Denotation involves the relationship between a linguistic unit and non-linguistic entity to which it refers.Thus, it is equivalent to referential meaning. 外延涉及语言单位跟非语言实体之间的关系。在这个意义上，它跟指称意义是一样的。

Different types of meaning（recognized by Leech）

Conceptual meaning概念意义

Logical, cognitive or denotative content.逻辑、认知或外延的内容。

Associative meaning联想意义

Connotative meaning内涵意义

Some additional, especially in motive meaning. Eg. The difference between politician and statesman is connotative in that the former is derogatory and the latter is commendatory.

Social meaning社会意义

What is communicated of the social circumstances of language use.

Affective meaning感情意义

What is communicated of the feelings and attitudes of the speaker/writer.

Reflected meaning反映意义

What is communicated through association with another sense of the same expression.通过联想同一词语的其他意思所表达的意义

Collocative meaning搭配意义

What is communicated through association with words which tend to occur in the environment of another word.

Thematic meaning主位意义

What is communicated by the way in which the message is organized in terms of order and emphasis.按照句中词序和各个单词在句中所说强调的不同程度，来组织信息的方式所表达的意义。

The referential theory指称理论

Definition

The theory of meaning, whichrelates the meaning of a word to the thing it refers to or stands foris known as the referential theory. 把词语意义跟它所指称或所代表的事物联系起来的理论叫做指称理论。

Semantic triangle语义三角

Semantic triangle is a theory proposed by Ogden and Richards inThe Meaning of Meaning, Which argues thatthe relation between a word in the thing it refers to is not direct. It is mediated by concept. But it cannot refer to the abstract concepts. In a diagram form, the relation is represented as follows. “语义三角”认为，词和所指事物之间没有直接关系，而是以抽象的概念为中介的。但是这一理论并不适用于抽象的概念。

Sense and reference涵义和所指

As an aspect of lexical meaning,senseis concerned with theinherent meaningof linguistic form; it is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form. It isabstractandde-contextualized. Whilereferencemeans whata linguistic form refers to in a real, physical world;it deals with the relation between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience. 涵义是词汇的一个方面，它指词汇内在的、抽象的、游离于语境之外的意义，是词汇特征的集合。而所指是指词汇所指称的真实的物质世界中的事物，所指处理的是语言形式和非语言世界之间的关系。 The distinction between them iscomparableto that between"connotation" and "denotation".Senserefers to theabstract properties of an entity. Whilereferencerefers tothe concrete entities having these properties. We can sayevery word has a sense, butnot every word has a reference.For example, grammatical words likeand , if , butdo not refer to anything. God, ghost and dragon refer to imaginary things. 含义与指称的区别类似于内涵和外延，前者指一个实体的抽象属性，后者只拥有这些属性的具体实体。

Sense relations涵义关系

Synonymy同义关系

Synonymy is the technical name forthe sameness relation. Total synonymy is rare. The so called synonyms are all context dependent. They all differ in one way or another. 同义关系是相同关系的专业术语，完全的同义关系是很少的。所谓的同义词都是依赖语境的，他们总是在这方面或那方面有所不同。

Dialectal synonyms方言同义词 Synonyms used in different regional dialects（英式/美式） e.g. autumn-fall, flat-apartment

Stylistic synonyms文体同义词 Synonyms differing in style（正式度不同） e.g. kid, child, offspring; start, begin, commence

Emotive synonyms情感同义词 Synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluative meaning （褒贬义词） e.g. thrifty-economical-stingy

Collocational synonyms搭配同义词 e.g. accuse...of, charge...with, rebuke...for

Semantic synonyms语义同义词 e.g. amaze, astound

Antonymy 反义关系

Antonymy is the name for a oppositeness relation. There are three main subtypes: Gradable, complementary and converse antonymy.

Gradable antonymy 等级反义关系

There are often intermediate forms between the two members of a pair. The denial of one is not necessarily the assertion of the other. e.g. old-young, hot-cold, tall-short.

Complementary antonymy 互补反义关系

The members of a pair in this type are complementary to each other. They divide up the whole of a semantic field completely. Not only the assertion of one means the denial of the other, but the denial of one also means the assertion of the other. E.g. alive-dead, hit-miss, male-female, boy-girl.

