导图社区 第十二课上How Dictionaries Are Made各类词书
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编辑于2022-09-03 07:08:33How Dictionaries Are Made 各类词书都是怎样编成的
主题
It is widely believed that every word has a correct meaning, that we learn these meanings mainly from teachers and grammarians, and that dictionaries and grammars are the supreme authority in matters of meaning and usage. Few people ask by what authority the writers of dictionaries and grammars say what the say. I once got into a dispute with an English woman over the pronunciation of a word and offered to look it up in the dictionary. The English woman said firmly, "What for? I am English. I was born and brought up in England. The way I speak is English." Such self-assurance about one's own language is fairly common among the English. In the United States, however, anyone who is willing to quarrel with the dictionary is regarded as either eccentric or mad.
人们普遍认为每个单词都有准确的词义,人们还认为我们主要是向教师和语法学家们学习这些词义,人们还谥为一切词典和语法书都是解释词义和词的用法的最高权威。几乎没有人会提出这样的问题:词典和语法的编著者们根据什么权威资料来说出他们所说的那些话。我有一次曾和一位英国妇女争论过一个英语单词的发音。我让她查一查英语词典。这位英国妇女坚定地说:"还查词典干什么?我是英国人。我生在英国,长在英国。我讲的话是英语"。在全体英格兰人当中这种对自己语言的十分自信的态度是相当普遍的。可是,在美国,若是有人想同词典争论,那或者会被认为是颠狂或者是疯子。
Let us see how dictionaries are made and how the editors arrive at definitions. What follows applies only to those dictionary offices where first-hand, original research goes on - not those in which editors simply copy existing dictionaries. The task of writing a dictionary begins with the reading of vast amounts of the literature of the period or subject that the dictionary is to cover. As the editors read, they copy on cards every interesting or rare word, every unusual or peculiar occurrence of a common word, a large number of common words in their ordinary uses, and also the sentences in which each of these words appears.
让我们来看看各类词书都是怎样编成的,看看编者们是怎样给每个词条下定义的。下面所述的方法是那些汇集第一手的原始研究资料的词典编纂机构所采用的,而不是那些只是简单地抄一抄现有的一些词典的内容的那些编词典的机构所采用的方法。编词典的工作始于博览所编的词书内容所包括的该段时期里该门学科内有关的浩瀚的文献资料。在词书编者们博览群书的过程中,他们把每一个有趣的词汇,罕见的词汇,每一个普通词汇的不普通的特别的用法,大量常见词的种种常见的用法,以及这些词汇所出现的例句都一一作成卡片。
That is to say, the context of each word is collected, along with the word itself. For a really big job of dictionary writing, such as the Oxford English Dictionary, millions of such cards are collected, and the task of editing occupies decades. As the cards are collected, they are alphabetized and sorted. When the sorting is completed, where will be for each word anywhere from two or three to several hundred quotations, each on its card.
这也就是说,不但要汇集该词汇,而且还要把每个词所出现的上下文语言环境也汇集起来。对于编写词典这样十分庞大的工程来说,例如编像《牛津英语大词典》之类,要汇集数百万张卡片。因此要完成这样一部巨著需要费时数十年。在汇集卡片的过程中,要把卡片按字母顺序排列加以分类整理。分类整理工作完成之后,整本词典不论在任何位置上的单词都应当有从二三句到数百个例句的引文出现在该单词的卡片上。
To define a word, then, the dictionary editor places before him the stack of cards illustrating that word; each of the cards represents an actual use of the word by a writer of some literary or historical importance. He reads the cards carefully, discards some, re-reads the rest, and divides up the stack according to what he thinks are the several senses of the word. Finally, he writes his definitions, following the hard-and-fast rule that each definition must be based on what the quotations in front of him reveal about the meaning of the word. The editor cannot be influenced by what the thinks a given word ought to mean. He must work according to the cards, or not at all.
为了确定单词的义项,然后,词典的编者就把能说明该单词用法的那一堆卡片摆在自己的面前;每一张卡片都阐明了某一文学作品或某一重要历史文献的作者对该单词的实际用法。词典编者要仔细认真地研读,再根据词典编者认为单词所含有的几个义项将这一推卡片加以分类。最后词典编者写出每个义项的定义,在下定义时,编者必须遵守这样一条不容改变的铁的规则:那就是每个义项的定义编者必须根据摆在面前那些卡片上的例句所含有的该词的词义来写。词典编者不能接受到自己认为某词应该有某个义项的这一想法的影响。词典的编者必须根据所汇集的卡片来编词典,不然的话,就根本不必去汇集那些卡片了。
The writing of a dictionary, therefore, is not a task of setting up authoritative statements about the "true meanings" of words, but a task of recording, to the best of one's ability, what various words have meant to authors in the distant or immediate past. If, for example, we had been writing a dictionary in 1890, or even as late as 1919, we could have said that the word "broadcase" means "to scatter" (seed, for example), but we could not have states that from 1921 on, the most common meaning of the word should become "to send out programs by radio or television." In choosing our words when we speak or write, we can be guided by the historical record provided us by the dictionary, but we cannot be bound by it, because new situations, new experiences, new inventions, new feelings, are always forcing us to give new uses to old words. Looking under a "hood," we should ordinarily have found, five hundred years ago, a monk; today, we find a car engine.
