语言学导论

语言学导论的思维导图，知识整理了语言学的定义、语言学与传统语法、语言学的研究范畴、语言的定义、语言的起源、语言的定义特征等，欢迎一起学习。

第一章：导言

• 1.1 复习笔记
  • 本章要点：
    • 要点
      • 1. 语言的定义和研究范围 The definition and main branches of linguistics study
      • 2. 语言的定义与起源 The definition and the origins of language
      • 3. 语言的特征和功能 The design feature and the function of language
      • 4. 语言学重要的概念 Some major concepts in linguistics
  • 本章内容
    • 1. Definition of linguistics （语言学的定义）
      • 子主题
    • 2. Linguistics vs. traditional grammar （语言学与传统语法）
      • 语言学不同于传统语法3：
        • 1. 语言学描述语言，传统语法设定规则 Linguistics describes languages, while traditional grammar prescribes rules of correctence.
        • 2. 语言学认为口语是基础而非文字。 Linguists regard the spoken language as primary, not the written.
        • 3. 语言学根据语言本身的优点来描述每种语言，而传统语法基于拉丁语的框架来分析语言。 Linguistics describes each language on its own merits, while traditional grammar analyzes language based on a Latin-based frame-work.
    • 3. Scope of linguistics（语言学的研究范畴）
      • 1. Microlinguistics（微观语言学）
        • 语音学 Phonetics
        • 音系学 Phonology
        • 形态学 Morphology
        • 句法学 Syntax
        • 语义学 Semantics
        • 语用学 Pragmatics
      • 2. Macrolinguistics（宏观语言学）
        • 社会语言学 Sociolinguistics
        • 心理语言学 Psycholinguistics
        • 神经语言学 Neurolinguistics
        • 文体学 Stylistics
        • 语篇分析 Discourse analysis
        • 认知语言学 Cognitive linguistics
        • 应用语言学 Applied linguistics
        • 计算语言学 Computational linguistics
    • 4. Definition of language(语言的定义）
      • 1.语言是一个系统——其元素非任意排列，而是根据一定规则组合的 Language is a system-the elements of language are not organized and combined at random,but rather according to certain rules.
      • 2. 语言是任意的——一个词的意思和它的声音或形成之间没有任何自然或必要的联系。 Language is arbitrary-the absence of any natural or necessary connection between a word's meaning and its sound or form.
      • 3. 语言是口头的——是所有语言的基本交流形式。 Language is vocal-sound is the primary medium for all languages.
      • 4. 语言是人类用来交流的工具——不同于动物的交流系统。 Language is used for human communication-language is different frome the communication systems animals poseess.
    • 5. Origins of language(语言的起源）
      • 1. Ding-Dang Theory(本能论）
        • 语言起源于人类用于日常生活相关的声音来命名物体 language began when humans started naming objects after a relevant sound that was already involved in their everyday life.
      • 2. Sing-Song Theory（唱歌说）
        • 语言起源于与仪式舞蹈相联系的原始圣歌。 Language arose from rhythmic primitive chants associated with ritual dance.
      • 3. Pooh-Pooh Theory（感叹说）
        • 语言来源于对痛苦、恐惧、惊讶或其他情感的自动声音反应：大笑、尖叫、喘息。 Language comes frome the automatic vocal responses to pain, fear, surprise, or other emotions: a laugh, a shriek, a gasp
      • 4. Yo-He-Ho Theory（劳动喊声说）
        • 语言来源于共同劳动时发出的有节奏的声音。 Language started with the rhythmic sounds people used when they worked together.
      • 5.Ta-Ta Theory（模仿说）
        • 语言来源于用舌头和嘴的手势来模仿手的手势。 Language came frome the use of tongue and mounth gestures to mimic manual gestures.
      • 6. Bow-Wow Theory（摹声说）
        • 语言起源于拟声词，即对自然声音的模仿。 Language developed as onomatopoeia, imitations of natural sounds.
    • 6. Design features of language（语言的定义特征）
      • 1. Arbitrariness(任意性）
        • 任意性是指某个符号的声音与意义之间没有逻辑或内在联系。 This refes to the fact that there is no natural or necessary connection between a word's meaning and its sound or form.
      • 2. Duality(二重性)
        • 二重性是指语言有两个系统的特征。在较低的层次上是无意义的声音系统。这些声音可以被分割并在较高层次上重新组合成大量的意义单位（语素和单词等）。这些有意义的单位可以被安排和重新安排成无限数量的句子。比如，人类语言中的因素，独立的因素本身通常没有意义，与其他音素结合起来形成语素才有可能产生意义。 language consists of two sets of structures. At the lower level is a structure of sounds which is meaningless in themselves. These sounds can be grounped and regoounped into a large number of units of meaning(morphemes and words etc.) at the higher level. These meaningful units at the higher level can be arranged and rearranged into an infinite number of sentences.
      • 3. Productivity(能产性）
        • 能产性是指人们的一种语言能力，它能使人们说出或者理解无限多的句子，有些是我们以前从未听过的句子。 Productivity or creativity refers to man's ability of the users of languages in making and comprehending an infinite number os sentences including those that they have never heard before.
      • 4. Interchangeability(互换性）
        • 互换性是指人可以传递和接受相同的语言信号能力，即人作为说话者或听话者的角色是可以随意更换的。 Interchangeability or reciprocity refers to the fact that humans can transmit and receive identical linguistics signals,and our positions as a speaker and a hearer can be easily switched.
      • 5. Displacement(移位性）
        • 移位性是一种语言的能力，它能使人们谈论那些不可及的事物，也就是那些要么不在这里，要么现在不在这里的事物。 Displacement is the capability of language to communicate about things that are not immediately present, i.e., things that are either not here or not here now.
      • 6. Specialization(专门性）