Converse antonomy 反向反义关系

This is a special type of autonomy in that the members of a pair do not constitute a positive-negative opposition. They show the reversal of a relationship between two entities. There are always two entities involved. One presupposes the other.总是涉及两个实体，一个预设了另一个。 E.g. buy-sell, parent-child, above-below The comparative degrees like bigger:smaller, longer:shoter, better:worse, older:younger

Hyponymy 下义关系

High pornomy is a matter of class membership. The upper term in this sense relation, i.e. the class name, is called superordinate, and the lower term, the members, hyponyms. For instance, under flower, there are pony, jasmine, chrysanthemum, tulip，violet，carnation and many others apart from rose. 上下义关系是一种类和成员的关系。位于这种意义关系上位的词，即词类，叫上义词；居于下位的成员叫作下义词。

Polysemy 多义现象

One word that has more than one related meaning. （这些意义之间存在一定的联系） For example: run (person does, river does, colors do)

Homonymy 同音/同形异义关系

Homonymy refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form, i.e. different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both. 同一个语音形式/拼写中有几个毫无关系的意义 e.g. bank (of a river)-bank (financial institution), right-write

Componential analysis 成分分析法

It is a way proposed by the structural semanticists to analyze word meaning. This approach is based on the belief that meaning of a word can be desseted into meaning components, called semantic features in properties. It is helpful to specify the sense relations of words. 成分分析法是结构语义学家提出的一种抽象词汇词义的分析方法。这种方法认为，所有实词的意义都可以分成被称为“语义成分”或“语义特征”的小成分。语义成分分析法对于明晰的证明词的意义关系很有帮助。

For example,we may "clip" the following words "man", "woman", " boy " and " girl " so that we have only separate parts of them. Man: [+HUMAN][+ADULT][+MALE] Woman: [+HUMAN][+ADULT][-MALE] BOY: [+HUMAN][-ADULT][+MALE] Girl：[+HUMAN][-ADULT][-MALE] Words like father, mother, son and daughter, which involve a relation between two entities, may be shown as follows. father= PARENT（x,y）& MALE(x) mother= PARENT（x,y）& ~MALE(x） son= CHILD (x,y) & MALE(x) daughter= CHILD (x,y) & ~MALE(x) Verbs can also be analyzed in this way, for example, take = CAUSE ( x,( HAVE (x,y))) give = CAUSE ( x,( ~HAVE (x,y))) die = BECOME ( x,( ~ALIVE (x))) kill = CAUSE ( x,(BECOME (y,~ALIVE (y)))) murder = INTEND ( x, (CAUSE (x, (BECOME (y, (~ALIVE (y))))))) Two words, or two expressions, which have the same semantic components will be synonymous with each other. For example, bachelor and unmarried man are both said to have the components of [HUMAN] [ADULT] [MALE] and [UNMARRIED], so they are synonymous with each other. Words which have a contrasting component are at antonyms, such as man and woman, boy and girl, give and take. 有相反语义成分的词是反义词。 Words which have all the semantic components of another are hyponyms of the latter, e.g. boy and girl arehyponyms of child since they have all the semantic components of child , namely, [HUMAN] and [~ADULT]. 有另一个词的所有语义组成成分的词是该词的下义词。

Semantic relations between sentences

Entailment 蕴含

A entails B A: He has been to France. B: He has been to Europe. Entailment is a relation of inclusion. If A entails B, then the meaning of A is included in B. If A is true, B is necessarily true. If A is false, B may be true or false.

15年1.4题 14年1.2题 17年1.3题 Entailment and presupposition

Presupposition 预设

A presupposes B A: His bike needs repairing. B: He has a bike. If A is true, B must be true. If A is false, B is still true.

Synonymy 同义关系

A is synonymous with B A: He was a bachelor or his life. B: He never got married all his life. If A is true, B is true. If A is false, B is false.

Inconsistency 自相矛盾

A is inconsistent with B A: He is single. B: He has a wife. If A is true, B is false. If A is false, B is true.

Implicature 含义

If we can draw conclusion B from sentence A, here B is the implicature of A. This is generally understood to be a relation of pragmatic implication defined in terms of the speaker's and the hearer's assumptions and beliefs.

Contradiction

A is a contradiction My unmarried sister is married to a bachelor.

【考】名词解释&辨析：内涵与外延的区别，举例说明。

【考】名词解释&辨析：sense和reference的区别

14年1.3题, hyponymy

【考】根据所给句子推出其预设条件

【考】分析句子的语义关系，蕴含、预设、同义、矛盾。

【考】填空：判断两个词的涵义关系（同义、反义、上下义）

【考】942真题13年5题, complementary antonym and converse antonym

16年1.5题,18年1.4题 Sense in reference.

12年4题，referential theory. Its drawback.

16年7题, referential theory. Relation between the three components of this theory.

【考】填空（根据成分判断单词）; 简答（成分分析法的作用）