语言学教程形态学和句法学思维导图

语言学教程术语表第一章phonologygrammar语法学morphology形态学syntax句法学lexicology词汇学generallinguistics普通语言学theoreticallinguistics理论语言学historicallinguistics

Structure结构

• Words and Morphology
  • What is a word
    • The characteristic of word: a minimal free form of a language
    • Classification of words
      • Variable and Invariable Words eg: write, writes vs. since, when
      • Grammatical/Function Words and Lexical/Content Words eg: pron., art., prep vs. n., v., adj., adv
      • Open-class Words and Closed-class Words eg: n., v., adj., adv vs. pron., prep., art.…
      • Simple word and complex word eg:nature vs. naturalist
      • Word class eg: particle, auxiliaries, determiners
  • Morpheme词素
    • Definition: the smallest meaningful unit of a language
    • Morphemes classification
      • Structurally
        • Free morphemes 自由词素
          • Lexical morpheme 词汇词素
          • Functional morpheme 功能词素
        • Bound morphemes 粘着词素
          • Derivative morpheme 派生词素 eg: good-goodness
          • Inflectional morpheme 曲折词素 eg: small-smaller
      • Semantically
        • Root 词根: The base form of a word that cannot be further analyzed without loss of identity.
        • Stem 词干: A stem is any morpheme or combinations of morphemes to which bounded morpheme be added. It may be the same as a root.
        • Affix 词缀
          • 按功能
            • Derivational affix 派生词缀 eg: re-, -ness
            • Inflectional affix 屈折词缀 eg: -'s, -ed
          • 按结构
            • Prefix 前缀 eg: dis-, re-
            • Infix 中缀(英语中通常没有)
            • Suffix 后缀 eg: -ness, -ful
            • Circumfix 环缀: a prefix and a suffix attached to a root or stem, as the a and -ing in a-going.
      • Allomorph 词素变体
        • A single morpheme may be phonetically realized as two or more morphs. The different morphs that represent or which are derived from one morpheme is called the allomorphs of that morpheme. eg:1) The plural in English -[z], [s], [iz] (语音变形) 2)Negation in English -ir, il, in, im, dis, un… (单词变形)
  • Morphological Processes-word formation
    • Derivation 派生
      • Derivation refers to the morphological process of forming a lexeme attaching an affix to anexisting lexeme. Affixes involved in derivation are derivational affixes or derivational morphemes.
      • Derivation involves the change of the category of the existing lexeme. It is called categorization(词类化). (n., v., adj., adv.) eg: teach-er, en-joy, joy-ful
    • Zero-derivation(Conversion) 零派生
      • 没有词缀却变了词类 eg:1) Please send me an e-mail. 2) E-mail me please.
    • Compounding 复合
      • Compounding yields new lexemes, which involves the combination of lexemes, instead of a lexemes and an affix. There are three types: attributive compounds, coordinative compounds and subordinative compounds. 词位的结合，没有词缀参与。
        • type 1
          • attributive compounds 修饰型复合词 eg: blackmail, bookstore
          • coordinative compounds 并列型复合词 eg: teacher-student, prince-consort
          • subordinative compounds 从属型复合词 eg: truck-driver(构成动宾关系通常有破折号)
        • type 2
          • synthetic coumpound 合成型复合词 eg: -student-teacher 有派生
          • root compound 根复合词 eg: blackmail 无派生
    • Inflection 屈折
      • The morphological process of inflection does not give rise to a new lexeme, but only yields different word forms of the same lexemes. Inflection does not change the meaning of the base lexeme, nor does it change its category. 不产生新词尾，意思不变，词类不变。
        • requirement of grammar
        • more productive
    • Other ways of word formation
      • Blending 混成法
        • Blending is another way of forming a new lexeme, which is a process of combining parts of two lexemes which themselves are not morphemes. eg: brunch, Brexit
      • Coinage 新创法
        • eg: iPhone
      • Backformation 逆序造词
        • eg: surveillance - surveilleburglar - burgle
      • Clipping 截断法
        • eg: refrigerator - fridge, demonstration - demo
      • Acronyms 首字母缩略词
        • eg: World Trade Organization-WTO (不可读)
      • Initialisms 首字母缩写词
        • eg: NATO, TOFEL, IELTS (可读)
• Syntax句法学
  • Syntactic Relations 句法关系
    • positional relation 位置关系
      • Positional relation or word order (词序)，refers to the sequential arrangement of words in a language.
    • relation of substitutability 替代关系
      • The relation of substitutabilityrefers to classes or sets of words substitutable for each other grammartically in sentences with the same structure.
    • relation of Co-Occurrence 同现关系
      • The relation of co-occurrence means that words of different sets of clauses may permit, or require, the occurrence of a word of another set or class to form a sentence or a particular partof a sentence.不同词的搭配使用 The relations of co-occurrence partly belong to syntagmatic relations, partly to paradigmaticrelations.同现关系部分属于横组合关系，部分属于纵聚合关系。
        • eg: girl
          • A pretty
          • The tallest
          • The African
  • Grammatical Construction and lts Constituents 语法结构和成分
    • Constructions
      • External syntax 外部结构：短语、小句等
      • Internal syntax 内部结构：主语、谓语、宾语、限定词等
    • Constituents
      • Constituents is a term used in structural sentence analysis for every linguistic unit, which is a part of a larger linguistic unit. 若干个成分共同组成一个结构。
        • Immediate Constituents 直接成分
        • Immediate Constituent Analysis/IC analysis 直接成分分析法 P69
          • Proposed by American linguist Leonard Bloomfield
          • tree diagram 树形图
          • bracketing 括号法
    • 句法结构根据成分的分布分为
      • Endocentric and Exocentric Constructions 向心结构和离心结构
        • Endocentric construction 向心结构
