Syntax

语言学第四章Syntax思维导图，介绍了syntax、C. Generative Approach、D. Functional Approach、B. Structural Approach等。

Syntax

• syntax
  • definition
    • Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that governed formation of sentences.
• Four Approaches to Sentences
  • C. Generative Approach
    • N. Chomsky
      • Transformational generative grammar
        • a. main idea
          • The grammar of all human languages share a common framework. There are likely to be universal constraints on the ways linguistic elements are combined.
        • b. important terms
          • (1) The Innateness Hypothesis
            • definition
              • ②LAD : language acquisition device
                • LAD : LAD probably consists of three elements: a hypothesis-maker, linguistic universal and an evaluation procedure.
              • ③ this knowledge is universal
              • ①innate
          • (2) TG grammar
            • Stages of TG grammar
              • The Classical Theory
                • Chomsky's Syntactic Structures
                  • Features
                    • grammatical description regardless of meaning.
                    • Introduction of transformational rules
                    • Emphasis on Generative ability
                  • Three kinds of grammar
                    • Transformational grammar
                      • Transformation rules
                        • definition
                          •  The grammatical mechanism which changes the deep structure generated by the phrase structure components into surface structure is called a transformational rule.
                        • e.g. i. the train will arrive ii. Will the train arrive? NP+AUX+VP→AUX+NP+VP
                      • surface structure
                        • definition
                          •  It is the structure closely corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence that people actually produce and receive.
                        • morph-phonemic rules
                          •  The rules that are responsible for the correct spelling and pronunciation of the words in the surface structure are called morph-phonemic rules.
                    • phrase structure grammar
                      • The phrase-structure rules=rewriting rules
                        •  The grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule.
                        • 1.S→NP+VP 2.VP→Verbs+NP 3.NP→NP(singular) NP(plural) 4.NP(s)→D+N 5.NP(p)→D+N+S 6.D→the 7.N→（man,ball,door,dog,....） 8.Verb→Aux+V 9.V→（hit，take，bite，eat，walk.....） 10.Aux→Tense(+M)(+have +en)(+be +ing) 11.Tense→present past 12.M→（will，can, may, shall,....）
                      • deep structure
                        • definition
                          •  It is formed by phrase structure rules and the underlying level of structural relations between its different constituents.
                      •  It is a system of finite rules generating an infinite number of sentences, and the rules are generative, simple, explicit, exhaustive and recursive.
                      • e.g. The boy kicked the ball.
                      • Syntactic categories are used to label the nodes
                        • word-level
                        • phrasal-level
                      • labeled tree diagram
                    • Finite state grammar
                      •  It can generate an infinite number of sentences with a finite amount of apparatus.  It is impossible to construct an observationally adequate English grammar which is a finite-state grammar.  It is inappropriate to explain the complexities of the human cognitive system.
              • The Standard Theory
                •  A generative grammar should consist of three components: syntactic, phonological and semantic.
                • why
                  • 不能用于被动语态
                • improvement
              • The Extended Theory
                • why
                •  Chomsky completely puts semantic interpretation in the surface structure.
              • The Revised Extended Standard Theory
                • GB : the Theory of GOVERNMENT AND BINDING
              • The Minimalist Program
                • remarkable changes
                • hypothesis
                • thesis
                • why
            • differences between TG and the structural grammar
              • emphasis on linguistic competence
              • emphasis on linguistic universals
              • emphasis on interpretation
              • strong generative powers
              • deductive methodology
              • formalization
              • rationalism
              • innateness
            • generative grammar
              • definition
                • What the speaker actually knows.
                • a system of rules
                • ultimate goal
            • main features
      • why
        • the deficiencies of IC analysis
  • D. Functional Approach
    • I. The Prague School
      • a. main idea
        • definition
          • A sentence may be analyzed from the functional side as well as the grammatical side.
      • b. important terms
        • ③Communicative Dynamism
          • definition
            • CD is meant to measure the amount of information an element carries in a sentence.
          •  The initial element of a sequence carries the lowest degree of CD, and with each step forward the degree of CD becomes incremental till the element that carries the highest.
        • ①Theme&Rheme
          • Theme : departure
          • Rheme: goal
        • ②Functional Sentence Perspective (FSP)
          • definition
          • e.g.
    • II.The London School (M.A.K. Halliday)
      • a. main idea
        • Language is what it is because it has to serve certain functions.
      • important terms
        • ①Systemic Grammar
          • transitivity choices
            • transitivity
              • verbal process
                • John said it is cold in the room
                • Verbal processes are those of exchanging information. Commonly used verbs are say, tell, talk, praise, boast, describe, etc. In these processes the main participants are Sayer, Receiver, and Verbiage
              • existential process
                • There is a cat on the sofa
                • Existential processes represent that something exists or happens. There is an Existent in every Existential process
              • material process
                • John kicked the ball
                • Material processes are those in which something is done. These processes are expressed by an action verb, an Actor and the Goal of the action.
              • relational process
                • John is on the sofa