因此,编写一部词典并不是这样一种工作:编者以权威的身份给所有的单词都规定出一些所谓的"真正的词义";编写词典是一种记录工作,编者要尽自己的最大努力记录下在很久以前或在最近刚出版的著作中,各种不同的的单词所具有的意义。例如,如果我们是在 1890年或者迟至 1919 年或者迟至在 1919 年编写一本词典,我们本来可以说 broadcast 这个词的意思是"撒播"(例如:撒播种子),但是从 1921 年起我们就不能再这样说了。从 1921 年起这个词最普遍的意义应该是"通过收音机或电视机播出节目"。当我们说话或写作时在精选推敲用词方面,我们要依词典提供给我们历史上的记录为准绳,但也不能受词典上的记录所束缚,因为一些新的情况,新的经历,新的发明,新的感情总是迫使我们给旧的词汇赋予新的用法。我们查一下"hood"这个词,就会发现,在 500 年前,意思是"修道士"(a monk),今天这一词条下的解释却是汽车引擎或汽车发动机。
New words
主要的
main
[meɪn]
adj. 主要的;
n. 主管道; 水源; (水等)供应系统;
来自古英语maegen,能力,力量,强壮,来自PIE*magh,使有能力,赋予力量,词源同machine,magic,might.引申词义主要的,最重要的。原词义见短语might and main,尽全力。拼写比较dainty,fain,rain.
mainly
[ˈmeɪnli]
adv. 主要地; 大多;
mainland
[ˈmeɪnlænd]
n. 大陆; 本土;
I don't know what his interests are, because we talk mainly about work when we meet.
(我不知道他的兴趣是什么,因为我们见面时主要谈工作。)
The visitors were mainly students from Mainland China.
(来访者多半是来自中国大陆的学生。)
He quit the job mainly because of health problem.
(他辞了那份工用是由于健康原因。)
语法
gram
[ɡræm]
n. 绿豆; 鹰嘴豆; 绿豆种子; 克;
-gram-写,画 → (原义)在重量上写的一个字母 词源同carve,graph. 后指文字,字母。
grammar
[ˈɡræmə(r)]
n. 语法; 语法书; (学术的)基本原理; (人的)语言知识及运用能力;
-gram-(m双写)写,画 + -ar人或物
gram, 刻,写
gramma(字母)的形容词
grammar原指拉丁语的语法,意思是“字母的技巧”
graphein(画、写)
diagram(图表)、graph(图形)、program(程序)。
grammarian
[ɡrəˈmeəriən]
n. 文法家,文法教师,文法学者;
-ian 或-an 是一个名词后缀,表示“…地方的人”,“精通…的人”,“信奉…的 人”,
American(美国人),Italian(意大利人),Musician(音乐家),Historian(历史学家),Confucian(儒家),Christian(基督徒)
grammatical
[grəˈmætɪkl]
adj. 语法上的,符合语法规则的;
很大的
supreme
[suːˈpriːm]
adj. 最高的; 至高的,无上的; 最重要的; (程度)很大的;
来源于拉丁语介词super(上,超过)派生的形容词superus的最高级supremus。 super-上,超过 → supreme
前缀 super- (sur-,supr-,sop-,sopr-,sove-) = over,above 来自拉丁介副词super,意为“over",还有“over,above,beyond,than,more,excessively”的含义。
super- 既可以作为原生前缀存在拉丁借词中,也可以作为派生前缀跟名词、形容词及动词相缀合,构成许多常用词,与super结合的单词,多是拉丁借词,本族语词较少。这些派生词都是17世纪出现的的,此外,在构词过程,派生前缀super- 一般不改变词基单词的词性。
He enjoys supreme power in this country
(他在这个国家享有至高无上的权力。)
They are fulfilling a task of supreme importance.
(他们正在完成一项极其重要的任务。)
No one expected that he would change his idea at the supreme moment.
(谁也没料到他会在决定性的时刻改变主意。)
Supreme court(美国联邦(州)最高法院。)
The supreme commander (最高统帅)
Supreme Soviet (前苏联最高苏维埃)
权威
author
[ˈɔːθə(r)]
n. 作者; 作家; 发起人;
v. 创作,撰写;
来自法语autor, 父亲。词源同auct, 创造,增加。字母c脱落,又受希腊语影响添加字母h.
aug,auct(aux) = to increase(增加),to make to grow(使产生) 词根来自拉丁语的aug,auct意为to increase。
Her father is the author of the book Focus on the Learner.
authority
[ɔːˈθɒrəti]
n. 当局; 当权者; 职权; 权力; 权限; 威信; 影响力; 许可; 权威人士,专家;
auth(-auct-)增加→创造→权威 + -or名词词尾,行为 + -ity名词词尾
The government is the highest authority in the country
The government is the highest authority in the country
(政府是国家的最高权利机构)
Have you talked it over with the authorities concerned?
(你已经跟有关当局讨论过这个问题了吗?)
What authority do you have for entering this house?
(你有什么权利进这个屋子?)
Who is the authority on this subject?
(谁是这门学科的权威?)
Chinese parents have more authority over their children
(中国的父母对孩子更有权威。)
authoritative
[ɔːˈθɒrətətɪv]
adj. 权威的,有威信的; 命令式的;
Don't be so authoritative when you ask me to do something.
用
use
[juːs]
n. (使)用; 用法; 用途,功能; 使用权; 使用价值;
-us-用 + -e
词根ut,uti,util,us = to use(使用) 来自拉丁语的uti(=to use),过去分词usus 意为 to use。
We may make good use of the ads to compare the prices of goods.