          • Endocentric construction is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent to that of one ormore of its constituents, i.e. a word or a group of words, which serves as a definable CENTRE or HEAD. 有中心词
            • noun phrase 名词短语
            • verb phrase 动词短语
            • adjective phrase 形容词短语
        • Exocentric construction 离心结构
          • Exocentric construction is just the opposite of endocentric construction. It refers to a group ofsyntactically related words where none of the words is functionally equivalent to the group as a Whole, that is, there is no definable "Centre" or "Head"inside the group. It usually includes basic sentence, prepositional phrase, predicate construction, and connective construction. 无中心词
            • basic sentence 句子
            • prepositional phrase 介词短语
            • predicate construction 动宾结构
            • connective construction 系表结构
    • 句法结构根据成分的关系把向心结构分为
      • coordination 并列关系
      • subordination 从属关系
  • Syntactic Function 句法功能
    • Subject 主语
      • grammartical subject（语法主语）eg.John was bitten by a dog. John是语法主语
      • logical subject（逻辑主语）eg.John was bitten by a dog. a dog是逻辑主语
      • 主语的特征 P75
    • Predicate 谓语
    • Object 宾语
  • Category 范畴
    • Category refers to classes and functions in its narrow sense, e.g.noun, verb, subject, etc. Morespecifically, it refers to the defining properties of these general units: the categories of the noun,for example, include number, gender, case and countability; and of the verb, for example, tense,aspect, voice, and so on.
      • Number 数
        • Number is the grammatical category for the analysis of word classes displaying such contrasts as singular, dual and plural, etc.Number is also reflected in the inflections of pronouns and verbs.
      • Gender 性
        • Natural gender
          • she/he
        • Grammatical gender
      • Case 格
        • Case is a special form of the noun which frequently corresponds to a combination of prepositionand noun, and it is realized in three channels:
          • eg: 1) teacher vs. teacher's 2) a man vs. him 3)John kicked Pete. vs. Peter kicked John.
  • Phrase，Clause and Sentence 短语、小句和句子
    • phrase 短语
      • Phrase is a single element of structure containing more than one word, and lacking the subject predicate structure typical of clauses.超过一个词，没有主谓结构
        • (1)A phrase must be a group of words which form a constituent.
        • (2)A phrase is lower on the grammatical hierarchy than clauses
      • group vs. phrase
        • A group is an extension of a word whereas a phrase is a contraction of a clause.A group is a bloated word whereas a phrase is a shrunken clause.
          • Group: the boy; has worked; very happy
          • Phrase: on the mat; for him
    • clause 小句
      • A clause is a constituent with its own subject and predicate, if it is included in a larger sentence.Clause can be classified into FINITE and NON-FINITE clauses, the later including the traditional infinitive phrase, participial phrase, and gerundial phrase.有主谓结构
        • FINITE clauses（限定） ：主谓清楚 有主框架
        • NON-FINITE clauses（非限定）：不定式、现分、动名词
          • infinitive phrase 不定式短语
          • participial phrase 分词短语
          • gerundial phrase 动名词短语
    • sentence 句子
      • Sentence is the minimum part of language that expresses a complete thought.
        • sentence
          • indicative 直陈句
            • interrogative 疑问句
              • yes/no
              • wh-
            • declarative 陈述句
          • imperative 祈使句
            • jussive 命令句
            • optative 请求句
  • Recusiveness 递归性
    • It mainly means that a constituent can be embedded within another constituent having the same category.一个短语成分可以嵌入到相同范畴的成分中。
      • conjoining 连接
      • embedding 嵌入
        • complement clause 补语从句
        • adjunct/adverbial clause 状语从句
        • relative clause 关系从句
      • hypotactic and paratactic 主从和并联
  • Beyond the sentence 句子之外
    • Text（语篇）：文本要连贯 衔接is more than a random set of words，it should be overtly connected and convertly cohered：it shows connctedness.
    • Discourse（话语）：不是文本
    • sentential connection（句子的连接）
      • cohesion 衔接
        • reference 指称
        • substitution 替代
        • ellipsis 省略
        • conjunction 连接
        • lexical collocation 词汇搭配
      • coherence 连贯
  • Syntax Approaches
    • Structural Approach 结构主义学派
      • Syntagmatic and Paragidmatic relations
      • Immediate constituent analysis
      • Endocentric and extrocentic constructions
      • Coordination and subordination
    • Generative Approach 生成学派
• Immediate Constituent Analysis/IC analysis （直接成分分析法）
  • 成分A句子本身：The schoolmaster drove the car.
    • 成分B：the schoolmaster
    • 成分C：drove the car
  • 成分B和C是成分A的直接成分
• paradigmatic relations（纵聚合关系）
  • is not allowed. smoking singing
    • vertical relation
    • choice relation
  • relation of substitutability
• syntagamatic relations（横组合关系）
  • SVO,VSO,OVS,OSV
    • horizontal relation
    • chain relation
  • positional relation
• syntax（句法学）
  • Syntax is the study of rules governing the ways different constituents are combined to form sentences in a language,or the study of the interrelationship between elements insentence structures.
• Morphology形态学
  • A branch of linguistics which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed from smaller components-morphemes.
• The difference between derivation and inflection
  • ① inflection is solely the requirement of grammar
  • ② inflectional rules are more productive than derivational ones
  • ③ inflection never change the category of the base lexeme, derivation changes the category
  • ④ inflection never changes the meaning of the base laxeme