英语 - 语法总结

根据恶魔奶爸《20个小时学会英语语法》和赖世雄《赖世雄经典语法》整合而来的思维导图，希望大家对于英语语法学习有所帮助。

语法总结

• *答疑
  • 疑问：为什么背了无数的单词，却不能正常口头表达和造句？
    • 不会语法，不能把掌握的词汇变成能够让人理解的句子。
    • 解决办法
      • 学习如何用英文造句
    • 英文表达意思的最小单元，一般来说不是单词，而是短语和词组。
      • 句子里的每一个单词都知道它的含义，但是连在一起却不知道它的意思。
    • 学习方法
      • 通过背诵例句，记住语法
      • 像首相一样学习英语
        • 中文语法和英文语法不同
          • 中文几乎没有语法，注重词汇的使用；英语有严谨的语法
          • 学习英语时，尽可能忘掉中文的语法，全盘接受英语语法
        • 句子成分有哪些，有什么作用？
          • 主谓宾，定状补
  • 思路：字母 - 单词 - 短语 - 句子（从小到大）
• 拼读
  • 发音和单词拼写有一定的对应关系
• 句法
  • 句子=主语（S）+动词（V）
    • 由于存在倒装和从句，因此一次要看完一句话，才能完整理解句子意思，避免误解 。
    • 主语
      • 可以作为主语的成分
      • 名词
      • 代词
      • 动名词（V-ing）
        • Working with him is a lot of fun.
      • 不定式短语（To V）
        • To study abroad with John who is one of my best friends is my plan.=It is my plan to study abroad with one of my friends named John. （头重脚轻就用虚代词 It）
      • 名词性从句（戴慧怡）
        • 名词性从句具有名词的作用，除了可作为主语外，也可以作为： （1）及物动词的宾语； （2）介词的宾语；
        • 1.That 从句
          • 任何一个主语起首的句子前面冠以that，即成that从句
            • It is true that he loves me very much.=That he loves me very much is true.
        • 2.Whether 从句
          • 由可用yes/no回答的问句（一般问句）变化而成 疑问句一般倒装。 所以用whether引导从句时，要还原。
          • （1）问句有be动词时
          • （2）问句有一般助动词（can/will/may/should/ought to/must/have）时
          • （3）问句有do/does/did等助动词时
        • 3.疑问词所引导的从句
          • 由特殊疑问句变化而成（when,what,how,where,why...）
          • （1）问句有be动词时
          • （2）问句有一般助动词时
          • （3）问句有do/does/did等助动词时
          • Who/What/Which做疑问代词，如果在问句中做主语，变成名词从句时，结构不变
          • 例子
            • Where he will go remains to be seen. What he is going to do is still a mystery.
      • 名词短语
        • 名词短语=“疑问词+不定式”
        • 1.疑问副词（eg:Where to live）
        • 2.疑问代词（eg:What to do）
        • why无法形成名词短语。
      • 表距离的地点副词短语
        • from + 地方名词 + to +地方名词
        • From Shanghai to Beijing is about 1000 kilometers.
    • 动词
      • 如何判断完全or不完全？ （是否需要接形容词等补充成分） 动词后不加其他东西意思完整就是完全，不完整就是不完整。 如何判断及物or不及物动词？ （是否需要接宾语） 用“我____他”和“他被我____”代入空格中，两句意思都通就是及物动词。
      • 完全不及物（c.vi.）
        • 释义
          • 不需加宾语，意思就很完整的动词（可接副词或副词对等语）
        • 形态
          • 主语+不及物动词
            • She danced.
          • 主语+be动词+不及物动词的现在分词
            • She was dancing.
      • 不完全不及物（i.vi.）
        • 释义
          • 这类动词意思不完整，因此无法单独存在，之后再接名词、形容词，或名词对等语，补充起意思（补充含义的词称为“表语”）
            • He looks happy.
        • 分为6类
          • be动词
            • 后接3大类（11种）表语
              • 名词成分
                • 名词
                  • she is a beautiful girl.
                • 名词性从句
                • 名词短语
                • 作名词用的动名词短语
                • 作名词用的不定式短语
              • 形容词成分
                • 形容词
                  • She is beautiful.
                • 作形容词用的现在分词
                • 作形容词用的过去分词
                • 作形容词用的介词短语
                  • of+抽象名词
              • 地方副词
                • 一定只能是地点副词，别的副词是不行的
                • 地方副词
                • 地方副词短语
          • become
            • 接名词或形容词类
              • He became handsome. (n.)
              • She became charming. (adj.)
          • turn
            • 通常只用形容词作表语（颜色或情绪有关的形容词）
              • It turned red.
              • The leaves are turning yellow.
          • get
            • 通常用表‘生气’或‘激动’的形容词作表语。
              • He got angry.
          • seem
            • 似乎，之后接不定式短语作表语
            • 在seem to be+名词/形容词结构中，to be可省略，直接用名词或形容词作表语
          • 感官动词，只有5个
            • 感官动词后，不能直接加名词做表语。 如要变成名词，必须用感官动词+介词like+名词，翻译为“像……”
            • look看起来
              • You looks funny.
            • sound听起来
              • His idea sounds good.
