法律英语criminal procedure

这是一篇关于法律英语criminal procedure的思维导图，相关专业的同学可以根据总结去记忆。

criminal procedure

• Introduction
  • what is criminal procedure
    • the adjudication process of the criminal law刑法的裁定程序
  • other points
    • differs by jurisdiction
    • but generally begins with a formal criminal charge on trial一般始于正式的刑事指控(either being free on bail or incarcerated无论是在保释状态还是在被投监状态）,and results in the conviction (被定罪) or acquittal (被宣告无罪） of the defendant
    • in form of inquisitorial(究问） or adversarial（对抗） criminal procedure往往以究问的形式或对抗的形式进行
    • sources of law
      • protections of the United States Constitution(宪法对刑事被告人的保护）
      • federal and state statutes
      • federal and state rules of criminal procedure
        • the Federal Rules of Criminal Procedure联邦刑事诉讼规则
      • state and federal case law
• exclusionary rule非法证据排除规则
  • 概述
    • introduction
      • judge-made doctrine
        • 禁止使用违反被告人第四、五、六修正案权利而获得的证据
          • eg：unreasonable search or seizure/coercive interrogation刑讯逼供/illegal arrest
        • this rule applies to evidence that's a direct product of a constitutional violation
    • rationale
      • 宪法依据
        • fourth amendment rights
          • unreasonable search and seizures
        • fifth amendment rights
          • right against self-incrimination
        • sixth amendment rights
          • assistance of counsel
        • fourteenth amendment rights
          • due process clause
        • sign. cases
          • Weeks v. United States
            • illagally obtained evidence must be excluded from federal trials
          • Mapp v. Ohio
            • illegally obtained evidence must be excluded
      • main purpose
        • deter the government from violating a person's constitutional rights
        • deter police from warrantless(无证） searches,seizures and misconduct
      • exceptions
        • inevitability（证据）不可避免的被发现的例外
        • good faith“善意”（不知搜捕令是无效的）的例外
    • scope of the rule该规则的适用范围
      • fruit of the poisonous tree毒树之果原则
        • is an offspring of the exclusionary rule
        • 不止非法获得的证据不能使用，而且由该证据派生出的证据也不能使用
          • cases
            • Nardone v. United States
            • Wong Sun v. United States
      • exception非法证据排除规则的例外
        • balancing test(在平衡测试基础上的例外)该平衡指的是在“程序正义”和“有力证据”之间的平衡
  • limitations on the rule
    • inapplicable to Grand Juries
      • 大陪审团权力比小陪审团大，可以对被告人提起诉讼
      • 当该证据是通过unreasonable search and seizure 获得的时---大陪审团的证人没有理由拒绝作证
        • exception
          • 除非证据违反了搭线窃听法（federal wiretapping statute）
    • inapplicable to Civil Proceedings
    • inapplicable to internal agency rules机构内部规则, parole revocation proceedings撤回假释程序
      • internal agency rules
        • eg:超市的搜身
      • parole revocation proceedings
        • 当假释人不符合继续假释的条件时，将被假释人重新送进监狱
        • 救济：被重新投监的人可以申请：Habeas corpus人身保护令
      • 原因
        • the exclusionary rule applies only if there is a violation of the Constitution or federal law（只是在联邦层面的）
    • miranda violations
      • 违反miranda警告而获得的证据，有时候也是可以采信的
      • miranda warning
        • the fifth amendment---have right not to make any self-incriminating statements
        • you have the right to remain silent
        • anything you say can and will be used against you in a court of law
        • you have the right to an attorney
        • if you cannot afford an attorney, one will be appointed for you
  • harmless error test无害错误测试
    • 一个基于 不恰当 获得的证据做出的有罪判决不一定就会被推翻
      • 由于无害错误测试表明：有没有该通过不恰当手段获得的证据都不会改变判决结果
      • 被告人也可以提起habeas corpus（人身保护令）：当被告人提起了一种宪法上的错误时并且该错误会在陪审团裁定的时候产生影响，那么该当事人必须被释放
      • if the judge is in "grave doubt" as the harm, the petition must be granted如果法官对此极度的怀疑，那么该诉求必须被准许
• Fourth Amendment
  • 当没有逮捕令时，公民的人身persons，房屋houses,文件papers, and 财产effects，均不受unreasonable searches and seizures。但是，当有probable cause 以及当事人oath 或affirmation 或对要搜查的地点，人，物有明确的描述的时候，是可以进行searches and seizures 的
    • 译：
      • 人民保护其人身、住房、文件和财物不受无理搜查扣押的权利不得侵犯；除非有合理的依据认为有罪，以宣誓或郑重声明保证，并详细开列应予搜查的地点、应予扣押的人或物，不得颁发搜查和扣押证。
  • introduction
    • the fourth amendment applies only to government, not private,conduct.
