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修辞学
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修辞学
Syntactic Devices
Short Sentences
Long Sentences
The Simple Sentence
The Noun Phrase in Simple Sentence
Pre-modification
adjectives
nouns
adverb phrase
sentence
Post-modification
prepositional phrase
infinitive phrase
participle –ing phrase
participle –ed phrase
restrictive attributive clause
Apposition
Equivalence (most appositive)
Attribution
Inclusion (least appositive)
Appositive clauses
Restrictive appositive clause
Non-restrictive appositive clause
Adverbials in Simple Sentences
forms
the prepositional phrase
the to-infinitive phrase
the participle -ing phrase
the participle -ed phrase
norms
Space
predicate adverbial before sentence adverbial
smaller location before larger location
Time
time duration before time frequency before time position
Process
order: manner-means-instrument-agent
The order may be reversed if no ambiguity results from the change
co-occurrence
at the end position
respect-process-space-time-contingency
at initial position
space or time, and sometimes of process.
The Compound Sentence
emphasizing the equality of the coordinate parts
The Complex Sentence
making clear the logical relationship between events or ideas through subordination
Subordinate clauses
noun clause
serve as
subject
object
complement
Adverbial clause
serve as
adverbial
Relative or attributive clause
form part of a complex noun phrase
Branching Sentences
Right-branching or Loose Sentence
The main idea is put at the beginning of the sentence, and supportive or qualifying information comes after it
The Left-branching or Periodic Sentence
The main idea is at the end of the sentence and supportive or qualifying statements are placed before the main clause or assertion
Mid-branching
to have major parts of a main clause (main assertion) separated (cleft) by the insertion of supportive or qualifying information
Multi-branching
to mix the two types in one sentence. Sometimes mid-branching is also included in multi-branching
the Active Voice Sentences
The active voice identifies the doer of an action as well as states the action directly, thus making for livelier and more emphatic prose.
The active voice requires fewer words and thus makes for “quicker” tempo.
the Passive Voice Sentences
The use of too many passive will result in lack of focus on the identity of the doers, and may lead to vagueness or confusion.
Too many passive in a passage will tend to “slow down” the flow of ideas, and may lead to flat and monotonous prose.
to be appropriate
When information of what takes place is more important than who does what, i.e. when the agent is not so important.
When it is necessary to be vague about the doer’s identity.
When it is desirable to emphasize the object or object complement of an action.
Syntactic Schemes of Balance
parallelism
In parallel construction it is necessary to balance world for word (noun with noun, verb with verb, adjective with adjective, etc.), phrase with phrase, clause with clause, sentence with sentence.
antithesis（对照）
the deliberate arrangement of contrasting words of ideas in balanced structural forms to achieve force and emphasis
chiasmus（交错配列）
a device that consists of two balanced statements, the second of which reverses the order of the words in the first, with or without a repetition of words
Antimetabole（交错倒复）
Syntactic Schemes of Inversion
From SVA to AVS or ASV
From SVC to CVS
From SVO to OSV
Inversion with “There” as anticipatory subject
Syntactic Schemes of Omission
Ellipsis
Fragmentary Elliptical Sentences
Asyndeton (Omission of Conjunctions)
Aposiopesis (Breaking off Halfway in a Sentence)
Syntactic Schemes of Addition or Insertion
Polysyndeton (Use of Many Conjunctions)
Epanorthosis
immediate rephrasing for intensification or justification
Exegesis (Clarification)
a clarification of thought or statement in the same sentence, making more explicit or concrete what is mentioned in the main proposition.
ways
Repeating key words and explaining them
Giving concrete details to illustrate a general notion
Saying something in simpler words
Exergasia (Amplification)
the same thing is described in several ways, to emphasize a point or quality, or a feature. Sometimes a climactic effect is achieved.