            • smell闻起来
              • The food smells good.
            • taste尝起来
              • It tastes spicy.
            • feel感觉起来，感到
              • It feels cold.
      • 不及物动词
      • 完全及物（c.vt.）
        • 释义
          • 加了宾语后，意思才完整的动词
        • 形态
          • 主语+及物动词+宾语
            • 主语+be动词+及物动词的现在分词+宾语
          • 主语+be动词+过去分词
            • 主语+be动词+being+过去分词
        • 他的宾语
          • 名词
            • he didn't buy that car.
          • 代词
            • I hate him
          • 不定式
            • I want to see him now.
            • I hope to study abroad someday.
          • 动名词
            • He considered studying abroad.
            • I once imagined going on a date with him.
            • I just can't fancy getting along with them.
            • He risked doing it.
            • I avoided seeing him again.
            • He escaped being killed in the accident.
            • They suggested putting off the game.
            • He recommended traveling abroad.
            • I enjoy dancing.
            • I resent having to do so much work.
            • I practiced playing the piano.
            • He stopped/quit smoking.
            • Would you mind opening the window for me?
          • 名词性从句
            • that从句
            • whether从句
            • 疑问词从句
          • 名词短语
            • I know how to handle the problem.
            • I don't know whom to talk to.
      • 不完全及物（i.vt.）
        • 加了宾语后，意思并不完全，需要加补语。如he made mary happy.
        • 分类
          • a.使役动词
            • 1）叫……
              • make/have+宾语+原型动词（作补语）
                • I made him wash the car.
                • I have him wash the car.
                • I bade him wash the car.
              • get sb to V
                • I got him to wash the car.
            • 2）让……
              • let +宾语+原形动词（作补语）
              • let +宾语+作副词用的介词（in out down)
            • 3）使……成为
              • 主语+make+宾语+形容词/名词（作补语）
              • *make/have/let/get，这4个词中，只有make 可以用于被动语态。
                • The made me repeat the story.=I was made to repeat the story.
            • 4）强迫/要求/怂恿/催促…… 此类动词+宾语+不定式短语（作补语）
              • force、ask、encourage、compel、tell、push、seduce、entice、expect、want
                • The postman wanted me to sign for a letter.
            • *宾补中，出现的be或者to be,通常要省略。
              • He made this task be finished. = He made this task finished.
          • b.知觉动词
            • 看：see，observe，watch，look at，notice
            • 听：hear，listen to
              • I heard he singing when I got home last night.
            • 感觉：feel
              • When the doorbell rang,I felt my legs trembling.
          • c.任命动词
            • elect,assign,appoint,（选举，指派，任命）
          • d.认定动词
            • consider/deem/think/find/believe “视…为”
              • 1）与介词连用
                • We regard/look upon/think of /see/view him as a genius.
              • 2）与to be 连用
          • e.转变动词
            • change/turn +into + 名词（补语）
              • The experience turned/changed him into a good student.
          • f.其它重要的
            • They set him free.
            • I painted the door green.
            • The sight struck him dumb.
            • The baby cried itself to sleep.
      • 授与（d.v.）
        • 授予动词，表提供的授予动词，属于及物动词的一种（需要接宾语，才能表达完整含义）。 且须接两个宾语（间接宾语与直接宾语）
        • 常用授予动词
          • give，send，tell，teach，pay，show，offer，provide，supply，furnish，present
            • He provided /supplied/furnished me with all I needed.
        • 间接宾语与直接宾语倒置原则
          • 表给予，要用to
            • I gave him the book.=I gave the book to him.
          • 表代劳，要用for
            • I made him a chair.=I made a chair for him.
          • 表“从……中”，（ask）要用of
            • I asked him a question.=I asked a question of him .
        • 与of 连用的授予动词
          • rob : He robbed me of my money.
          • deprive：The court deprived him of all his civil rights.
          • relieve：The captain relieved the platoon leader of his command
          • rid：I cannot get rid of the painful memory.
          • break：You should break yourself of the bad habit of smoking.
          • cure：The doctor cured him of his disease.