                • Relational processes can be classified into two types: Attributive and Identifying. The former expresses what attributes a certain object has, or what type it belongs to. The latter expresses the identical properties of two entities
              • behavioural process
                • John laughed
                • Behavioural processes refers to physiological and psychological behaviour such as breathing, coughing, smiling, laughing, crying, staring, and dreaming, etc. Generally only one participant, Behaver, often a human is involved.
              • mental process
                • John likes Mary
                • Mental processes express such mental phenomena as “perception” (see, look), “reaction”(like, please) and “cognition” (know, believe, convince). It involves two participants, Senser and Phenomenon
          • definition
            • a network of systems of relationships, choices,"system of systems"
          • The differences between systemic grammar and other linguistic theories
          • delicacy
            • increasing depth of detail
          • The entry conditions of Transitivity
        • ②Functional Grammar
          • natural how language is used configurations oc functions
          • META-FUNCTIONS
            • the textual function
              • coherent and unified text
                • Syntactic structure is the representation of message organization.
              • cohesion
                • cohesive devices
                  • Conjunction Ellipsis Lexical collocation Lexical repetition Reference Substitution
            • thr interpersonal function
              • Express social and personal relations.
                • Syntactic structure is the representation of interpersonal contact.
              • Is realized by mood and modality
            • the ideational function
              • convey new information
                • Syntacic structure is the representation of experience.
              • consist of transitivity and voice
  • B. Structural Approach
    • Structuralist school(结构主义学派)
      • U.S. : L. Bloomfield
        • a. main idea
          • Linguistic units can be parts of larger constructions , and may themselves be composed of smaller parts. Sentences are composed of hierarchiws of constructions.
        • b. importantportant terms
          • ①Grammatical construction
            • definition
              • It refers to any linguistic form which is composed of constituents and is able to be segmented.
              • Construction are two main types
                • endocentric: the center or head
                  • subordinate construction
                    • Noun phrase Verb phrase Adjective phrase
                      • The boy.
                    • definition : Only one head, the head being dominant and the other constituents dependent
                  • coordinate construction
                    • definition : more than one head
                    • the boy and the girl
                • exocentric : no center or head
                  • verb +object prepositional phrase simple sentence be+ complement
          • ② constituent
            • definition : It is a term used in structural sentence analysis for every unit, which is part of a larger linguistic unit.
            • immediate constituent : immediately, directly obtained
            • ultimate constituent : The smallest grammatical units
          • ③ IC analysis: Immediately constituent analysis
            • definition : It is a process of Analyzing the construction into smaller constituents until no further divisions or cuts are possible.
            • disadvantages of IC analysis
            • advantages of IC analysis
            • bracketing :括号法
            • tree diagram : 树状图 e.g. The boy kicked the ball
      • Europe : F .de. Saussure
        • a. main idea
          • Linguistic units are interrelated which each other in a structure, not as isolated bits.
        • b. important terms
          • ②Paradigmatic relation Relation of Substitution Vertical relation Choice relation
            • It refers to classes or sets of words substitutable for each other grammatically in sentences with the same structure and it also refers to groups of more than one word which may be jointly substitutable grammatically for a single word of a particular set.
          • ③Relation of co-occurence
            • It means that words of different sets of clauses may permit, or require, the occurrence of a word of another set or class to form a sentence or a particular part of a sentence.
          • ①Syntagmatic relation Positional relation Horizontal relation Chain relation
            • It is a relation between one item and others in a sequence. It is a sequence arrangement of words and phrases into sentences.
      • U.S. : Edward Spair
  • A. Traditional Approach
    • b. important terms
      • ①category
        • It refers to classes and functions of words, e.g. noun, verb,adjective,subject, predicate, etc.
        • The categories of pronouns (代词)
          • case
            • accusative
            • nominative
            • genitive
          • gender
            • masculine
            • feminine
          • number
            • singular
            • plural
        • The categories of nouns
          • gender
            • masculine
            • feminine
          • case
            • general
            • genitive
          • number
            • singular
            • plural
        • The categories of verbs
          • Aspect
            • perfect
            • progressive
          • Voice
            • active
            • passive
          • Tense
            • present
            • past
      • ③government
        • Government is another type of control over the form of words by other words in certain syntactic constructions. A word of certain word class determines the form of others in terms of certain category.
          • gave him a book
      • ②concord
        • Concord, also known as agreement, may be defined as the requirement that the forms of two or more words in a syntactic relationship should agree with each other in terms of categories.
          • two pens
    • complex sentence
      • Complex sentence is a sentence which has at least two clauses, one independent clause and one dependent clause.
    • phrases
      • Phrase: it is a single element of structure containing more than one word, and lacking the subject-predicate structure typical of clauses
    • clause
      • Clause is a constituent with its own subject and predicate which is included in a larger sentence.
    • compound sentence
      • Compound sentence is a sentence which has at least two independent clauses.
    • a. main idea
      • A sentence is seen as a sequence of words. A sentence is made of individual words in a linear direction.