我们可以充分利用广告来比较商品的价格。
Just use your imagination to picture what could become of her.
用你的想象力想象一下她会变成什么样子。
used
[juːzd,juːst]
adj. 习惯于,适应;
Used cars are priced at a small part of their original cost.
二手车的价格只有原价的一小部分。
useful
[ˈjuːsfl]
adj. 有用的,有益的,有帮助的; 令人满意的;
usage
[ˈjuːsɪdʒ]
n. 使用; 用法; 习惯; 惯例;
He bought a dictionary of modern English usage yesterday.
It's difficult to master the usage of these grammatical forms.
(要掌握这些语法形式的用法很困难。)
That phrase has gone out of usage.
(那短语已不再为大家所惯用。)
Usage 常表示语言等的“用法”,“使用”,“惯用法”,我们不能说 incorrect usage,而应该说 incorrect use.
useless
[ˈju:sləs]
adj. 无用的,无效的;无价值的;差劲的;不怎么样的;
辩论
dispute
[dɪˈspjuːt]
v. 质疑; 辩论,争论; 争夺;
n. 争论,争端,纠纷;
dis-, 分开,散开。-put, 思考,词源同compute, putative. 即不同的思考,引申词义争论。
put = to think 来自拉丁语的put 意为 to think。
They are disputing with each other on/about the ownership of the territory.
(他们正在就领土所有权问题进行争论。)(dispute 做不及物动词用)
territory
[ˈterətri]
n. 领土; 地盘; 范围;
They disputed how to get the best results.
(他们争论如何才能取得最好的效果。) (dispute 作及物动词用)
Your honesty has never been disputed.
(没有人怀疑过你的诚实。)(dispute 作及物动词用)
There has been much dispute, and the question is certainly not yet settled
(争论很多,所以这个问题当然还没解决。)(dispute 作不可数名词用)
They lived together happily without disputes.
( 他们快乐地生活在一起,没有任何争吵。)(dispute 作可数名词用)
Her ability to do the job is not in dispute.
(对她的工作能力人们没有疑问。)
自信
sure
[ʃʊə(r)]
adj. 肯定的,有把握的; 一定的,无疑的; 可靠的; 沉着自信的;
adv. (表示同意)当然; (加强语气)确实; (回答他人的感谢)不客气;
-sur-确信 + -e
词根 sur = certain(确定的),secure(安全的) 来自拉丁语的securue意为certain(确定的),secure(安全的)。sur在这里是一个词根,它还是一个前缀sur-,意思表示“在...之上”。
assure
[əˈʃʊə(r)]
v. 使确信; 查明; 人寿保险;
assure = as(=ad,使)+sure(确信的)→使确信→保证
Please assure my parents that I am safe and sound.
(请让我父母放心我安全而健康。)
I can assure you of the reliability of the information.
(我可以向你保证这消息是可靠的。)
reliability
[rɪˌlaɪə'bɪlɪti]
n. 可靠,可信赖;
reliable + -ity
reliable
[rɪˈlaɪəbl]
adj. 可信赖的; 可靠的;
re-再;回 + -li-捆 + -able形容词词尾
This film had assured him a place in movie history.
(这部影片保证了他在电影史上的地位。)
assurance
[əˈʃʊərəns]
n. 保证; 自信; (人寿)保险;
I have full assurance of the feasibility of the plan.
(我充分相信这个计划的可行性。)
feasibility
[ˌfiːzəˈbɪlɪti]
n. 可行性
feas(-fac-)做,作 + -ibility名词词尾
"He will be here soon", said Mary with assurance.
(“他很快会到这儿”,玛丽很有把握地说。)
He gave us the assurance that he wouldn't let out the secret.
(他向我们保证他不会泄露秘密。)
secret
[ˈsiːkrət]
adj. 秘密的,保密的; 隐秘的; 神秘的;
n. 秘密,机密; 诀窍; 奥秘;;
self-assurance
[ˌselfəˈʃu:rəns]
n. 自信;
His self-assurance was based upon his faith in his own ability
(他的自信基于他坚信自己的能力。)
faith
[feɪθ]
n. 信任; 宗教信仰; 宗教;
-fid-信任 → faith
His self-assurance enabled him to pull through difficulties.
(他的自信使他能够渡过困难。)
pull through 渡过难关;恢复健康
守卫
regard
[rɪˈɡɑːd]
v. 认为,看待; 注视;
I regard it as difficult.
(我认为这事是困难的。)
They are regarded as the best table-tennis players.
(他们被看作为最好的乒乓球运动员。)
tennis
[ˈtenɪs]
n. 网球;
它源自古法语tenez“抓住,接住”。词根ten表“抓住,拿住”,我们在单词中常见的tain即是同源,如contain(包含),attain(达到),obtain(获得)。
n. 尊敬,敬佩; 关注; 问候,致意;
Give my regards to your parents.
(请代我问候你的父母。)
My regard for him grew day by day.
(我对他的尊敬与日俱增。)
You have to pay regard to public opinions.
(你得重视舆论。)
He was regarded highly by his students.