      • 及物动词有些词既可以做及物动词，也可以做不及物动词。
  • 句子成分
    • 主语和谓语是句子的主要成分。 英语中，一般的句子必须要主语和谓语（祈使句除外，主语要隐藏）。 宾语，宾语补足语和表语是谓语的组成部分。
    • 1.主语
      • 定义
        • 主语是句子所要说明的人或事物。
      • 组成
        • 一般由名词，代词，不定式或者相当于名词的词或者短语来充当。（通常位于句首）
      • 例子
        • The desk is old.这张课桌久了（名词做主语）
        • He is a doctor.（代词做主语）
        • The secret of success is to star from scratch and keep on scratching.（名词短语做主语）
    • 2.谓语
      • 谓语或者谓语部分里面的主要词必须用动词
      • 定义
        • 谓语是用来说明主语“干什么”或者“怎么样”的。
      • 组成
        • 动词。谓语或者谓语部分里面的主要词必须用动词。谓语和主语在人称和数的方面应该保持一致，且谓语应在主语后面。
      • 例子
        • I play basketball in the morning.（实义动词做谓语）
        • We can speak French.（情态动词和实义动词做谓语）
    • 3.宾语
      • 定义
        • 表示及物动词（Vt）的动作对象或内容。
        • 复合宾语：句型中“宾语+宾语补足语”的形式，统称为“复合宾语”。
          • He asked me for a help.（动词后面只跟一个宾语不能把聚义表达清楚，必须再接并与补语意思才完整）
      • 组成
        • 一般由名词，代词，不定式或相当于名词的词或者短语来充当。（通常位于动词之后或用于介词后构成介词短语）
      • 例子
        • Pass me the book,please.（代词和名词做间接宾语和直接宾语）
        • I want to eat two hamburgers now.（不定式做宾语）
        • She likes skipping.（动名词做宾语）
    • 4.定语
      • 定义
        • 定语用于修饰名词或代词。
      • 组成
        • 通常由名词、形容词、数词、分词、不定式、介词短语或定语从句都可以用来做定语。（定语的位置很灵活，凡是有名词、代词的地方都可以有定语）
      • 例子
        • The boy pupil(学生；未成年人) is in Class Three.（名词做定语）
        • The girl in red is my sister.（介词短语做定语）
      • 位置
        • 有些放在名词前面，有些放在名词后面，通常为“前小后大”
          • 1个单词组成的定语（限定词，形容词，名词及所有格），放在所修饰名词的前面
          • 2个以上单词组成的定语（of属格，形容词短语，介词短语，分词短语，不定式短语等），放在所修饰词后面。
    • 5.状语
      • 定义
        • 状语表示动作、行为发生时的时间、原因、地点、方式、目的或程度等。用来描述一个动作的细节特征的成分。
        • 状语也可以修饰除了名词之外的任何词（如动词，形容词，介词，连词，还可以修饰副词本身）
        • 什么词成分能够做状语？
          • 副词以及相当于副词的词性成分
      • 组成
        • 小状语
          • 小状语（单独的副词），放在其所修饰的词语之前：修饰动词时，放在动词之前。修饰其他成分，（形容词，介词，连词，副词）时，放在其他成分之前。
            • eg:now，certainly
          • 如有需要，小状语可以放在句中任何位置
        • 大状语
          • 大状语（2个及以上单词构成的状语，如介词短语，不定式短语，状语从句），放在整个句子的两头。放在开头时，一般要加上逗号。
            • 句中同时出现几个时间或者地点状语时，从小到大
              • We landed in America at 8 o'clock on June 15th,2012.
              • We live at number 35,South Renmin Road,Chengdu.
            • 句子后面有多种状语时，顺序是方式-地点-时间
              • He put his milk bottles carefully on the doorstep every morning.
      • 例子
        • I can jump high.（副词做状语）
        • Without the idea, I can't finish the work.（介词短语做状语）
    • 6.补语
      • 定义
        • 不完全及物动词后面加了名词，意思依然不完整，需要增加句子成分，补充说明宾语的内容，含义才完整。补语用于对句子中的某些成分——主语，表语，宾语等进行补充说明。
      • 组成
        • 补语的形式由动词的类别决定（担任补足语的常常是名词、形容词、副词、分词。动词不定式、介词短语）。
      • 例子
        • Tom was made monitor.（主语补足语）
        • I made Tom monitor.（宾语补足语）
        • I am sure to succeed.（表语补足语）
    • 7.表语
      • 定义
        • 表语是用来说明主语的身份、特征、性质或状态的词。因为某些谓语动词没有实际的意义（是，使），必须接一个句子成分，表达主语的具体情况。
      • 组成
        • 4种可以作为表语的词
        • 1：过去分词
          • 使役动词+宾语+过去分词（补语）
            • Now a group of students will have the plane restored.
        • 234：名词、形容词、地点副词
          • 使役动词+宾语+名词、形容词或地点副词（做补语，其原因是前面省略了不定式be 或to be）
      • 例子
        • His teacher made him a good student.（名词作宾补）
        • The trip made him happy.（形容词做比宾补）
        • He let me in.（地点副词做宾补）
        • Get him out of here.(介词短语，相当于地点副词)
    • *同位语
      • 句子中指代同一事物的两个词、短语或从句，称同位关系。
        • My sister,Helen Wilson,will travel with me.
      • 英语里的同位语，不属于单独的7大句子成分，而是和英语里的名词成分（主语，宾语，表语）是并列关系，相当于对该名词的进一步解释说明。
      • 名词或任何相当于名词的成分，均可作为同位语。
    • *一般情况
      • 通常情况下，主语和宾语前的成分是定语，谓语前的成分是状语，时间词做状语放在句子后面。
        • （定语）主语（状语）谓语（定语）宾语（状语）
          • （The tall）boy（often）go（to the big）zoo（on Sunday）.
          • (The happy) child went （to his）home （yesterday）.
  • 句子分类
    • 1.按结构分类
      • （1）简单句
        • 简单句的5大基本句型。 为什么只有5种类型？ 英语里只有5种类型的动词，根据动词形式决定句型，就只有5个基本句型。
        • 主语 + 不及物动词（S + Vi.）
          • 不及物动词
          • Student read.
          • *衍生句型
            • 主语 + 不及物动词 + 状语（S + Vi. + Adv）
              • The operation progressed smoothy.
