导图社区 Syntax（句法）
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Syntax（句法）
刘润清 新编语言学教程，内容有Definition、Word Classes（词类）、Two Approaches、Constituent Structure Grammar（成分结构语法）、Constituent Structure Syntax(成分结构句法）...
编辑于2023-03-17 01:28:25
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Syntax （句法）
Definition
Syntax
To study the structure and ordering of components within a sentence.
Be concerned with the combination of words.
The grammars of all languages include rules of syntax which reflect the speaker's knowledge of these facts. Sequences of words that observe the rules of syntax are said to be well formed or grammatical.
Word Classes (词类）
Another name
Parts of speech
Classification
Nouns(N.)
"Things"
to refer to people, objects, creatures, places, events, qualities, phenomena, abstract ideas.
Adjectives((Adj.)
to describe the thing, quality, state or action which a noun refers to.
Verbs(V.)
various actions and states involving the "things" in event.
Adverbs(Ad.)
to describe or add to the meaning of a verb, an adjective, another adverb, or a sentence, and which answers the questions introducedby how, where, when, etc.
Common signs
In English many adverbs have an-ly ending
Prepositions(Prep.)
be used with nouns in phrases providing information about time, place and other connections involving actions and things.
Pronouns(Pron.)
words which may replace nouns or noun phrases.
Conjunctions(Conj.)
be used to connect, and indicate relationships between events and things.
Effect
to devise rules to define what is a grammatically acceptable phrase and what is not.
"RULES"
Name
Phrase structure rules or rewrite rules “短语结构规则或重写规则”
Definition
the rules to govern the structure of phrases
Function
They allow for the generation of grammatical sentences in a language.
They constitute a generative grammar for that language.
Two Approaches
The Prescriptive Approach "规定性取向"
It was an approach taken by some grammarians, mainly in eighteenth-century England, who lay down rules for the correct or "proper" use of English.
It views the grammar as a set of rules for the "proper" use of a language.
The Descriptive Approach "描写法"
Use
It is the basis of most modern attempts to characterize the structure of different languages.
Definition
Linguists collect samples of the language they are interested in and attempt to describe the regular structures of the language as it is used, not according to some view of how it should be used.
Techniques
Structural analysis ”结构分析“
Main objective
to study the distribution of linguistic forms in a language.
Feature
the use of "test-frames"
to produce a description of some aspects of the sentence structures of a language
Immediate constituent analysis "直接成分分析法”
Idea or theory
Linguistic units can be parts of larger constructions and may themselves also be constructions composed of smaller parts.
Using the distribution of components and constructions, we can analyze a sentence--considered to be the maximum construction in syntax--into a series of constituents--units that make up their larger units next to them.
"Constituents"
Classification
immediate constituents(ICs) "直接成分"
the first divisions or cuts
ultimate constituents(UCs) "最终成分"
the final cuts
Definition
This approach to divide the sentence up into its immediate constituents by using binary cutting until obtaining its ultimate constituents is called immediate constituent analysis.
These constituents can in turn be further analyzed into smaller constituents. This process continues until no further divisions are possible.
Representation method
the tree diagram "树形图"
brackets
Advantages
to show up and distinguish ambiguities
Constituent Structure Grammar (成分结构语法) Constituent Structure Syntax (成分结构句法）
Definition
A grammar which analyzes sentences using only the idea of constituency, which reveals a hierarchy of structural levels, is referred to as a constituent structure grammar(成分结构语法).
Process
categorial(范畴的) structures
lexical categories(词汇种类)
corresponding(相应的) phrasal categories
labelling(标记)and bracketing(归类)
brackets(组集)
tree diagram(树形图)
Generative(生成的)system
The syntax of a language is then seen as a set of rules which generate sentences in that language.
recursion(递归)
Every time a PP(preposition phrase) is introduced, it automatically introduces another NP (noun phrase), which in turn permits another PP and so on.
Constituent structure analysis may not be able to account for
In English, elements in a construction can be discontinuous.
Secondly, one of the principal objections raised by Chomsky was that constituent structure analyses by themselves could not show relations between sentences that seem to be closely connected.
Transformational Grammar (转化语法)
Definition
The "grammar" in transformational grammar should be understood in the broadest sense.
It is a theory of grammar including phonology(音位学) and semantics(语义学); in fact it can be taken to mean "linguistic theory" sometimes.
In this section, we shall focus our attention only on the syntactic(句法的) aspect of transformational grammar.
Classical theory
phrase structure rules 短语结构规则
The phrase structure rules were based on constituent structure analysis but formalised as a set of rules as mentioned in the previous section.Chomsky's original phrase structure rules were like the constituent structure rules.
transformation rules
A trsndformation rule was a sequence of symbols which could be rewitten conventionally as a different a sequence.
morphophonemic(词素音位的，词音变化的) rules
The morphophonemic rules would apply to the output of the transformational rules.
Standard theory
two levels of syntactic structure
Deep structure (深层结构)
Deep structure is the abstract syntactic representation of sentences.
Surface structure (表层结构)
The sentences that have the form that people can actually say are called surface structures.
many changes
The standard → The extended standard theory(扩充标准理论)→Revised extended standard theory(修订后的扩充标准理论)→ The theory of government and binding (GB)(管辖约束理论)→The Minimalist Program (MP)(最简方案)
generative core
Throughout the development of transformational grammar, Chomsky has maintained the centrality of syntax. The syntactic component of transformational grammar is the generative core.
Systemic Functional Grammar（SFG) (系统功能语法）
Definition
The mastermind behind the systemic-functional perspective is M.A.K.Halliday.
Linguists who adopt this approach are interested in relating the various kinds of linguistic structures and patterns to the functions that language serves and to the social settings in which it is used.
The ideas are fundamentally different from those held by transformational grammarians because they not only emphasize language function but also suggest that language cannot be studied out of its context. Language is always used in a particular situation for a particular purpose.
Three metafunctions（元功能）
Ideational function (概念功能）
The function in which we conceptualize(使概念化）the world for our own benefit and that of others is called ideational function.
Interpersonal function (人际功能）
Language serves to set up and maintain social and personal relations,including communication roles such as questioner and respondent.
To express the language user's own attitudes and comments on the content of an utterance.
Sentences are traditionally classified as
Declarative (陈述的）
to give information
to perform the function of statements
Interrogative （疑问的）
to request something
to perform the function of questions
Imperative （命令的）
to give instructions
to perform the function of commands
to express the mood
Textual function （语篇功能）
Language also makes links with itself and with features of the situation in which it is used. This is what enables the speaker or writer to construct a text, and enables the listener or reader to distinguish a text from a random(任意的) set of sentences.
Any text is necessarily delivered in a linear manner
It is easier for us to process a lexical string in which the burden of new information comes from the end of the clause.
The distinction of marked/unmarked is a useful one to get hold of
The element which is marked is significantly different,deviant or anomalous.
The element which is unmarked is normative or unremarkable.
Marking a constituent by moving it syntactically is one way of increasing its prominence.
The concept of theme is an important one in functional approaches to syntax.