      • arrests and detentions逮捕和拘留
        • the scope of the seizure (eg: is it an arrest or merely an investigatory stop调查性拦截) and the strength of the suspicion prompting the seizure
          • an arrest requires probable cause
          • while an investigatory detention can be based on reasonable suspicion
        • arrest
          • for purpose of criminal prosecution or interrogation
          • an arrest must be based on probable cause---which is required at the time of arrest, is the measure of justification that applies to full-scale instrusions---searches, seizures, and arrests.
            • 但当一个警察在public place的时候（即他此时不是在执行公务），可以在无warrant的情况下逮捕一个嫌疑人，即使他有时间去开搜查证
        • detentions
          • investigatory detentions (stop and frisk拦截与搜身)
            • have a reasonable suspicion
              • a Terry Stop occurs
          • automobile stop
            • reasonable suspicion
          • detention to obtain a warrant
            • 如果警察有理由相信你的房子里有毒品，那么警察可以在还没有搜查证的情况下，在合理的时间范围内，要求他在没有警察陪同的情况下禁止进入该房屋，以免对毒品产生破坏。
          • occupants of premises being searched may be detained（在该正在被搜查的建筑物内的居住人可能被拘留---丧失自由）
            • 当有搜查证的情况下，搜查该房屋中的contraband（违禁物品）时，警察有权利短暂拘留正在使用该房屋的人
          • station house detention在警察局的拘留
            • full probable cause for arrest,for questioning ,for fingerprinting
      • stop and identify statutes拦截并调查身份的法律
        • 该法授权警察在有合理依据的情况下拦截并调查其身份
          • grand jury appearance大陪审团出庭
            • seizure of a person for a grand jury appearance is not within the Fourth Amendment's protection
          • deadly force
            • when a police officer uses deadly force to apprehend a suspect
              • is a Fourh Amendment "seizure"
            • 一般来说警察不允许使用deadly force，除非警察有合理依据相信该嫌疑人会对他人的生命造成威胁
      • evidentiary search and seizure为了找到证据的搜查和扣押
        • introduction
          • the police must have obtained a warrant
          • exception不需要搜查证的情况
            • search incident to a lawful arrest逮捕时的附带搜查
              • the arrest must be constitutional/lawful
              • any arrest sufficient
                • 只要该逮捕是合法的（联邦宪法层面认为有效即可），那么该逮捕时的附带搜查也是合法的
              • geographic scope在地域范围内
                • the police may search the person and areas into which he might reach to obtain weapons or destroy evidence
              • contemporaneousness 共时性
                • 拘留和搜查这两个动作是同时进行的
              • search incident to incarccration在投监的时候的搜查
                • 搜查：personal belongings, 作为作案工具被没收的entire vehicle
            • automobile exception在机动车搜查时的例外
              • 当警察有合理依据相信你的车里有contraband or fruits（财产），作案工具，犯罪证据时
                • 因为人们对车子中的隐私权期待远远低于家里
            • plain view一眼看清原则
              • the police may make a warrantless seizure when they:
                • are legitimately on the premises
                • discover evidence, fruits or instrumentalities of crime, or contraband
                • see such evidence in plain view
                • have probable cause to believe that the item is evidence, contraband, or fruit or instrumentality of crime.
            • consent当事人明知且理智的同意
              • authority to consent有同意的权利
              • scope of search警察搜查的范围不得超过你同意的范围
            • stop and frisk
            • hot pursuit紧追，evanescent evidence容易消失的证据，and other emergencies
              • no general emergency exception
                • eg：紧急事件过后的调查原因
              • hot pursuit exception
                • fleeing felon对紧急的重罪犯进行追捕时（不需要搜查证）
              • evanescent evidence exception
                • 含有酒精的血样
                • 指纹
              • other emergencies
                • contaminated food受污染的食品 or drugs
                • children in trouble
                • burning fires are included.