            • There/Here + 不及物动词 + 主语（There/Here + Vi. +S）
              • There stands a tree.
              • Here comes the man.
            • +动词不定式（S + to + Vi. ）
              • We walked to work.
        • 主语 + 及物动词 + 宾语（S + Vt. +O）
          • 及物动词
          • I like swimming.
        • 主语 + 及物动词 + 间接宾语 + 直接宾语（S + Vt. + I.O + D.O）
          • 授予动词 又叫“主谓双宾”
          • He lent me some money.
        • 主语 + 系动词 + 表语
          • 系动词 主语 + 不及物动词 + 主语补足语（S + Vi +S.C） 这里的不及物动词就是指系动词。 系动词本身不能表达完整的意思，需要形容词，名词，介词短语等来补充说明主语。 补充说明主语的成分，叫主语补足语。 主系表其实是一种特殊的主谓宾，即主语加上没有实际含义的动词，再加用来补充表达的词（表语）
          • The silk feels good.
        • 主语 + 及物动词 + 宾语 + 宾语补足语（S + Vt. + O + O.C）
          • 不完全及物动词
          • We elected him monitor.
      • （2）并列句
        • 两个句子可以通过两种方式连接起来，一种是连接符号，一种是连词。
        • 连接符号
          • 用两来连接两个句子的标点符号只有3个：（—）（：）（；）
          • 破折号（—）
            • 强调，补充意思不足
              • He is trash—He is good for nothing.
              • He is a good student——He studys hard every day.
            • 连接同位语
              • She finally made her purpose known to us —to chase Susan.
          • 冒号（：）
            • 用以强调前面句中的名词
              • He has made [his goal] known:he wants to be a scientist.
          • 分号（；）
            • 等于逗号+连接词（and,so,but...)
            • 作用
              • 当多个逗号连接的对等语中某个中间有插入语时，用分号来分隔对等语，以使句意更清晰
            • 举例
              • 原句：He enjoys dancing,swimming and jogging.变成：He enjoys dancing,which is his hobby;swimming,which he often does on Sundays;and jogging.
        • 连词
          • 并列连词
            • 单一连接词and，or，but
              • 基本的并列连词只有3个：and、or、but。称为”并列连词“
              • 作用：连接对等的单词，短语或句子
              • He and I enjoy singing;（He，I；主语）
              • I came to see him and (to)tell him the truth.（too see,to tell ;不定式短语）
              • He works hard,and his father is proud of him.（He works hard,his father is proud of him；对等的分句）
            • and,or,but衍生的其他连词
              • 作用：连接对等的单词，短语或句子
              • 共性：both...and...either...or...;neither...nor...not...but...;
                • 通常不用来连接句子
              • and——both…and…
              • or——either…or… ——neither…nor…
              • but——not…but… ——not only…but also…
              • not only...but also...
                • 可用来连接句子，其中not only连接的句子要倒装
            • as well as&rather than
              • 作用：连接对等的单词，短语或句子
              • as well as&rather than连接主语时，该句动词始终要随第一个主语变化
          • 副词连词
            • 在主从复合句中，because 、 if 等连词引导的从句充当状语，类似副词的功能，所以我们把这类连词叫做副词连词。
            • 副词连接词只能连接从句
            • 常用的副词连接词
              • because,though,if,unless,as soon as,once
                • Because of me, he studies hard.
            • 状语从句
              • 前缀副词连接词的从句，必与主句共存，可视为副词，修饰主句。
              • I like him because he is nice.（状语从句于主句之后）=Because he is nice,I like him.（状语从句位于主句前，中间加逗号）
              • 条件句
                • when(当),if(如果),once(一旦),as soon as(一旦),unless(除非)等副词引导的从句
                • 若用来表示将来的状况，条件从句用一般现在时（或现在完成时），主句则用一般将来时
                • If/Once/As soon as/Unless/When+一般现在时（完成时）动词，主语+will+原型动词
                • When I am rich,I will buy a car. As soon as I have done it ,I'll let you know.
            • 连接性副词
              • 有连接词的意味，但不能作连接词用,只能当副词用。
              • however,nevertheless(然而)—有连接词but的意味
                • He is nice. However,I don't like him.
                • He is nice; however, I don't like him.
              • therefore,thus（因此）—有连接词so的意味
                • thus后通常不加逗号只置于主语前。
                • therefore亦可置于句中，两旁加逗号。
                • He is nice; I, therefore, like him.
                • He is nice; Thus I like him.
              • moreover,furthermore,in addition,besides（此外）—有连接词and的意味
                • 通常只置于主语前，而不插入句中
                • besides多用于否定或消极，in addition 反之。
                • She dances well.Furthermore,she is good at singing.
            • while
              • 表“当。。。”时为副词连接词
                • While I was writing a letter,she was doing the dishes.
              • 表“而。。。”时为并列连接词
                • He is nice,while/whereas his brother is bad.
            • 其它重要的
              • as（当；虽然；因为）
                • 当=when，As I was young, I was quit happy.
                • 虽然=though
                  • Though he is rich,he isn't happy.
                  • =Rich as he is ,he isn't happy.
                  • =As rich as he is,he isn't happy.