        • 专门性指人们在交流过程中并非全身投入，而是只通过语言即可交流的能力。Specialization refers to the fact that man is not fully physically involved in the process of communication.
      • 7. Cultural transmission（文化传递性）
        • 语言是通过文化传递的，文化传递性指语言是后天通过社会环境习得的，而不是与生俱来的特征。 Language is culturally transmitted, i.e., language is more learned after birth through a social setting instead of inherent.
    • 7. Funtions of language（语言功能)
      • 1. Phatic function/communion（寒暄功能）
        • 语言能用来在说话者和听者之间建立或维持良好的人际关系。如问候语、送别及称谓。 Language is used to establish or maintain good interpersonal relationships between the addresser and addressee.Greetings,farewells,and addresses perform this function.
      • 2. Directive function(指示功能）
        • 语言能使听话者按照听到的话去做。大部分祈使句都体现了这种功能。 Language is used by the addresser to get the addressee to do something. Most imperative sentences fulfil directive function.
      • 3. Informative Function(信息功能）
        • 信息用来陈述，交流信息，或表示一个人对某事的理解，一般出现在陈述句中。 Language is used to make statements, to communicate information, or to represent one's understanding of something. Declarative sentences perform this function.
      • 4. Interrogative function(疑问功能）
        • 语言用来向他人提问而获取信息。 Language is used to obtain information from those being asked.
      • 5. Expressive function(表达功能）
        • 语言用来提供有关说话者的价值观、感情和态度的信息。 Language is used to supply information about the speaker's values, feelings and attitudes.
      • 6. Evocative function(唤起功能）
        • 语言用来使听话者产生某种感情。 Language is used to elicit specific emotion in those who hear it.
      • 7. Performative function(施为功能）
        • 语言用来实施一种行为。 Language is used to do things or to carry out actions.
    • 8. Some maijor concepts in linguistics(语言学中的主要概念）
      • 1. Descriptive and prescriptive grammar（描写式与规定式语法）
        • （1.）描写式语法旨在对语言进行描述，而规定式语法旨在规定语言应该如何使用。 Descriptive grammar objectively analyzes and describes how language is actually used; while prescriptive grammar attempts to eatablish rules defining correct usage of language.
        • （2.）传统语法学家试图规定语法规则，这被称为规定式语法。现代语言学基本上是描写式语法。 Traditional grammar is often referred to as prescriptive because it attempts to set down rules. Modern linguistics is descriptive.
      • 2. Synchronic and diachronic linguistics（共时与历史语言学）
        • 共时语言学指在任何特定的时间描述一种语言的语言学分类，而历史语言学是指研究一种语言在一段时间内是如何演变的学科分类。 Synchronic linguistics aims at describing a language at any given time, while diachronic study refers to study of how a language evolves over a period of time.
        • 共时语言学集中研究历史任何时期点的语言现状，而历史语言学集中研究几十年或几百年的时期内两个或比两个更多的语言状况的差异。 Synchronic linguistics is concerned with the state of language at any point in history whereas diachronic linguistics is concerned with the variations between two or more states of language over time.
      • 3. Langue and parole(语言与言语）
        • （1.）索绪尔对语言和言语做了重要的区分。 F.de Saussure made an important distinxtion between language and parole.
        • （2.）语言是指一个语言群体的所有成员所共有的抽象的语言系统。言语是指言语的具体实现和运用。Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the menbers of a speech community. Parole refers to particular realizations of langue.
        • （3.）索绪尔从社会学的角度把语言作为一种社会习俗来分析。语言是社会的，约定性的，而言语是个人的话语。 Saussure analyzes language from a sociological perspective as a matter of social conventional side of language, while parole the speech of individuals.
      • 4. Competence and performance（语言能力和语言应用）
        • 根据乔姆斯基的理论，语言能力是指说话者内化的一套规则，它使说话者能产生和理解无数个句子，并能识别错误和歧义。 According to Chomsky, competence is a set of rules internalized by speakers which enables them to produce and understand an infinite number of sentences and recognize the mistakes and ambiguities, 语言运用是指语言交际中一系列规则的实际实现。 while performance is the actual realization of the set of rules in linguistics communication.
      • 5. Syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations(组合和聚合关系）
        • 索绪尔提出了另一对概念：组合与居合关系。组合关系是指在同一句子或文本中同时出现的词之间的一种语义关系。聚合关系指一种不同类型的语义关系，一个词被同意范畴内的另一个词所替代。 Saussure also makes distinction between syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations. Syntagmatic relations is a type of sematic relations betwen words that co-occure in the same sentence or text. Paradigmatic relation is a different type of sematic relations between words that can be substituted with another word in the same categories.
      • 6. Functionalism and formalism（功能主义与结构主义）
        • 功能主义或功能语言学指对语言在交际中的社会功能的研究。 Functionalism or functional linguistics is an approch to the study of language in terms of its social functions in communication.
        • 结构主义或结构语言学指对抽象的语言形式及内部关系的研究。 Foemalism or formal linguistics studies the abstract forms of language and the relationship between linguistic elements.
• 1.2 课后习题
• 1.3 真题