(他很受学生们的尊敬。)
re-回 + -gard-看 → 往回看 同源词:guard, garage, ward, award, reward, warn, wary, beware, garrison
按语音学的观点,日耳曼语中的w在罗曼语系中会变为g(u);史前日耳曼语war-(看管,看护,谨慎,小心,)产生了意大利语guardare、西班牙语guardar和法语garder。法语garder不仅产生了英语词汇guard,其词干-gard-(看管,看护)在英语中还产生了regard等词汇。
guard
[ɡɑːd]
v. 守卫; 看守; 保护;
n. 卫兵; 看守; 列车长; 保护装置; 防守姿势; 警卫队; 后卫; 哨锋;
单词guard和词根gard同源,表“注意,看”,引申为“看守”。
regard,re-前缀“往回”,gard为词根“注意,看”,因而它有“把...看做;注视”的意思。regard还表“尊敬”,可与respect(尊敬)的构词进行对比,两者的词根意思相近。
编辑
edit
[ˈedɪt]
v. 剪辑; 编辑; 主编;
e-, 向外。-dit, 给予,词源同date, donate.
dot,don(dow,dos),dat(dit) = to give(给) 词根来源于拉丁语的donare,donum 意为to give。与此相似的还有dat及其变形dit。
They are going to edit a book for children.
editor
[ˈedɪtə(r)]
n. 主编,编辑; 记者; 剪辑员; 编者; 编辑程序;
She is a reporter as well as an editor.
她既是编辑又是记者。
edition
[ɪˈdɪʃn]
n. 版本,版次; 一集;
The first edition of the book was 20000 copies.
发生
occur
[əˈkɜː(r)]
v. 发生; 存在于;
oc-来临 + -curr-流,跑 → 事情跑过来即为“发生”,事情跑入脑中即为“想起”
cur,curs ( cor,cour,cours,coars) = to run 来自拉丁语的cur,curs 意为to run 同义词根有来自拉丁语的lop,来自希腊语的drom,以及来自盎格鲁-撒克逊语的run。此外,还有意为vehicle 的car/char等。
Don't let the tragedy occur again.
(不要让这样的悲剧再次发生。)
tragedy
[ˈtrædʒədi]
n. 悲剧,惨剧; 悲剧文学; 悲剧理论,悲剧表演艺术; 悲剧式作品;
These animals occur in Africa only.
(这些动物只在非洲才有。)
It occurred to me that I didn't ask for his telephone number.
(我想起没有要他的电话号码。)
A good idea occurred to him
(他想到了一个好主意。)
occurrence
[əˈkʌrəns]
n. 发生,出现; 遭遇,事件;
Researchers are trying hard to find ways to reduce the occurrence of cancer.
(研究人员正努力寻求减少癌症发病率的方法。)
reduce
[rɪˈdjuːs]
v. 减少,缩小; 使变成; 节食; 使不得不; 使沦为(不好境地); (使)浓缩;
re-回 + + -duc-引导 + -e → 向后引导 → 缩退,还原
cancer
[ˈkænsə(r)]
n. 癌; 癌症; 邪恶; 毒瘤;
The occurrence took place in 1978.
(这一事件发生于 1978 年。)
占用
occupy
[ˈɒkjupaɪ]
v. 居住; 占用; 占领; 担任; 使忙碌; 占…;
The village was occupied by the enemy.
(村子被敌人占领了。)
I didn't expect this work would occupy so much of my time.
(我没料到这一工作会占用我这么多时间。)
His speech occupied 5 minutes.
(他的讲话占了五分钟。)
The fridge occupies a big space in the kitchen.
(这台冰箱占了厨房很大的空间。)
fridge
[frɪdʒ]
n. 冰箱;
He is occupied (in) repairing the bike.
(他正忙着修理自行车。)
oc-加强意义 + -cup-拿 + -y
cept,cap,capt,ceiv(ceit,cip,cup) = to take,to seize 拿,抓, 来源于拉丁语 capere意为 to take,to seize。同义词根有来自拉丁语的prehend/prehens,pris,empt/em,rap/rav,sum/sumpt,lab/lep 等。其中 cap(cip)还有head 的含义。
occupied
[ˈɒkjupaɪd]
adj. 已占用的,在使用的,无空闲的;
v. 占领( occupy的过去式和过去分词 ); 使用; 使从事; 任职;
occupation
[ˌɒkjuˈpeɪʃn]
n. 职业,工作; 占有,占领; (土地、房屋、建筑等的)使用;
堆
stack
[stæk]
n. 垛,干草堆; (一排)烟囱; 层积; 整个的藏书架排列; 书架;
I have stacks of work to do.
(我有一大堆工作要做。)
He saw a stack of paper boxes in the room.
(他看到房间里有一堆迭着的纸盒。)
There are a stack of journals on the table.
(桌子上有一叠杂志。)
journal
[ˈdʒɜːnl]
n. 日记,日志; 期刊,杂志;
vt.& vi. 堆成堆,垛; 堆起来或覆盖住; 洗牌作弊; 秘密事先运作;
Father stacked up the plates and put them in the sink.
(父亲把盘子叠放好,然后放入水池。)
The shelf was stacked with empty bottles.
(架子上堆放着空瓶子。)
shelf
[ʃelf]
n. 架子,搁板; 突出的岩石,陆架;
It's dangerous to stack the firewood here.