              • where(=in the place where+in the place in which)(在。。。的地方)
                • where there is a will,there is a way.
              • once（一旦）
                • Onece you hear any good news,let me know.
                • =As soon as you hear any good news,let me know.
              • or（否则）
                • You must work hard,or I ' ll fire you.
                • =You must work hard;otherwise I'll fire you.
              • nor（也不）
                • 用来连接两个否定句，后面要倒装
                • She can't sing,nor can she dance.
                • He isn't clever,nor is he diligent.
              • so that（这样的话；以便）
                • 引导的状语从句中应有助动词may,will,can等
                • I got up early so that I could get to school on time.
                • =I got up early in order that I could get to school on time.
              • so...that...（如此。。。以至于。。。）
                • He is so nice that we all like him .
                • He is so nice,we all like him.
              • in that （因为）
                • 相当于because,引导的状语从句多置于主句之后
                • He is great in that he speaks five different languages.
              • except that（只可惜，只不过是）
                • He is nice except he is a little shy.
              • since（因为；自从）
                • 因为→because，Since you've finished the work,you may leave anytime.
                • 自从，He has been studying quite hard (ever)since he went to college.
          • 关系词
            • 关系代词
              • 关系代词引导定语从句
                • 非限制性定语从句
                  • 子主题
                    • 关系代词前有逗号
                    • This is my mother,who loves me very much.
                  • who/which + be+n.结构时
                    • 可化为先行词的同位语
                    • I met john ,who is a good friend of mine.
                    • →I met Jhon,a good friend of mine.
                • 限制性定语从句
                  • 先行词为一般名词，本身不具特殊性，用定语从句加以限制。
                    • 关系代词前无逗号
                    • I like the book which he bought yesterday.
                  • 可化简为分词短语
                    • 关系代词在其中作主语时才可简化
                    • a.删除该关系代词
                      • The girl who danced here yesterday is my sister.
                      • →The girl dancing here yesterday is my sister.
                    • b.之后的动词变成现在分词
                    • c.若动词为be动词，可省略
                      • Who is that boy that is stanging over there?
                      • →Who is that boy standing over there?
                • 定语从句可化为不定式短语
                  • 须该关系代词之前有介词
                  • He has no house in which he can live.
                  • →He has no house to live in.
              • 种类及功能
                • 代替人 who 主格 whom 宾格 代替事物 which
                  • which
                    • • 用以代替整个句子，之前一定要有逗号
                      • Jhon,who was lazy ,scored quite high marks on the exam,which somewhat surprised me.
                    • • 代表前句中的部分概念
                      • He smokes three packs of cigarettes a day,which definitely does harm to his health.
                  • that
                    • 作关系代词时，可取代who,whom,which，之前不得有逗号或介词
                    • This is the knife which/that he killed Mary with.代替which
                    • 只能使用that 的情况
                      • 序数词后
                        • Gambling is the last thing which I would do.
                        • Gambling is the last thing that I would do.
                      • 最后级之后
                      • "the very + 名词"后
                        • She is the very lady that I met yesterday.
                      • "the only + 名词"后
                      • all之后
                        • All (that) he said is true.
                      • 句中出现相同两个关系代词时，第二个用that
                      • 关系代词在be动词后作表语表示某人身份时
                      • 两名词性质不一却共用一个关系代词时
                        • Look at the boy and the dog
                        • that are coming this way.
                      • 避免关系代词与疑问词重复时取代
              • 使用原则
                • a.之前要有先行词；
                  • He is a good student who studies hard.who之前有先行词a good student,who在从句中作主语。
                • b.关系代词在所引导的定语从句中要作主语、宾语或表语；
                • c.否则关系代词之前一定要有介词。
                  • He is a man for whom I enjoy working. =He is a man for whom I enjoy working. =He is a man whom I enjoy working for.
              • 省略原则
                • 限制性定语从句中，若关系代词为及物动词的宾语
                  • This is the boy whom I saw yesterday.
                  • ＝This is the boy I saw yesterday.
                • 若关系代词为介词的宾语，介词移至从句的末尾时
                  • This is the house in which he lives.
                  • =This is the house he lives in.
            • 关系代词所有格
              • 功能
                • 人称代词所有格变化而来，引导定语从句，修饰前面的名词。
                • I like that house,whose location looks good to me.
              • 使用原则
                • 之前要有先行词
                • 关系名所有格之后的名词要作定语从句中的主语或宾语
                • 否则之前一定要有介词
              • whose代替物时
                • "whose+n."
                • ="the + n.+of which"
                  • I like to study in this school,whose faculty and facilities are top-notch. =I like to study in this school,the faculth and facilities of which are top-notch. =I like to study in this school,of which the faculty and facilities are top-notch.
                • ="of which + the + n."
            • 关系副词
              • 种类
                • where(=in which,on which,at which)
                  • 用以修饰表地方的名词
                  • 表大地方时介词用in
                    • This is the city in which /where I met Suge.
                  • 表建筑物用at
                    • I met him at the station,at which /where there were many passengers.
                  • 表内部用in
                    • I bought a cabinet in which /where I could store books.
                  • 表外在用on
                    • Do you see the desk on which /where there is a book?
