to us contradicts our expectations based on our ongoing interpretative processes, a negative voltage is observed.
how sentences are processed
language processing
Psycholinguistic studies have revealed that many of the concepts and principles employed in the analysis of sound structure, word structure, and sentence structure also play a role in language processing.
phonetics and phonology
The syllable plays an important role in speech perception.
cohort model
morphological processing
selectional restrictions
Research shows that knowledge of the selectional restrictions of affixes does indeed form part of the word-processing system.
hierarchical structure
Priming experiments shows that our representation of complex words is organized in terms of hierarchical morphological structure.
syntax
Two sources of evidence have been very important in the exploration of the principles of modularity of sentence processing. They are garden path sentences and sentence ambiguity.
syntactic parser
garden path sentences
A garden path sentence misleads the syntactic parser and takes it down the garden path to the wrong analysis. One of the most famous examples of garden path sentence is as below： The horse raced past the barn fell. It is found in eye movement studies that subjects show more regressive saccades and longer fixation times for garden path sentences.
minimal attachment principle
late closure principle
sentence ambiguity
In processing a sentence, we create all representations possible and then discard the ones that are either incorrect or unnecessary.
psycholinguistic modeling
Levelt’s model of speech production Following Levelt(1989), we may distinguish four stages of production： conceptualizing, formulating, articulating, and self-monitoring. First, we must conceptualize what we wish to communicate. Second, we formulate this thought into linguistic plan in the Formulator. It contains grammatical and phonological process and draws upon the lexicon. Third, the information is passed to the Articulator from Formulator which actually produces the utterance. Finally, we monitor our speech, to assess whether it is what we intended to say and how we intended to say it.
the conceptualizer
the formulator
the articulator
applied linguistics
The study of the applications of language to the solution of practical problems. Narrowly, it is the application of linguistic theories and principles to language teaching, especially the teaching of foreign and second languages.
Language
The definition of language（语言的定义） (考点：名词解释) Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. This definition has revealed five essential factors of language: systematic, arbitrary, vocal, symbolic and most importantly human-specific. 1. What features does human language have, which can not be found in animal communication system?  Arbitrariness, productivity, duality/double articulation, displacement and cultural transmission are design features refering to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication. 2. Why is spoken language given priority to written language in modern linguistics? From the point of view of linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing. Even in today's world there are still many languages that can only be spoken but not written. Then in everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed. And also, speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongue, and writing is learned and taught later when he goes to school. Therefore, for modern linguistics, spoken language reveals more true features of human speech while written language is only the "revised" record of speech. 3. What are the features of modern linguistics? Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar in several basic ways. First, linguistics is descriptive. Second, modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written. Then, modern linguistics does not force languages into a Latin-based framework.
Design features
Design features refer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.
arbitrariness
(1) Language is arbitrary. This means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. A good example is the fact that different sounds are used to refer to the same object in different languages. (2) But it is not entirely arbitrary at all levels. Some words, such as the ones created in the imitation of sounds by sounds are motivated in a certain degree. It is a sign of sophistication and it makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions.
productivity
Language is productive or creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. This is why they can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences, including sentences they have never heard before.
duality/double articulation
Language is a system, which consists of two sets of structures, or two levels. At the lower or the basic level there is a structure of sounds, which are meaningless by themselves. But the sounds of language can be grouped and regrouped into a large number of units of meaning, which are found at the higher level of the system.
displacement
Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. This property provides speakers with an opportunity to talk about a wide range of things, free from barriers caused by separation in time and place.
cultural transmission
Language is culturally transmitted. It cannot be transmitted through heredity.
interchangeability*
Interchangeability refers to the fact that man can both produce and receive messages, and his roles as a speaker and a hearer can be exchanged at ease.
Functions of language
three main functions
descriptive function
It is the function to convey factual information, which can be asserted or denied, and in some cases even verified.
cognitive
referential
propositional
expressive function
It is also called the emotive or attitudinal function, supplies information about the user's feelings, preferences, prejudice and values.
social function
It is also referred to as the interpersonal function, serves to establish and maintain social relations between people.
six elements of a speech event-six functions of language
Roman Jakobson
addresser-emotive
addressee-conative
context-referential
message-poetic
contact-phatic communion
code-metalinguistic
three macrofunctions
M. A. K. Halliday
ideational
It is to organize the speaker or the writer's experience of the real or imaginary world. It corresponds closely to the descriptive function, but it is broader because it also includes the speaker's attitude, evaluation, his feelings and emotions.
interpersonal
It is to indicate, establish, or maintain social relationships between people.
textual
It is to organize written or spoken texts in such a manner that they are coherent within themselves and fit the particular situation in which they are used.