(把木柴堆在这儿很危险。)
来自古诺斯语 stakkr,草堆, PIE*steg,柱子,桩, 词源同 stake,stick.引申诸相关词义。
stake
[steɪk]
n. 桩; 刑柱; 股份; (在公司、计划等中的)重大利益;
vt. 用桩支撑; 以…下注[打赌]; 用桩区分,界分;
stick
[stɪk]
n. 枯枝; 棍,棒(状物); 批评,指责;
v. 刺,戳; 粘贴,附着在; 容忍; 被证明成立; 放置; 附着于; 固定不动;
来源于原始印欧语stig-,steig-(刺,戳),在日耳曼语中为stik-,stek-,stak-(片,刺)。 同源词:attach, -stinct-, instigate, stake, stigma, -stimul-, stitch, stockade, stoke, style
说明
illustrate
[ˈɪləstreɪt]
v. (用示例/图画等)说明; 插图于…;
il-,进入,使,luster,发光,光泽。引申词义解释,阐明。
luc(lux,lus),lust,lustr = light,bright(明亮的) 来自拉丁语的lustrare,lustris 意为 enlighten,它的变体是lustr;词根luc来源于拉丁语的lucidus(=bright),它的变形为lux,lus。同义词根有来自拉丁语的lumin(lun) 和来自希腊语的photo 以及来自盎格鲁-撒克逊语的light。
Nothing illustrates his selfishness more clearly than his behavior to his wife.
(没有什么比他对妻子的行为更能清楚地说明他的自私。)
selfishness
['selfɪʃnəs]
n. 自私; 自我中心; 利己主义; 任性;
behavior
[bɪ'heɪvjə(r)]
n. 行为,态度; (人、动植物、化学品等的)表现方式;
He told us a story to illustrate the fact that bad habits die hard.
(他通过给我们讲故事来阐明积习难改的事实。)
die
[daɪ]
v. 死,凋谢; 消失; 灭亡; 停止运行; 熄灭;
n. 模具;
die hard
难改掉;难断气
Children's books are often beautifully illustrated.
(儿童书籍常常有美丽的插图。)
He gave us an example to illustrate his point.
(他给了我们一个例子说明自己的观点。)
字母表
alpha
[ˈælfə]
n. 希腊字母的第一个字母;
beta
[ˈbi:tə]
n. 贝塔,希腊字母中的第二个字母;
alphabet
[ˈælfəbet]
n. (一种语言的)全部字母,字母表;
alpha(希腊首字母)+ bet(第二个希腊字母)→字母表→入门
alphabetic
[ˌælfəˈbetɪk]
adj. (属于)字母的;
alphabetize
[ˈælfəbətaɪz]
v. 依字母顺序排列,以字母表示;
引用
quote
[kwəʊt]
vt.& vi. 引述,引用;
vt. 报价; 引述;
vi. 引用;
n. 引用; 报价; 引号;
单词quote来自拉丁语quotare,本意是“用数字来区分”、“给书中章节编上号码”。quote一词就衍生出“附列某本书的章节编号作为注释或参考”之意,继而衍生出“按章节编号引用”、“引用”之意。
quota
[ˈkwəʊtə]
n. (正式限定的)定量,定额; 配额; 指标;
英语单词quota同样来自拉丁词根quot(多少),表示“指定的数量”、“配额”。
quotation
[kwəʊˈteɪʃn]
n. 引用,引证; [商业]行情,行市; 行市表,估价单; 引用语;
历史
story
[ˈstɔːri]
n. 故事,传说; 历史,沿革; 内情; 传记;
缩写自 history,历史,故事,叙述。后与 history 产生词义上的差别
history
[ˈhɪstri]
n. 历史,历史学; 发展史; 履历,经历; (某地的)沿革;
来自PIE*wid-tor,看,知道,了解,词源同visit,vision.其原义更偏重于讲故事, 同源词:story, storey。含有个人的主观色彩,后来从14世纪开始才逐渐确立为对过去发生事件的真实记录,而于1842年才确立为一门学科,即我们现在所理解的历史学。
He was interested in history when he was a child and later became a historian.
China has a recorded history of 5000 years.
historian
[hɪˈstɔːriən]
n. 历史学家,史学工作者;
historical
[hɪˈstɒrɪkl]
adj. (有关)历史的,史学的; 基于史实的,历史题材的;
The book is based on both personal and historical events.
They played an important part in the historical process.
(在历史的进程中他们起过重要的作用。)
The historical event changed him completely.
(这一历史事件完全改变了他。)
a historical event(历史事件)-真实存在于历史上;
historical 指历史上存在或发生过的(actually existed,or happened in history)。
historic
[hɪˈstɒrɪk]
adj. 历史(性)的; 有历史记载的;
a historic event (历史性事件)-具有历史意义的;
historic 指历史上有名的,有历史意义的(important in history)。
揭示
veil
[veɪl]
n. 面纱; 掩饰; 覆盖物; 托词;
vt. 用面纱遮盖; 掩饰; 用帷幕分隔; 隐匿;
reveal
[rɪˈviːl]
v. 揭示; 展示;
re-后 + veal(veil)面纱 → 面纱向后揭开
来自拉丁语 revelare,揭露,揭示,来自 re-,相反,velare,遮盖,来自 velum,面纱,词源同 veil,velar.
He didn't reveal what he had felt about her.
(他没有透露对她的感觉。)
David revealed a talent for fixing things.
(大卫展现出修理东西的才能。)
talent
[ˈtælənt]
n. 人才,天才; 天资,天赋;
He didn't want to reveal his identity at the time.