                • when(=in which,on which,at which)
                  • 用以修饰表时间的名词
                  • 介词：表日子时用on,表年、月或一段时间用in；表几时几刻用at
                • why(=for which)
                  • 用以修饰the reason
                    • I don't know the reason for which /why he cried.
                • how(=in which)
                  • the way 与how不能并存
                    • That's how/the way he handled the problem.
              • 使用要点
                • a,在限定修饰的定语从句中，除where以外，when及why均可省略，而how则一定予以省略。
                • b,where,when,why,how所修饰的名词若置于be动词之后作表语时，可省略该名词而保留关系副词。
                • c,where,when why ,how可视为疑问代词，引导名词性从句，此时可作及物动词的宾语（见第一章）
                • d,where可用作副词连接词=in the place where.
                • e,the moment(when)...=the instant(when)...=the minute(when)...=......
                • f,Probably that's the reason that/why he left.此处用that代替why，这种用法不常见
            • 关系指示代词
              • which:由指示代词（即that,this,those,these.）变化而成
              • 和关系代词一样，which + n. 可代表先行词或前面句中的部分概念，在从句中作主语或宾语。
            • 复合关系代词
              • 由两个词类复合而成：一方面含有先行词（如anybody,the thing,any thing), 一方面又含有关系代词（如who,whom,which).
              • 代替人
                • whoever=anybody who
                  • 主句anybody should be punished.
                    • =Anybody who makes such a mistake should be punished. =Whoever makes such a mistake should be punished.
                  • 从句who makes such a mistake
                    • 在主句或从句中，anybody/who至少有一个作主语
                • whomever=anybody whom
                  • 主句Give it to anybody.
                    • =Give it to anybody whom you like. =Give it to whomever you like.
                  • 从句whom you like.
                    • 在主句与从句中，whom&anybody whom都得作宾语才行
              • 代替人或物
                • whichever=any one which/who
                  • whichever是指同一类的任何东西
                • whichever=either which/who
              • 代替物
                • what=the thing(s) which
                  • 所。。。的东西：What he said is true.
                  • 造句原则
                    • 前面不可有先行词（名词）
                      • What bothers me is that I have no time.
                    • 将what视为the thing/things which;
                    • which在所引导的定语从句中可作主语、宾语或在be动词后作表语。
                • whatever=anything which
                  • 指不同类的任何东西:“所。。。的任何东西”Whatever he said is true.
                  • 注：whatever及whoever亦可作副词连接词=No matter what/No matter who 此时他所引导的状语从句与主句中间有逗号，而作复合关系词时则没有逗号。
            • 复合关系副词
              • however
                • 译“然而”-连接性副词
                  • He is nice;however,I don't like him.=He is nice.However,I don't like him.=He is nice.I,however,don't like him.
                • 译“无论如何”副词连接词
                  • =no matter how
                    • No matter how nice he is, I don't like him
                    • =However nice he is ,I don't like him.
                  • 所引导的状语从句中，主语之后若含有“be动词+形容词”时
                    • However poor he is,he doesn't want anyone to help him.
                    • =However poor he may be,he doesn't want...
              • whether
                • 引导状语从句 Whether he is rich(or not),It doesn't matter.（有逗号相隔）
                • 引导名词性从句Whether he is rich(or not) doesn't matter.（无逗号相隔）
            • 准关系代词
              • 形成条件：than,as,but 之前若有名词，就可形成准关系代词。
              • than
                • 之前若有名词就=“than+the+前面的名词+关系代词(who,whom,which)”
                • 可视为关系代词在引导的从句中作主语、宾语或be动词后的表语。
                  • 主语
                    • I have more money than is needed.
                  • 宾语
                    • I have more money than he needs.
                  • be动词后表语
                    • He is a better student than you are.=He is a better student than you.
              • as
                • 之前若有名词就=“as+the+前面的名词+关系代词(who,whom,which)”
                • 可视为关系代词在引导的从句中作 主语、宾语或be动词后的表语。 as作关系代词时，只用于旁边短语中
                  • such+n.+as...
                    • 主语I don't like such a man as tells lies.
                    • 宾语I respect such an honest man as you described.
                    • be动词后的表语Such a lazy student as John (is)will get nowhere.
                  • the same+n.+as...
                    • 主语I have the same book as is laid on the desk.
                    • 宾语I have the same dictionary as you bought yesterday.
                    • be动词后的表语I have the same dictionary as this one(is).
                  • as+adj.+n.+as...
                    • 主语He is as diligent a man as ever lived.
                    • 宾语I have as good a dictinary as you(do).
                    • be动词后的表语He is as good a man as John(is).
                • 特别说明
                  • "such+n."之后绝不可用like（像）加以修饰。
                    • Such a man like him is bad.
                    • Such a man as he (is) is bad.
                  • 比较
                    • "the same...as..."和。。。相同的。。。（两个人或物）I have the same book as he is reading.
                    • "the same...that..."就是同一个。。。（一个人或物）I borrowed the same book that he borrowed last week.
                  • as可代替主句等于which
                    • He works hard,which we all know.=He works hard,as we all know.
                    • which引导的从句只能置于主句之后，as前后都行。
                    • as+be+p.p时，be动词可省略。He is nice,as was mentioned before.=He is nice,as mentioned before.