Language and culture
I. Definition of culture（文化的定义） 【考点：名词解释】 (1) Culture, in a broad sense, means the total way of life of a people, including the patterns of belief, customs, objects, institutions, techniques, and language that characterizes the life of the human community. (2) In a narrow sense, culture may refer to local or specific practice, beliefs or customs, which can be mostly found in folk culture, enterprise culture or food culture etc. II. The relationship between language and culture（语言与文化的关系） 【考点：分析异同点】 Since the knowledge and beliefs that constitute a people's culture are habitually encoded and transmitted in the language of the people, it is extremely difficult to separate the two. (1) On the one hand, language as an integral part of human being, permeates his thinking and way of viewing the world, language both expresses and embodies cultural reality. (2) On the other hand, language, as a product of culture, helps perpetuate the culture, and the changes in language uses reflect the cultural changes in return.
Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis
Sapir-Whorf suggests: our language helps mould our way of thinking and consequently, different languages may probably express their unique ways of understanding the world. Sapir and Whorf believe that language filters people's perception and the way they categorize their experiences. This interdependence of language and thought is now known as Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis (SWH).
The strong version (linguistic determinism)
Language may determine our thinking patterns.
The weak version (linguistic relativity)
Similarity between languages is relative. For two different speech communities, the greater their structural differentiations are, the more diverse their conceptualization of the world will be.
language sign
denotative meaning
(denotation): the meaning provided in a dictionary
connotative meaning
(connotation): associative meaning
iconic meaning
(icon): the image or icons invoked to people
bound with cultural encodings or associations
cultural differences in language use
greetings and terms of address
There are at least a dozen different greetings in English. People choose the proper one to greet different people they meet on different occasions. Differently, a Chinese speaker may greet his friends or new acquaintance with “Nin hao” or ”Ni hao” whether they meet for the first time or anytime in the day.
gratitude and compliments
Cultural differences are also evident in the ways gratitude and compliments are expressed. It is noted that people in the West tend to verbalize their gratitude and compliments more than Chinese speakers and that the westerners tend to accept thanks and compliments more directly and frankly than we Chinese do.
colour words
Different languages may have different divisions of colour and different languages entail different color related associations.
privacy and toboos
The western people place a high value on privacy. It is not appropriate for us to ask questions about personal information like age, family background, salary, or questions on personal activities. Moreover, we should be careful to avoid expressions related to sexual intercourse, some organ of human body, four-letter word sand racism etc.
rounding off numbers
Members of a speech community often give preference to the numbers that their community regards as significant. Americans, for instance, prefer to round off number to 4, as in 4 ounces in a quarter pound or 4 quarts in a gallon. A Frenchman, however, would not regard such a number as round at all; he would round off to 5 as he is familiar with the decimal system.
words and cultural-specific connotaions
Generally the semantic differences between two languages may be grouped as the following: a. A term in one language that does not have a counterpart in another language. b. Words or terms in both languages that appear to refer to the same object or concept on the surface, but which actually refer to quite different things. For example “weekend” may stir up different connotations in Chinese and English. c. Things or concepts that are represented by one or perhaps two terms in one language, but by many more terms in the another language, that is, finer distinctions exist in the other language. d. Terms that have more or less the same primary meaning, but which have considerably different secondary or additional meanings.
cultural-related idioms, proverbs and metaphors
Idioms, proverbs and sayings and metaphors in different languages, derived from different origins, also demonstrate cultural differences. Different languages may have different idioms owing to different living environments, social conventions and literature tradition etc. For example, since English people view dog as human being’s best friend, we can find more English expressions with dog than in Chinese. lucky dog: a lucky person clever dog: a clever boy or smart lad
culture contact
Traditionally, there are three kinds of culture contacts: accumulation, assimilation and amalgamation. Despite the differences, there exists a greater or lesser degree of culture overlap between two societies owing to some similarities in the natural environment and psychology of human beings. Through communication, some elements in culture A enter culture B and become part of culture B, thus bring about culture diffusion.
