语言学导论

语言学导论第一张，语言是人类社会特有的、用于交流思想和感情的工具，具有符号性、系统性、任意性、社会性和动态性等特征。

Chapter1 Language & linguistics

• Language
  • Definition of language
    • Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols usedfor human communication.
      • Language is a System
        • e.g. Elements of language are combined according to rules. "ibilk" "Bee he wounded has”
      • Arbitrary
        • there is no intrinsic connection between a lingusitic symbol and what the symbol stands for. e.g. 笔 vs. pen “A rose by any other name would smell as sweet.”
      • Vocal
        • the primary medium for all languages is sound. e.g. spoken language first, written language second. children capture spoken language before they can read or write.
      • human-specific.
        • Different from the communication systems of other life posses. 语言不同于其他生命所拥有的交流系统（即语言学中的语言特指人类语言）
  • Design features of language（语言的区别性特征）
    • Arbitrariness 任意性
      • (1) There is no logical connection between meanings and sounds
      • (2) While language is arbitrary by nature, it is not entirely arbitrary. (onomatopoeic words, compound words)
      • (3) The arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and it makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions.
    • Productivity 多产性
      • 1、Language is productive or creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users.
      • 2.、Productivity is unique to human language. Bee dancing is used only to indicatefood sources
    • Duality 二元性
      • 1、Language is a system, which consists of two sets of structures or two levels.
      • 2、This duality of structure of language enables its users to talk about anything within their knowledge.
      • 3、The fact that we can generate a large number of meaningful units (e.g. words) from a small number of meaningless elements(sounds) is called duality if patterning.
    • Displacement 不受时空限制的特征
      • Language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far away places.
    • Cultural Transmission 文化传播性
      • While human capacity for language has a genetic basis, the details of any language system are not genetically transmitted but instead have to be taught and learned.
  • Functionsof language
    • Three main Functions
      • Descriptive function 描述功能
        • the primary function of language and it is used to convey factual information.
          • e.g.The Sichuan earthquake is the most serious one China has ever suffered.
      • Expressive function 表达功能
        • supplies information about the user’s feelings, preferences, prejudices and values.
          • e.g. I will never hang out with you.
      • Social function 社会功能
        • serves to establish and maintain social relations between people.
          • e.g. How can I help you, Sir?
    • Six elements of a speech event 言语时间六要素
      • Roman Jakobson calssification
        • Addresser发言人-Emotive: 情感功能(funciton)
          • The addresser expresses his attitude to the topic or situation of communication.
        • Addressee受话人-Conative: 意动功能(function)
          • The addresser aims to influence the addressee’s course of action or ways of thinking. e.g. : Why not go and see another doctor?
          • 子主题
        • Context 语境-Referential: 指称功能(function)
          • The addresser conveys a message or information. e.g. As far as I know, the earth’s resources are being astonishingly wasted.
        • Message 信息-Poetic: 诗歌功能(function）
          • The addresser uses language for the sole purpose of displaying the beauty of language itself.
        • Contact 接触-Phatic communion: 寒暄功能(function
          • The addresser tries to establish or maintain good interpersonal relationships with the addressee. e.g. Hi, How are you!
        • Code 语码-Metalingusitic: 元语言功能（function）
          • The addresser uses language to make clear the meaning of language itself. e.g. Let me tell you what the word “language”means.
    • The Functions of Child language:
      • Halliday calssification
        • The ideational function概念功能
          • is to organize the speaker or writer's experience of the real or imaginary world.
            • (1) The ideational function closely corresponds to the descrptive function.
            • (2) Ideational function is broader because it also includes the expression of the speaker's attitude, evaluation, feelings and emotions.
        • The interpersonal function人际功能
          • is to indicate, establish, or maintain social relationships between people.
        • The textual function语篇功能
          • is to organize written or spoken texts in such a manner that they are coherent within themselves and fit the particular situation in which they are used.
• linguistics
  • Definition of linguistics
    • Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.
    • Why scientific
      • it is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure.
    • How is the scientific study of language conducted?
      • In order to dicover the nature and rules of the underlying language system, what the linguist has to do first is to observe and collect language facts, which are found to display some similarities, and generalization are made about them.
      • Then the linguist formulates some hypotheses about the language structure. The hypotheses thus formed have to be checked repeatedly against the observed facts to fully prove their validity.
  • The scope of linguistics
    • General linguistics: Deals with the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and methods applicable in any linguistic study. 普通语言学： 处理适用于任何语言研究的基本概念、理论、描述、模型和方法。
    • Relatively independent branches(core of linguistics): Phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics and pragmatics. 相对独立的学科分支（语言学核心）： 语音学、音系学、形态学、句法学、语义学和语用学。
      • Phonetics: 语音学 Phonetics studies how speech sounds are produced, transmitted and perceived, the description and classification of speech sounds, and connected speech, etc. (Chapter 2)
      • Phonology: 音位学 the study of how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication. (Chapter 2)
      • Morphology: 形态学 The sounds used in linguistic communication are represented by symbols, i.e. morphemes（词素） The study of the way in which linguistic symbols (i.e. morphemes) are arranged and combined to form words (Chapter 3)
      • Morphology: 形态学 the internal organization of words which studies the minimal units of meaning—morphemes and word-formation process. (Chapter 3)
      • Syntax(句法): The combination of words to form grammatically permissible sentences in languages is governed by rules. The study of these rules constitutes a major branch of linguistic studies called syntax.(Chapter 4)
      • Semantics（ 语义学）: the study of meaning (Chapter 5)
      • Pragmatics语用学： the study of meaning in context dealing with particular utterances in particular situations and is concerned with the way language is used for communication. (Chapter 6)
    • Macrolinguistics: 宏观语言学/Applied linguistics: 应用语言学 an interdisciplinary perspective Includes psycholinguistics, sociolinguistics and etc. (Chapter 7-12)
      • Sociolinguistics: 社会语言学 The studies of all these social aspects of language and its relation with society form the core of the branch called sociolinguistics.
      • Psycholinguistics: 心理语言学 Relates the study of language to psychology. It aims to answer such questions as how the human mind works when we use language, how we as infants acquire our mother language, how we memorize and etc .
      • Narrow sense: application of linguistic theories and principles to language teaching.
  • Important distinctions in linguistics 语言学中重要的区别性概念
    • Descriptive vs. Prescriptive描述性与规约性 （1）Descriptive: describe and analyze the language people actuall use. （2）Prescriptive: lay down rules for “correct and standard "behavior in using language.
    • Synchronic vs. diachronic 共时性与历时性 （1）Synchronic: the description of a language at some point of time in history.(horizontal) （2）Diachronic: the description of a language as it changes through time. ( vertical)
    • Speech and writing（言语与文字） Modern linguistics regards the spoken language as the natural or the primary medium of human language.
    • Langue and parole 语言与言语 （1）Langue:（抽象的语言系统） the set of conventions and rules which all language users all have to abide by. （2）Parole: （语言的实际运用）the concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules. differences （1）Langue is abstract; it is not the language people actually use. Parole is concrete; it refers to the naturally occurring language events. （2）Langue is relatively stable, it does not change frequently. While parole varies from person to person, and from situation to situation.
    • Competence and performance 语言能力与语言运用 （1）N. Chomsky(American linguist): proposed the distinction between competence and performance in the late 1950s. （2）Competence: the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language. （3）Performance: the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.
    • Traditional grammar and modern linguistics
• 左边的六项为Microlinguistics（微观语言学）