                    • 特殊例子
                      • He was drunk,as usual.=He was drunk,as is ususl with him=...which is usual with him.
                      • His conditions are as follows.=His conditions are as what follows.；He listed the names as follows.
                  • 这些短语中若置名词只能置单数可数名词
                    • so...that...（如此...以致...）
                      • This is so good music that I love it.（music不可数）
                      • This is such good music that I love it.
                    • as...as...（和…一样…）
                      • This is as good music as that.（music不可数）
                      • This music is as good as that.
                    • too...to...（太...而不能...）
                      • They are too difficult problems to handle.
                      • These problems are too difficult to handle.
                    • how...（多么地...）
                      • How good music it is!
                      • What good music it is!
                    • 除非可数名词复数或不可数名词前加上：many,few,much,little 这些表数量的形容词
                      • I have as much money as he (does).
              • but
                • 作准关系代词时，只用于“no+名词”之后，此时but=who(whom\which)...not。 句型：There is no +名词+who/whom/which/(that)...not=There is no+名词+but...
                • 定语从句中有be动词时，保留该be动词
                  • There is no one who is not interested in it.=There is no one but is interested in it.
                • 定语从句中有一般助动词（can,will,may,should...)时，保留该助动词。
                  • There is nothing that he cannot do.=There is nothing but he can do.
                • 定语从句中有do,does,did等助动词时，先去掉do,does,did,再依时态、人称将之后的动词还原。
                  • There is no book which he doesn't like to read.=There is no book but he likes to read.
      • *（3）复合句（从句）
        • 需要关系代词引导。
        • 名词性从句
          • 主语从句
          • 宾语从句
          • 表语从句
          • 同位语从句
        • 形容词性从句
          • 定语从句
            • 关系代词引导的定语从句
            • 关系副词引导的定语从句
            • 介词+关系代词引导的定语从句
            • 限定性从句和非限定性从句
        • 副词性从句
          • 状语从句
    • *2.按用途分类
      • 4大句型
      • （1）陈述句
      • （2）疑问句
      • （3）祈使句
      • （4）感叹句
• *词法
  • 名词
    • 有单复数
    • 用于表示某件事物名称的词
      • eg：花，草，太阳
  • 动词
    • 要根据人称和时态而变化。
    • 定义
      • 表示运动的词
        • eg：打、骂、跳、唱
    • 分类
      • 在句中的功能
        • 实义动词
        • 系动词
          • 动词的一种，在句子中做谓语，没有实际意义。 系，联系的意思。 在句子中起联系的作用，所以叫做系动词
          • 常用系动词
        • 助动词
          • do
        • 情态动词
      • 根据其后是否有宾语
        • 及物动词（Vt）
        • 不及物动词（Vi）
      • 根据是否充当谓语
        • 谓语动词
          • 有人称和数的变化。
        • 非谓语动词
          • 定义：在句子中充当除谓语动词以为的句子成分的动词形式，称为非谓语动词。
      • 根据动词的组成形式
        • 单字词
        • 短语动词
        • 动词短语
      • 按照虚实来划分
        • 实词
          • 有实际意义
          • 名词
          • 动词
          • 形容词
          • 副词
        • 虚词
          • 没有实际意义
          • 介词
      • be 动词
        • 什么时候会出现be 动词？
          • 1.被动语态（过去分词做表语）
          • 2.主系表句型（be 动词后面的名词作表语，形容词作表语，地点副词作表语）
    • 形态
      • 动词原形
      • 动名词
      • 第三人称单数形式
        • do/does,like/likes
      • 过去式
        • done/sang
      • 过去分词
      • 现在分词
  • 代词
    • 主格
      • I/he/she/it/we/you/they
        • 做主语，动词前
          • She likes studying.
    • 宾格
      • me/him/her/it/us/you/them
        • 做宾语，动词介词后
          • Listen to him.
    • 所有格
      • my/his/her/our/its/your/their
        • 形容词性物主代词通常被叫做所有格，修饰名词，不能单独使用
          • Her bag is blue.
    • 物主代词
      • mine/his/hers/yours/its/ours/yours/theirs
        • 名词性物主代词，单独使用 = 所有格+名词
          • This is (my bag)=This is mine.
  • 形容词
    • 专门用来修饰名词的词
      • eg：可爱的，美丽的
  • 副词
    • 表示行为或者状态，专门用来修饰名词以外所有的词。
      • eg：大声地唱歌（大声地就是副词）
  • 有比较级
  • 介词
  • 连词
  • 冠词
    • a/an
    • the
  • 数词和量词
  • 感叹词
  • 疑问词
  • 同一个单词，在不同情况下，充当不同的词性
    • eg：am
      • 一般态
        • I am working.
          • 主谓结构
            • am 是助动词，work是动词
        • I am a doctor.
          • 主系表结构
            • am 是系动词
      • 完成态
        • He has married.
          • 主谓结构
            • married 是动词
        • He has been married for 3 years.