acculturation
Accumulation is the process of changing in material culture, traditional practices, and believes that occurs when one group’s culture system interferes with that of another, directly or indirectly challenging the latter to adapt the ways of the former.
assimilation
Assimilation is the process whereby individuals or groups of differing ethnicity are absorbed into the dominant culture of a society.
amalgamation
Amalgamation occurs when a society becomes ethnically mixed in a way that represents a synthesis rather than the elimination or absorption of one group by anther.
the significance of cultural teaching and learning
When learning a foreign or second language, we should not only learn the mere imitation of the pronunciation, grammar, words and idioms. but also learn to see the world as native speakers do, that is to say, learn the ways in which the foreign language reflects the ideas, customs and behavior of that society, learn to understand their “language of the mind” or acculturation.
intercultural communication
Intercultural communication, also known as cross cultural communication, is communication between people whose cultural perceptions and symbols systems are distinct enough to alter the communication event. It is frequently used to refer to communication between people from different cultures, which implies a comparison between cultures.
Language acquisition
theories of child language acquisition
the behaviorist
(1) Main content ①Traditional behaviorists view language as behavior and believe that language learning is simply a matter of imitation and habit formation. A child imitates the sounds and patterns of the people around him; people recognize the child’s attempts and reinforce the attempts by responding differently, the child repeats the right sounds or patterns to get the reward(reinforcement) ② So imitation and practice are preliminary, discrimination and generalization are key to language development in this theory. Imitation: word for word repetition of all or part of an utterance. (2) Significance The behaviorist theory of child language acquisition offers a reasonable account of how children acquire some of the regular and routine aspects of the language, yet how they acquire more complex grammatical structures of the language requires a different explanation.
the innatist
【考点：名词解释，概念阐述】 (1) Definition Noam Chomsky claims that human beings are biologically programmed for language and that the language develops in the child just as other biological functions, such as walking. (2) Development Originally Chomsky referred to this innate ability as Language Acquisition Device, (also known as LAD). Later Chomsky prefers this innate endowment as Universal Grammar(UG) and holds that if children are pre-equipped with UG, then what they have to learn is the ways in which their own language makes use of these principles and the variations on those principles which may exist in the particular language they are learning. (3) Main content The innatists argue that children could not discover the rules of reflexive pronouns by trial and error. Instead children’s acquisition of these grammatical rules is guided by principles of an innate UG. Different languages have different rules about reflexives, and children seem to be able to “know” the rules by being exposed to a limited number of examples.
the interactionist
The interactionist view holds that language develops as a result of the complex interplay between the human characteristics of the child and the environment in which the child develops. Integrated with the innatist view， the interactionist further claims that the modified language which is suitable for the child’s capability is crucial in his language acquisition.
motherese
child directed speech (CDS)
caretaker talk
cognitive development in child language development
The cognitive factors relate to language acquisition mainly in two ways. 1. Language development is dependent on both the concepts children form about the world and what they feel stimulated to communicate at the early and later stages of their language development. 2. The cognitive factors determine how the child makes sense of the linguistic system himself instead of what meanings the child perceives and expresses. Many careful studies of children’s acquisition sequences and errors in various languages have revealed that children have some “operating principles” for making sense of language data.
Critical Period Hypothesis (CPH)
【考点：名词解释】 1. Definition Eric Lenneberg, a biologist, argued that the LAD, like other biological functions, works successfully only when it is stimulated at the right time—a specific and limited time period for language acquisition—which is referred to as the Critical Period Hypothesis(CPH). 2. Content There are two versions of the CPH. While the strong one suggests that children must acquire their first language by puberty or they will never be able to learn from subsequent exposure. The weak holds that language learning will be more difficult and incomplete after puberty. People now have reached the consensus that there is a critical period for first language acquisition.
stages in child language development
phonological development
Children are born with an ability to discriminate and produce sounds, and the acquisition of sounds is universal across all culture and languages. The sequence in which the sounds are acquired works like a system of prerequisites, that is to say, the child must pass each stage before he can proceed to the next one.
vocabulary development
The most obvious fact about vocabulary development is that it goes hand in hand with the child’s environment. First words are labels for things in the environment. When the child learns a word, he learns not only how to pronounce the word but also the meaning of each form and how each form is different in meaning from every other form.