• confessions认罪
  • 被告人的有罪供述是否可以采信，要根据fourth,fifth,sixth,and fourteenth amendment
    • fifth amendment
      • gives defendants rights against testimonial self-incrimination
        • shall be compelled to be a witness against himself
        • miranda warning
          • Miranda v. Arizona
            • 在讯问之前就要告知被告人第五修正案的权利
          • 什么时候需要宣读miranda warning
            • governmental conduct
              • 一般仅适用于公开的讯问，不适用于警察的线人
                • 理据：旨在抵消以警察为主的讯问环节的紧张氛围
            • custody requirement羁押的需求
              • 如果该拘留或羁押是自愿的，就不构成羁押或拘留
            • interrogation requirement讯问的要求
              • 当讯问的questions可能使嫌疑人做出有罪供述时
            • waiver嫌疑人可以放弃自己第五修正案的权利
              • 是一种有效的放弃
                • 明知的，理智的，自愿的
            • inapplicable at grand jury hearing
              • 在大陪审团听证的时候不适用Miranda warning
            • public safety exception to Miranda
    • sixth amendment
      • gives defendants rights regarding the assistance of counsel
        • 当一下行为出现时，就认为是侵犯了被告人的权利
          • 当一个政府的卧底在狱中故意引出（他主动说的不算）被告人有关该罪的陈述时，该证据不能采信
    • fourteenth amendment
      • protects against involuntary confessions
        • the Due Process Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment requires that they be voluntary
          • eg: a confession will be involuntary where it was obtained by physically beating the defendant
    • fourth amendment
      • provides that people should be free in their person from unreasonable searches and seizures
        • 仅仅适用于政府行为，不适用个人行为（个体适用于侵权法）
        • a search can be defined as a governmental instrusion into an area where a person has a reasonble and justifiable expectation of privacy
        • a seizure can be defined as the exercise of control by the government over a person or thing
• pre-trial procedures预审环节/审前程序
  • the sixth amendment to the U.S. Constitution guarantees criminal defendants the right to a speedy trial快速审判的权利
    • federal Speedy Trial Act
      • a trial begin within 70 days of the prosecutor filing the indictment
  • sixth amendment
    • the right to a public trial by an impartial jury of one's peers.
      • peremptory challenges无因回避
        • voir dire对陪审团的预先审查环节
  • due process require that criminal defendants receive a fair trial
    • 司法不受舆论影响
  • the fifth amendment
    • the double jeopardy clause prohibits states from charging the same defendant with substantially the same crime on the same facts
  • 预审
    • • preliminary hearing to determine probable cause to detain在预审环节就要确定是否有合理依据来拘留嫌疑人
        • 逮捕之后，审理之前
          • 一般是对一方当事人的审查
      • 什么时候适用该预审的权利
        • no probable cause determination has been made
      • 预审的时间点的问题
        • 48h
      • 如果该举行预审而没举行的话，该如何救济
        • no real remedy
  • pretrial detention审前羁押
    • initial appearance首次出庭
      • he must be brought before a magistrate who will advise him of his rights, set bail定保释金, and appoint counsel is necessary
      • for misdemeanors,轻罪犯
        • 第一次出庭就是审理环节了
    • bail
      • most state constitutions or statutes create a right to be released on appropriate bail (personal recognizance具结保释，cash bond现金债权）
  • speedy trial
    • societal interest
    • constitutional standard
      • length of delay
      • reason for the delay
      • whether the defendant asserted his right
      • prejudice to the defendant
    • remedy
      • 驳回你的指控
    • 什么时候享有快速审判的权利
      • until the defendant has been arrested or charged
      • a defendant is not entitled to speedy trial relief for the period between the dismissals of charges and later refiling再诉
  • competency to stand trial受审能力
    • competency and insanity distinguished
      • 受审能力要区别于心智不健全的抗辩
        • 有无受审能力是针对受审环节的心智状态
        • 而心智不健全的抗辩是指在作案时的状态
    • due process standard
      • lacks a rational as well as a factual understanding of the charges and proceedings