(那时他不想暴露自己的身份。)
identity
[aɪˈdentəti]
n. 身份; 个性; 一致;
revelation
[ˌrevəˈleɪʃn]
n. [宗]天启,启示; 揭发,暴露; 被揭露出来的事物; 意外的发现;
conceal
[kənˈsiːl]
v. 隐藏; 隐瞒,掩饰; 遮住;
hide
[haɪd]
v. 把…藏起来; 躲藏,遮住; 隐瞒,掩蔽;
n. 隐蔽处; 兽皮; (困境中的)生命;
velar
[ˈvi:lə(r)]
n. 软颚音;
来自拉丁语 velum,帘布,帆,用于指软腭,因其如鼓起的风帆而得名,后用于指软腭音。
影响
fluid
[ˈfluːɪd]
n. 液体,流体;
adj. 流体的,流动的,流体的,液体的; 易变的,不固定的; (动作、设计、音乐等)流畅优美的;
源于拉丁语中动词fluere(流)派生的形容词fluid.us(流动的)。 词根词缀: -flu-流 + -id形容词词尾
fluent
[ˈfluːənt]
adj. 流畅的; 流利的; 液态的;
-flu-流 + -ent形容词词尾
influence
[ˈɪnfluəns]
n. 势力; 影响; 有影响的人/事物;
v. 影响; 支配;
in-,进入,使,-flu,流动,词源同fluid,fluent.即流进,引申词义影响。
辨析
affect 作主语通常是物而不是人,指一物对另一物产生的消极影响。表示对…产生(不良)影响,
Too much smoking may affect your lungs.
(吸烟过多会影响你的肺。)
influence 侧重在思想、性格、行为等方面所产生的潜移默化的影响,也可指自然力的影响。常指间接地、以一种无形的力量去潜移默化地影响人的行为、性格或观点等。
The economic crisis has seriously affected the export of that country.
(经济危机严重影响那个国家的出口。)
impress 强调影响既深刻又持久。
The old man had a great influence on the family.
(那位老人对家庭的影响很大。)
influential
[ˌɪnfluˈenʃl]
adj. 有影响力的; 有支配力的;
n. 有影响力的人物;
His teachings exerted a strong influence on the young people.
(他的教导给年轻人施以深刻的影响。)
exerted
[ɪg'zɜ:tɪd]
adj. 外露的;
v. 用(力)( exert的过去式和过去分词 ); 尽(力); 运用; 发挥;
The government would use its influence to try to make the talk successful.
(政府将以其影响努力使会谈成功。)
I didn't want him to influence me in my choice.
(我不想让他影响我的选择。)
Do you think British art is influenced by American painting.
(你认为英国的艺术受美国绘画的影响吗?)
分散
scatter
[ˈskætə(r)]
v. 撒播; 散开; (使)分散;
n. 散落; 零零星星;
来自中古英语 scateren,分散,散开,可能最终来自 PIE*sek,砍,切,削,词源同 segment,dissect.
Clouds were scattered by the wind.
(风起云散。)
The books scattered on the desk.
(书桌上撒满了书。)
The noise scattered the dogs and chickens
(响声使得鸡、狗四散。)
The Police scattered the demonstrators with tears gas.
(警察用催泪弹驱散示威者。)
Don't scatter your strength.
(不要分散精力。)
发明
invent
[ɪnˈvent]
v. 发明; 编造;
in-,进入,使,-vent,来,来到,词源同advent,venture.即来到,到达,引申词义找到,发现,后来进一步指发明,创造。
词根 ven,vent = to come 来
恺撒大帝为在泽拉战役中获胜后写给罗马元老院的著名捷报。用了三个双音节拉丁词汇即我来,我见,我征服(拉丁语:VENI VIDI VICI,国际音标:/weːniː wiːdiː wiːkiː/,在文法上,是三个动词:来、见、征服的第一人称完成式。里面包含了三个重要的词根,分别是ven,vid,vic,这三个词根的意思,在现代英语中仍然表示来、见、征服,由这三个词根组成的单词非常多,而且这由他们派生出来词汇也是经常
When the teacher asked the pupil why he had not come to class, he invented an excuse.
(老师问 那个学生为什么没来上课,他编造了一个借口。)
Edison invented the electric bulb.
(爱迪生发明了灯泡。)
inventor
[ɪnˈventə(r)]
n. 发明家; 创造者; 发明者;
invention
[ɪnˈvenʃn]
n. 发明; 捏造; 发明才能; 创意;
Telephone is the invention of Alexander Bell.
(电话是亚历山大·贝尔发明的。)
The whole thing was an invention of a New York newspaper.
(整件事都是一家纽约报纸虚构的。)
普通的
order
[ˈɔːdə(r)]
n. 次序; 条理; 治安; 命令; 订货; 点菜; 付款指令; 秩序; 阶层; (生物)目; 修会; 授勋的人; 勋章; 社团; 汇票;
v. 命令; 订货; 点菜; 组织;
来自拉丁语ordinare,安排,布置,指定,来自PIE*ord,安排,布置,词源同ordain,ornate.引申词义顺序,命令,点菜,定购等。
ordinary
[ˈɔːdnri]
adj. 普通的; 平庸的;
来自拉丁语ordinare,安排,布置,指定,词源同order.引申词义顺序,按顺序的,普通的。
rder,ord,ordin(ordain) = ord,ordin 来自拉丁语的ord,ordin 意为to order,变形为ordain。
ordinarily
[ˈɔ:dnrəli]
adv. 平常地; 通常地; 一般地; 按说;
奇怪的
peculiar
[pɪˈkjuːliə(r)]
adj. 奇怪的,古怪的; 异常的; 特有的,特殊的;
来自拉丁语peculium,私人财产,私人钱财,私人牛羊等,来自pecus,家畜,牛,羊,词源同fee,pecuniary.其原义为私人所有的,个人的,后引申词义与他人不同的,怪异的,奇怪的。
She expressed her gratitude to him in her own peculiar way.