semantic features
under-extension
over-extension
the extension of categories or analogies
the extension of family resemblances
lexical contrast
prototype
grammatical development
While children are increasing their mastery of grammatical morphemes, they are also increasing their ability to carry out “transformations” of the basic sentence structure so as to produce more complex utterances. This grammatical development is partly a matter of growing “competence”(in the sense of underlying knowledge) and partly a matter of increasing “performance” capacity.
pragmatic development
While children are acquiring morpho-syntax and vocabulary, they are also acquiring pragmatics, or how to speak to others in an appropriate manner. These include, for example, the greetings to be used, the taboo words, the polite forms of address and the various styles appropriate to different speech situations of his community.
atypical development
hearing impairment
hearing impairment(which can be slight or severe and may lead to minor loss or total lack of language)
mental retardation
mental retardation(which may cause a delayed language acquisition)
autism
autism(language impairment from the very beginning)
stuttering
stuttering(repetition of sounds, syllables, or phrases where the speaker can not “release” the words)
aphasia
aphasia(partial or total loss of language due to brain damage)
dyslexia and dysgraphia
dyslexia and dysgraphia (disorders in reading and writing which may be acquired or developmental)
Second language acquisition (SLA)
I. Definition of SLA 【考点：名词解释】 Second language acquisition(SLA), formally established itself as a discipline around the 1970s, refers to the systematic study of how one person acquires a second language subsequent to his native language. II. Connections and differences between first language acquisition and second language acquisition 1. Connections The first language study has served as a backcloth for perceiving and understanding new facts about second language learning. 2. Differences Second language acquisition, just as the term itself suggests, is different from first language acquisition and the second language learners generally fail to attain native—like competence. The language they produce, which is called interlanguage (IL) or learner language, tends to become fossilized at certain level.
Contrastive Analysis (CA)
Starting with describing comparable features of the native language and target language’(e. g. tense, words or expressions etc.), contrastive analysis compares the forms and meanings across the two languages to spot the mismatches or differences. 
Error Analysis (EA)
The errors are significant in telling the teacher what needs to be taught, in telling the researcher how learning proceeds and those errors are a means whereby learners test their hypotheses about the language to be learnt. 
interlingual errors
The interlingual errors mainly result from cross-1inguistic interference at different levels such as phonological, lexical, grammatical or discoursal etc.
intralingual errors
The intralingual errors mainly result from faulty or partial leaning of the target language, independent of the native language. There are learning strategies-based errors, communication strategies-based errors, induced errors, and some compound and ambiguous errors.
overgeneralization
Overgeneralization is defined as the use of previously available strategies in new situations. In second language learning some of these strategies prove helpful in organizing the facts about the second language.
cross-association
In English we sometimes may come across words which are similar in meaning. Their spelling and pronunciation are also alike. The close association of the two often leads to confusion. This aspect of internal interference is often referred as cross association.
interlanguage
Proposed by S. Pit Corder and Larry Selinker, the concept of interlanguage was established as learners’ independent system of the second language which is of neither the native language nor the second language, but a continuum or approximation from his native language to the target language.
systematicity
permeability
fossilization
fossilization: a process occurring from time to time in which incorrect linguistic features become a permanent part of the way a person speaks or writes a language. Aspects of pronunciation, vocabulary usage, and grammar may become fixed or fossilized in second or foreign language learning.
Input Hypothesis
Krashen’s Input Hypothesis: Krashen assumed that there were two independent means or routes of second language, acquisition and learning.
acquisition
Acquisition is a process similar to the way children acquire their first language, it is a subconscious process without minute learning of grammatical rules. Learners can hardly be aware of their learning but they are using the language to communicate.
learning
Learning as another route is a conscious learning of the second language knowledge by learning the rules and talking about the rules.
the role of native language
language transfer
【考点：阐述】 1. Definition of language transfer In the heyday of behaviorism, learners’ use of prior linguistic information(chiefly his mother tongue) or some physically carryover of native language surface to a second language context (e.g. “to touch the society” the direct transfer from Chinese collocation to English collocation), is namely language transfer. 2. Factors in determining language transfer in second language learning a) a learner’s psychology, how a learner organize his or her native language; b) perception of native-target language distance； c) actual knowledge of the target language.