forms
Piling up of adjectives or adjective phrases
Piling up of nouns or noun phrases
Piling up of verbs
Apposition
adding force or grace to statements
Parenthesis
not only to cut off abruptly the flow of thought in a sentence, but also to be somewhat irrelevant, for often the writer seems to be going off at a tangent
adding something significant, forceful or elucidating to what is being said
forms
Syntactic Schemes of Repetition
Series (Repetition of Sentence Elements)
Binomials
Trinomials
Catalogues
Repetition of Sentences (in Whole or in Part)
Repetition of Whole Sentences
Syntactic Anaphora (Repetition of Beginning Words)
Syntactic Epiphora (Repetition of Ending Words)
Syntactic Framing (Repetition of Beginning and Ending Words)
Syntactic Schemes of Climax and Anti-climax
Climax
the progression of thought at a uniform of almost uniform rate significance or intensity, like the steps of a ladder ascending evenly
Anti-climax or Bathos
stating one’s thoughts in a descending order of significance of intensity, from strong to weak, from weighty to light or frivolous
Rhetorical Question
to imply a definite answer
Apodioxis
to reject an idea emphatically, forcefully, usually with the help of exclamations and\or satirical questions
Apostrophe
Syntactic Schemes with “it”
“It” as Prop Subject
Time
Climate or Weather Conditions
Spatial Distance
Anticipatory “it”
Emphatic “it” in Clefting
Existential Sentences
Lexical Devices
Short Words or Long Words
monosyllabic words of Anglo-Saxon origin, or polysyllabic words of Latin, French or Greek origin
Common Words or Learned Words
vernacular English and Latin words
Formal, Informal or Colloquial Words
General or Specific Words
Concrete Abstract Words
Referential or Emotive Words
Choice Between Synonymous Words
Choice of Abbreviations
Acronyms
Clippings
Blends
Lexical Repetition
Immediate Repetition
added significance and even new implications, emphasizing a mood or feeling, or a feature of something
Lexical Anaphora
repeating of words in initial or front position
Lexical Epistrophe
ending successive clauses, sentences, stanzas or paragraphs with the same word
Symploce
the use of lexical anaphora and epistrophe in the same line or stanza, in the same clause or statement
Anadiplosis（前词递接法）
In this device a word in end position in a line or sentence is repeated in initial position in the line following
Distant or Intermittent Repetition
the words repeated are separated from each other by syntactic elements of varying length
Root Repetition or paregmenon
the using of words of the same root close together in sentences or paragraphs
Ploce
repetition to gain special emphasis or extend meaning
Skewed Quotations
it is not the verbatim quoting of famous words that will be discussed, but the way in which these words are "skewed" or quoted with a twist
Allusions
well-known persons, things, or events that writers assume are familiar to their readers
Sources
Nursery Rhymes
Fairy tales, and English legends
Greek mythology
Fables
The Bible
The Old Testament
The New Testatment
Christ's Parables
English and American Fiction
Modern and Contemporary Sources
Figures of Speech
Simile
three main uses
descriptive
illuminative
illustrative
Metaphor
three main uses
descriptive
illuminative
illustrative
Analogy（类比）
a parallel between two unlike things that have several common qualities or points of resemblance
Personification
Metonymy（转喻）
Names of persons
Animals
Parts of the body
Professions
Locations of government, of business or industrial enterprises
Synecdoche（提喻）
The part for the whole
The whole for the part
The species for the genus, or the genus for the species
Name of material for the thing made
The container for the thing contained or vice versa
The thing worn for the wearer
Antonomasia（换称）
The substitution of a title or epithet for a proper name
The substitution of a personal name for a common noun to designate a member of a group or class
Syllepsis（兼用）
two or.more words in the same sentence, while properly applying to or agreeing with only one of them in grammar or syntax
Zeugma（轭式搭配）
a single word is made to modify or to govern two or more words in the same sentence, either properly applying in sense to only one of them, or applying to them in different senses
versions
One verb + two (or more) objects
Prep + two (or more) objects
Two subjects + one verb
Paradox（悖论）
a statement or proposition which on the face of it seems self-contradictory, absurd or contrary to established fact or practice, but which on further thinking and study may prove to be true, well-founded, and even to contain a succinct point
Oxymoron（矛盾）
a compressed paradox, formed by the conjoining of two contrasting, contradictory or incongruous terms
ways
adj. + noun
adj. + adj.
adv. + adj.
verb + adv.
noun + noun
Hyperbole
the deliberate use of overstatement or exaggeration to achieve emphasis
Understatement (Litotes and Meiosis)
the opposite of hyperbole, or overstatement. It achieves its effect of emphasizing a fact by deliberately understating it, impressing the listener or the reader more by what is merely implied or left unsaid than by bare statement
types
Litotes
understatement by the use of negatives
Meiosis
merely understatement without the use of negatives
Euphemism（委婉）
"substitution of mild or vague or roundabout expression for harsh or direct one; expression thus substituted"
"substitution of an agreeable or inoffensive expression for one that may offend or suggest something unpleasant."
scope and motive
Death, illness, old age, etc
Toilet habits, etc
Poverty and unemployment
Menial jobs or professions of low social standing
Political and military'activities
Irony
It achieves emphasis by saying the opposite of what is meant, the intended meaning of the words being the opposite of their usual sense
Innuendo
A mild form of irony，hinting in a rather roundabout way at something disparaging or uncomplimentary to the person or subject mentioned
Sarcasm
It attacks in a taunting and bitter manner，and its aim is to disparage, ridicule and wound the feelings of the subject attacked．
Transferred Epithet（移就）
a figure of speech where an epithet (an adjective or descriptive phrase) is transferred from the noun it should rightly modify to another to which it does not really belong
Generally, the epithet is transferred from a person to a thing or idea
Punning
Antanaclasis
words or word phrases having the same sound and form, but with two or more distinct meanings
Paronomasia
words having the same sound, or almost the same sound, but differing in form and meaning are used
homophone
Phonetic Devices and Prose Rhythm
Phonetic Devices
features
The vowels
voiced
long or short
spread or rounded
closed or open
lax or tense
glide
The consonants
voiced or voiceless
nasal or non-nasal
stopped sounds
fricatives
affricates
liquids or glides
sensory qualities
Onomatopoeia
Homeoteleuton
Assonance
Alliteration
Combined Use of Phonetic Devices
Prose Rhythm
Stress
Word Stress
Sentence Stress
Pitch
Pause and Tempo