(她用自己独特的方式对他表达谢意。)
gratitude
[ˈɡrætɪtjuːd]
n. 感激,感谢; 感激的样子; 谢意; 恩义;
He says this change is not peculiar to this small village.
(他说这个变化不是这个小村子所独有的。)
The young girl was wearing a very peculiar pair of glasses.
(那个年轻姑娘戴着一副很古怪的眼镜。)
She gave him a peculiar look.
(她朝他古怪地看了一眼。)
unusual
[ʌnˈjuːʒuəl]
adj. 特别的,不寻常的; 独特的,别致的;
丢弃
discard
[dɪˈskɑːd,ˈdɪskɑːd]
v. 丢弃,抛弃;
n. 被抛弃的人/物;
dis-, 不,非,使相反。card, 卡片,牌。即丢牌,引申义丢弃。
=throw away
I don't think it is necessary for them to discard the present assembly line entirely.
(我认为他们没有必要完全丢弃现有的流水线。)
assembly
[əˈsembli]
n. 议会,立法机构; 集会(者); 组装;
entirely
[ɪnˈtaɪəli]
adv. 全部地; 彻底地;
They ate food discarded by the restaurant
(他们吃饭店丢弃的食物。)
How could he discard his old friends?
(他怎么能抛弃老朋友呢?)
Intensive reading
It’s widely believed that every word has a correct meaning, that we learn these meanings mainly from teachers and grammarians, and that dictionaries and grammars are the supreme authority in matters of meaning and usage.
含有由 that 引导的三个主语从句。It 是形式主语。
本句中 in matters of 也可用 in the matter of,意思是“在……方面”,“就……而 论”
It was impossible for them to reach an agreement because they had too many divergences in matters of detail.
(他们不可能达成协议,因为在细节问题上,他们有太多的分歧。)
He is considered an expert in the matter of intellectual property.
(他被看作是知识产权方面的专家。)
He would suffer heavy losses in matters of money if he continued to believe thosedishonest people.
(如果他继续相信那些不诚实的人,他会遭受巨大的经济损失。)
Few people ask by what authority the writers of dictionaries and grammars say what they say.
few 表示否定,意思是“很少的,几乎没有的”,如果用 a few 则表示肯定,意思是“有些,几个”。
Very few people survived the explosion.
(在爆炸中幸存的人很少。)
Many of us tried but very few succeeded .
(我们许多人都试了,但成功者甚少。)
He will try it a few more times.
(他会再试几次。)
A few of my friends speak English.
(我的朋友中有几个人能讲英语。)
by 在本句中的意思相当于 according to (根据)
Never judge a person by his appearance。
(千万别以貌取人。)
judge
[dʒʌdʒ]
n. 法官; 裁判员; 鉴定家;
v. 担任裁判; 判断; 估计; 评价; 审判;
He would be classified as rich by Chinese standards.
(依照中国的标准,他会被归于富有一类。)
Authorities 常指“当 局,官方”,用作不可数名词时,常指“权力,管辖权”,用作可数名词时,常指“专家,权威”
The labor union continued to seek dialogue with the authorities.
(工会继续寻求与当局对话的机会。)
labor
[ˈleɪbə]
n. 劳动; 努力; 工作; 劳工;
v. 努力争取(for); 苦干; 详细分析;
adj. 劳工的,工会的; (常大写)(英国或英联邦国家)工党的;
vi. (指引擎)缓慢而困难地运转;
dialogue
[ˈdaɪəlɒɡ]
n. 对话; 对白;
Police have the authority to arrest law-breakers.
(警察有权逮捕犯法的人。)
arrest
[əˈrest]
v. 逮捕,拘留; 阻止; 吸引; 心跳停止;
n. 逮捕,拘捕; 停止;
He had made efforts to exercise his authority over those young people
(他已努力对那些年轻人行使管辖权。)
exercise
[ˈeksəsaɪz]
n. 练习; 锻炼,演习; 典礼;
v. 锻炼; 行使; 使不安;
A good dictionary is an authority on the meanings of words.
(一本好的词典是词义方面的权威。)
He is now an authority on American literature.
(现在他成了美国文学方面的专家。)
literature
[ˈlɪtrətʃə(r)]
n. 文学; 著作;
本句中 what 是一个关系代词,引导宾语从句,
We always mean what we say.
(我们向来说话算数。)
Let him do what he wants to do.
(让他去做他想做的事。)
I don't know what they know.
(他们知道的事我并不知道。)
I once got into a dispute with an English woman over the pronunciation of a word and offer to look it up in the dictionary.(*)
短语:
offer to do
ook sth up
once 在本句中的意思是“一次,曾经”。在某些语言环境中,once 也可以表示:一旦……(就……)。
He once lived in Shanghai.
(他曾经在上海住过。)
Even if you only do it once, you will forever remember it.
(即使你只做一次,你会永远记得。)
It once belonged to my father.