Influences of native language
(1) The native language influences not only occur as direct linguistic reflexes at phonological, lexical, semantic, syntactical or discoursal levels; (2) but also directly reflect underlying organizational principles of languages at cognitive 1evel. (3) L1 transfer may result in learners’ avoidance of certain target language structures, different learning rates, overproductionand different learning paths etc.
individual differences
language aptitude
It refers to a natural ability for learning a second language. It is believed to be related to a learner’s general intelligence. John Carroll once identified some components of language aptitude: phonemic coding ability, grammatical sensitivity, inductive language learning ability, and rote learning ability.
motivation
Motivation, defined as the learner’s attitudes and affective state or learning drive, has a strong impact on his efforts in learning a second language. ① All types of motivation promote learning and they are complementary to each other. ② Learners’ motivation may ebb and flow at times and in accordance with their particular interests, learning involvement and the learning context. ③ As learners’ strong motivation promotes their learning, their learning progress or achievement will in return enhance their language learning motivation further.
instrumental motivation
Instrumental motivation: which occurs when people learn a foreign language for external goals such as passing exams, financial rewards or furthering a career etc.
integrative motivation
Integrative motivation: the drive that people learn a foreign language because of the wish to identify with the target culture.
resultative motivation
Resultative motivation: learners learn a second language for external purposes.
intrinsic motivation
Intrinsic motivation: learners learn the second language for enjoyment or pleasure from learning.
learning stategies
Learning strategies are learners’ conscious, goal-oriented and problemsolving based efforts to achieve learning efficiency.
cognitive strategies
metacognitive strategies
affect/social strategies
age of acquistion
So far, most study results support the hypothesis that in terms of learning achievement and grammaticality, the younger learners outperform the adults.
personality
Talkative, self-esteem, self-confidence can be found in successful second language learners. Certain personality traits appear helpful in completing certain tasks in learning a second language.
classroom learning
modified input
modified interaction
focus on form
Words
Open class
nouns
countable nouns
有固定的量化单位 → 量化单位被省略 → 变身可数名词 因此， a cup of coffee 可直接表述为 a coffee —— 一杯咖啡。 类似地，还有很多量化单位固定的可数名词。 如： 一把椅子 → a （把）chair 一张桌子 → a （张）desk 一本书 → a（本）book 一条街道 → a （条）street 一支笔 → a （支）pen 一辆车 → a (辆)car
uncountable nouns
无固定的量化单位 → 量化单位不可省 → 变身不可数名词 对于“水”这一事物， 我们很难用一个相对固定的单位 对其进行量化，我们会说： 一滴水 → a drop of water 一杯水 → a glass of water 一碗水 → a bowl of water 一桶水 → a bucket of water
verbs
adjectives
adverbs
Closed class
conjunctions
prepositions
articles
pronouns
Distinctions in linguistics
1）
descriptive
If a linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive.
prescriptive
If the linguistic study aims to lay down rules for “correct and standard” behavior in using language, it is said to be prescriptive. i. e. to tell people what they should say and what they should not say
2）
synchronic
The description of a language at some point of time in history is a synchronic study. In modem linguistics, a synchronic approach seems to enjoy priority over a diachronic one.
diachronic
The description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study. A diachronic study of language is a historical study; it studies the historical development of language over a period of time.
3）
Speech and writing are the two major media of linguistic communication.
speech
Modern linguistics regards the spoken language as the natural or the primary medium of human language.
writing
4）Swiss linguist F. de Saussure:
Saussure distinguished the linguistic competence of the speaker and the actual phenomena or data of linguistics (utterances) as langue and parole. He believes what linguists should do is to abstract langue from parole, to discover the regularities governing the actual use of language and make them the subjects of study of linguistics.
langue
Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community.
parole
Parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use.
5）Chomsky:
Chomsky made the fundamental difference between competence and performance. He believes the task of the linguists is to discover and specify the language rules. Linguists should study the ideal speaker's competence, not his performance.
competence
A language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules is called his linguistic competence.
performance
Performance refers to the actual use of language in concrete situations.
① Saussure's distinction and Chomsky's are very similar. ② They differ at least in that Saussure took a sociological view of language and his notion of langue is a matter of social conventions, and Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view and to him competence is a property of the mind of each individual.
6）
traditional grammar
Latin-based framework
prescriptive
writing
modern linguistics
Saussure’s book Course in General Linguistics symbolizes the beginning of Modern Linguistics.
descriptive
speech
In what basic ways does modern linguistics differ from traditional grammar? (1) Linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive. (2) Modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written. (3) Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar also in that it does not force languages into a Latin-based framework.