      • lacks sufficient present ability to consult with his lawyer with a reasonable degree of understanding
    • burden can be placed on defendant不能出庭受审的举证责任在被告一方
• trial庭审中的问题
  • introduction
    • the law only permits the prosecution to overcome the defendant's presumption of innocence(推翻被告人的无罪推定，是给他定罪的标准）if they can show the defendant's guilt beyond a reasonable doubt
    • the right includes the right to cross-examine the prosecution's witness
    • defendants derive this right from the
      • sixth amendment's right to
        • confrontation clause
        • assistance of counsel during trial
          • public defender's
            • however:
              • 如果被告在明知且明智的情况下放弃了自己的律师权，这叫做pro se(亲自到庭）representation
      • fifth amendment's right to
        • the defendant can choose not to take the stand(站在证人席上作证）/ choose to take the stand but not answer certain questions that would self-incriminate
  • basic right to a fair trial
    • right to public trial
      • the extent of this right varies according to the stage of the proceeding
        • preliminary probable cause hearing
          • open to the public and the press
        • suppression hearings排除证据的听证
          • exceptions
            • 一方要求不公开审理
            • 不公开审理不能超过保护当事人权利的必要性
            • 除了不公开审理这一种方式，还有没有其他更好方式
            • 要有充足的证据来支撑你为什么选择不公开审理
    • right to be free of trial disruption免受审判干扰的权利
      • 当陪审团已经不能合理的考虑一些证据的时候，就认为该审理违反了第十四修正案的正当程序条款
    • right to have jury free from unfair influences
  • right to trial by jury
    • constitutional right
      • right to jury trial only for serious offenses
        • 青少年案件一般不用陪审团审理
        • 什么时候是serious offenses
          • 被监禁6个月以上
      • number and unanimity of jurors
        • no right to jury of twelve
          • 宪法没规定必须是12人陪审团，但必须是6人陪审团
        • no absolute right to unanimity
          • 宪法不要求必须是全体一致的裁定
            • 但是最高法院一般认为当11-1、10-2、9-3时，被告人是有罪的
          • 但是6人陪审团必须要求全体一致
      • right to venire(陪审员召集令）selected from representative cross-section of community
      • right to impartial jury
        • right to questioning on racial bias
          • 如果本案中种族问题是一个逃不掉的话题时，那么在挑选陪审团时（voir dire)就要将其从陪审团队伍中排除
      • inconsistent verdicts当陪审团做出了自信矛盾的裁断时
        • 对于某项罪名（counts)认为是成立的，但是对于其他罪名认为不成立/认为一人有罪，而他的共犯不认为是有罪的
  • right to counsel
    • the fifth amendment
      • all custodial interrogations
    • the sixth amendment
      • all critical stages
    • if the right to counsel is denied at trial, a conviction will automatically be reversed
    • for non-trial denials, the harmless error test is applied
    • waiver of right to counsel and right to defend oneself
      • the court must carefully scrutinize the waiver to ensure that the defendant has a rational and factual understanding of the proceeding against him
    • indigence and recoupment of cost律师费用的问题
      • if the defendant is indigent如果被告人赤贫，the state will provide an attorney
    • conflicts of interest
      • joint representation合并代理（即代理被告，又代理原告/或者同时代理两个被告人）is not pre se invalid（这种代理是有效的）
      • 如果两个被告的利益发生冲突，而法院又拒绝为其寻找不同的律师，那么当事人有权自动撤销原判
    • right limited while testifying
      • 当被告人在作证时不能咨询他的律师
  • right to confront witnesses有和对方证人对峙的权利
    • the sixth amendment
    • the defendant has the opportunity to cross-examine any witness testifying against him
      • 可以通过对方证人的行为举止demeanor evidence来判断其证言的可信度
    • introduction采用 of co-defendant's confession（什么时候可以采用共犯的有罪供述呢？）
      • 当罪犯a陈述出共同的犯罪事实时，一般只采用a的事实，而不采用他说出的同伙b的事实
        • 一位共犯的陈述不牵扯另一位
    • use of prior judicial proceeding hearsay
      • 传闻证据在审前是可以被采信的，但是要满足以下事实
        • 控方在法庭上以诚恳的态度想要获得被告方的一些证言，但却没有得到
        • 被告人有机会对证人的证词进行交叉询问
  • burden of proof and sufficiency of evidence
    • proof beyond a reasonable doubt
      • due process clause
      • 如果被告被指控是malice aforethought恶意的预谋，那么就没必要要求被告证明其是homicide过失杀人