(这个曾经属于我父亲。)
Once the sun had set, the air turned cold.
(太阳一落,空气就变冷了。)
Once you show any fear, he will attack you.
(你一直露出恐惧,他就会攻击你。)
Once published, the book will be very popular.
(这本书一旦出版就会大受欢迎。)
get into a dispute with sb. over sth.与某人就某问题进行争论,over 也可用about 替换。
They had a dispute about where to go.
(他们为了去哪里而争论。)
The workers and the management got into a dispute over pay.
(工人和厂方由于工资问题产生争端。)
It was a dispute over economic policy.
(这是一场关于经济政策的争论。)
In the United States, however, anyone who is willing to quarrels with the dictionary is regarded as either eccentric or mad.
who 引导的是一个定语从句,修饰 anyone.
be willing to 意思是:愿意做……,如:
He is willing to help us.
(他愿意帮助我们。)
No one is willing to pay so much money for this old bike.
(谁也不愿意付这么多钱买这辆旧自行车。)
quarrel with sb.意思是“与某人争吵”。
He quarreled with his brother yesterday.
(他昨天跟他兄弟吵架了。)
I don't want to quarrel with you about it.
(我不想为此事跟你争吵。)
regard as 意思是“把……看作为”,在其后可以跟名词(或名词短语,动名词短语)形容词等。
He regarded the book as one of his masterpieces.
(他把这本书看作是他的杰作之一。)
He was regarded as an important figure in history.
(他被看作为历史上的重要人物。)
Nobody would regard this as important.
(没人会认为这件事很重要。)
Many people regard parents as being responsible for the control of their children.
(许多人认为父母应负责管教子女。)
either…or….意思是为“不是……就是……”,“要么……要么……”。
He is either drunk or mad.
(他不是醉了就是疯了。)
Tell them that they can either stay or leave immediately.
(告诉他们,他们要么留下,要么现在就离开。)
Either my brother or I am going to see my father off.
(不是我兄弟就是我去为父亲送行。)
The task of writing a dictionary begins with the reading of vast amounts of the literature of the period or subject that the dictionary is to cover.
begin with 在本句中的意思是“以……开始;以……为起点”。
I shall begin with this book today.
(我打算今天先读这本书。)
The drought began with that dry and hot summer.
(干旱是从那个干热的夏季开始的。)
The teacher began the class with a story.(老师以一个故事开始了讲课。)
amount 可以做可数名词用,也可以做不可数名词用,意思是“数量,数额”。amount 的谓词动词的数与 amount 的数一致,而与所修饰的名词的数无关。
A large amount of money was spent on this project.
Large amounts of money were spent on this project.
That 引导的是一个定语从句,修饰 the dictionary在 be 动词的后面加动词不定式,表示“安排、命令、职责、目的、用途、可能性等”
We are to meet at the station at 5:00
(我们约定 5 点钟在车站碰头。)
You are to be back by 9:00.
(你得在 9 点钟前回来。)
The report is to be found in today's papers.
(那个报道可在今天的报上找到。)
Cover 在本句中的意思是“涉及”。
His researches covered a wide field .
(他的研究涉及范围很广。)
They covered many topicsin their conversation.
(他们谈话时讨论了许多问题。)
topic
[ˈtɒpɪk]
n. 话题;
The writing of a dictionary is not a task of setting up authoritative statements about the “true meanings” of words, but a task of recording to the best of one's ability, that various words have meant to authors in the distant or immediate past.
Not…but 在本句中的意思是“不是……而是”
What he needs is not money but some understanding.
(他所需要的不是钱,而是一些理解。)
The story I have read is not a comedy but a tragedy.
(我读的那个故事不是个喜剧而是个悲剧。)
To the best of one's ability 意思是“尽某人的最大努力”
I'll put the article into Chinese to the best of my ability.
(我将尽最大努力把这篇文章翻成中文。)
He promised to do the work to the best of his ability.
(他许诺说他会尽最大努力做这个工作。)
a task of recording what various words have meant to authors….,what 引导宾语从句,做 recording 的宾语。
Mean 意思是“表示……的意思”,“意指”
What he said means nothing to me.
(他所说的对我来说毫无意义。)
What does this word mean?
(这个词的意思是什么?)
What do you mean by saying that to him?
(你对他说那话的意思是什么?)
I didn't mean to make you unhappy.
(我不是故事要使你不开心的。)
You know what I meant to say.
(你知道我想说的是什么。)
He criticism is meant for all of us.
(他的批评是针对我们大家的。)
What follows applied only to those dictionary offices where first-hand, original research goes on—not those in which editors simply copy existing dictionaries.
主语 是 What follows
where first-hand, original research goes on 是定 语从 句修饰 those dictionary offices,
短语:
apply to sth 适用于….
If, for example, we had been writing a dictionary in 1890, or even as late as 1919, we could have said that the word “broadcast” means “to scatter”, but we could not have stated that from 1921 on, the most common meaning of the word should become “to send out programs by radio or television.”
这句话特别注意它的虚拟语气的用法。
… but we cannot be bound by it….
Bound 是动词 bind 是过去分词,be bound by sth.意思是“受……束缚”,也可用 be bound to sth.
We should not be bound by conventions.
(我们不应该受习俗的束缚。)
Housework kept her bound to the house.
(家务把她束缚在家里。)
The term papers kept him bound to his desk.
(学期论文使他终日厌案。)