      • 但是被告可以做出一个affirmative defense积极抗辩（such as insanity心智不健全 or self-defense正当防卫)
    • sufficiency of evidence
• guilty pleas认罪答辩 and plea bargaining认罪协商
  • plea of guilty
    • an assertion by a defendant at arraignment传讯；提讯
    • in response to a criminal charge
    • 一般有以下三种情况
      • pleaded guilty
      • not guilty
      • no contest不抗辩/nolo contendere
      • 概要
        • guilty plea waives right to jury trial认罪答辩意味着放弃陪审团审理的权利
        • basic trends
          • intelligent choice among alternatives
          • contract view
            • 辩诉交易与刑事和解制度reconciliation作为案件处理的主要模式，使刑事诉讼出现了契约化的倾向
  • plea bargain
    • is an agreement in a criminal case between the prosecutor and defendant
      • lesser offense较轻的犯罪行为
        • the evidence of guilty is overwhelming
    • 利
      • increase efficiency
    • 弊
      • expense of justice
  • taking the plea
    • 在进行有罪答辩和认罪协商之前，法官一定要先告知被告人潜在的惩罚和他的权利
    • • remedy
        • withdral of the plea and pleading anew
      • factual basis for plea not constitutionally required
  • plea bargaining
    • enforcement of the bargain
      • 会以对控方不利的方式进行
    • power of the state to threaten more serious charge
      • 政府不能以此为由进行一个更严重的指控
    • power to charge more serious offense
      • 如果被告人要求一个陪审团审理（走正常的程序），那么此时，控方对其作出一个更严重的指控不能说这是控方的报复性行为vindictiveness
    • admission od statements made in connection with plea bargaining在认罪协商（未能成功的认罪协商）时做出的陈述的可采信性
      • inadmissible
      • admissible
        • the defendant has knowingly and voluntarily waived the Federal Rules' exclusionary provisions
    • no right to impeachment or affirmative defense evidence
      • 被告无权质疑在认罪协商之前的证据或与积极抗辩相关的证据
• Constitutional rights in relation to sentence and punishment定罪和量刑的问题
  • introduction
    • sentencing usually occurs immediately for infractions违法行为 and misdemeanors轻罪
      • infractions
        • probation缓刑; fines; short-term incarceration短期监禁；long-term incarceration; suspended sentence缓刑; payment of restitution to the victim对受害人的赔偿；community service社区服务；drug and alcohol rehabilitation复原
    • 在量刑阶段，控方要呈现被告人的从重情节，辩护律师呈现一些从轻情节的证据
    • 在量刑前，被告人有权做最后的陈述
      • offer a personal explanation of any unknown facts,ask for mercy, offer an apology for the criminal behavior
  • procedural rights in sentencing
    • right to counsel
    • right to confirmation and cross-examination
      • new proceeding
        • magnified sentence畸重/轻的量刑要求必须有new findings的发现，且是在confrontation and cross-examination 的背景下找到的new findings
      • capital sentencing procedures死刑量刑
        • 要给被告人更多的机会
  • resentencing after successful appeal and reconviction
    • general rule
      • record must show the reasons of harsher sentence
        • 防止进行报复性的惩处vindictively penalized
    • exceptions
      • reconviction upon trial de novo重新审理（包括事实问题和法律问题）
      • jury sentencing
  • substantive rights in regard to punishment
    • criminal penalties constituting "cruel and unusual punishment"酷刑
      • 即
        • punishment grossly disproportionate to offense刑罚与其犯罪行为是不成比例的
        • proportionality---no right to comparison of penalties in similar cases
      • death penalty
        • for murder
        • for rape
        • for felony murder重罪谋杀规则（死亡发生在重罪进行中，虽然犯罪嫌疑人没有意图杀害死者）
        • jury responsibility for verdict
        • racial discrimination
        • sanity requirement
        • mental retardation智力迟钝/智力缺陷
        • for minors
    • recidivist statutes惯犯法
      • life sentence(不算酷刑）
    • punishing the exercise of constitutional rights
• double jeopardy一事不再理
• forfeiture actions财产被没收的行为/诉讼中的问题
  • right to pre-seizure notice and hearing被告在被没收财产（作案工具/赃物）前享有被告知的权利，并且有权要求开听证会
  • forfeitures may be subject to eight amendment没收被告人的财产不得违反第八修正案
    • excessive fines罚金畸高条款（不适用于民事）
      • 当罚金作为惩处方式时，受制于罚金畸高条款
  • protection for "innocent owner" not required法院在没收财产（赃物）的时候，不保护善意取得该财产（赃物）的所有人