          • 主系表机构
            • married 是形容词，作表语
  • XX词短语
    • 以XX（词性）为主体（通常为开头）等词组成的意群
    • 举例
      • 形容词短语
        • 释义
          • 指由几个形容词或形容词及其修饰语构成的短语
        • 类型
          • 两个或多个形容词可以由and，but等对等连词连接，构成形容词短语
            • Your room is large and beautiful.（large and beautiful 是形容词短语）
          • very等程度副词作修饰语，可与形容词构成形容词短语
            • It is very hot today.（very hot 是形容词短语）
          • 介词及其宾语可用在形容词后修饰形容词，可与形容词构成形容词短语
            • I am sure of success.（sure of success 是形容词短语）
          • 不定式在形容词后作修饰语，可与形容词构成形容词短语
            • He is sure to come.（sure to come 是形容词短语）
      • 介词短语
        • 相当于副词（作定语修饰名词）
          • The man under the tree is my friend.（under the tree 是介词短语）
        • 相当于形容词（作状语修饰动词）
          • He stood under the tree.（under the tree 是介词短语）
  • 句法和词法的关系
    • 不同的词在句子中可以充当充当不同的成分
    • 举例
      • 名词
        • 做主语和宾语的不一定职能是单个的名词，也有可能是短语或者短句
        • 名词VS主语（充分不必要）
        • 名词可以做主语和宾语
• 时态
  • 中文和英文的差别
    • 中文谓语没有时态变化。
    • 英语里的谓语动词，会随着时间和状态，发生相应的变化。
  • 时态的本质是什么？
    • 时态=“时间”和“状态”
      • 图示
      • 时间是不可以叠加的，状态时可以叠加的
      • “时间”是横向的
        • 时间
          • 时间分为“3时”
            • 现在
              • “现在”并不是指现在这个时间点，而是指“常态”
              • She walks to school.
            • 过去
              • She walked to school.
            • 将来
              • She will walk to school.
      • “状态”是纵向的
        • 状态
          • 状态（谓语动词的状态）分为4种
            • 一般
              • 强调动作发生的时间，而非状态
                • I play basketball.
            • 进行
              • 强调动作的过程（描绘，生动性）
                • I am playing basketball.
            • 完成
              • 强调动作的结果（逻辑推导性）
                • I have played basketball.
            • 完成进行
              • 强调动作的结果和过程
                • I have been playing basketball.
          • 4种状态的谓语变化
            • 进行
              • be + 现在分词（be 按照3个时间 及主语人称变化）
            • 一般
              • 第一人称和复数 - 动词原型，第三人称 - 加“s”
            • 完成
              • have + 过去分词（have 按照3个时间及主语人称变化）
            • 完成进行时
              • have been + 现在分词（have 按照3个时间及主语人称变化）
            • 以 动词do 为例
              • 图示
              • 引申
                • 不规则动词表
    • 16种时态详解
      • 一般态
        • 强调动作本身
        • 01.一般现在时
          • 一般现在时分成3种情况
            • 1.表示事物现在的情况或状态（主系表句型）
              • I am a doctor.
            • 2.表示经常性、习惯性动作（常有时间副词修饰）
              • I never get up early on Sundays, I sometimes stay in bed until lunch time.
            • 3.表示客观真理，格言
              • Time Flies.
        • 02.一般过去时
          • 一般过去时常使用过去的时间副词，如yesterday，last week，two years ago，in 1998
            • Last summer,I went to Italy.
          • 表示过去的动作、习惯、事实
        • 03.一般将来时
          • 表示将来发生的动作或状态，或者倾向（will 翻译为表示过去的动作、习惯、事实将要）
            • He will soon visit Darwin.From here,he will fly to Perth.
          • be going to +动词原形，也表示将来时，但多表示“计划”，故其主语多是“人”。will 表示“意愿”时，主语是“人”。但也可以表示“预测”，主语是“物”。
            • Mr.Thompson is going to sell it because it is haunted(闹鬼).
          • be about to + 动词原形，即将……
            • He is about to leave for Shenyang.
      • 进行态
        • 强调动作的过程。
        • 动词概念
          • 延续性动词
          • 瞬间动词
            • 瞬间动词不能用进行时态来形容它（go、marry、die）
        • 04.现在进行时
          • 表示现在正在做的动作，此时be 动词翻译为“正在"
            • He is playing basketball.
            • You are being very rude.
          • 表示即将发生的动作（通常是表示“位移”短暂动词come，go,arrive,leave,start,begin,return,die,take）,此时be 动词翻译为“即将”
            • “We are going back now,"said the conductor.
        • 05.过去进行时
          • 表示过去某事正在做的事情。
            • A man was lying in the box during the flight.
        • 06.将来进行时
          • 表示将来某时将进行的动作
            • They will be arriving here tomorrow.
        • 联系
          • 进行态，其实就是一般态的生动模式。任何一个进行态的句子，都可以改成一般态。
          • 一般态却不一定能改成进行态，动词时延续性动词才能改。
            • I looked out of the window.=I was looking out of the window.
            • I never get up early on Sundays.≠ I was never getting up early on Sundays. 因为 get up 是短暂的。
      • 完成态
        • 强调动作的结果。
        • 07.现在完成时
          • 表示到现在为止已经完成的动作（发生的时间不明）
            • He has gone to Shanghai.
          • 如果是延续性动词，表示持续到现在的动作（或状态）。（注意：be 动词时可延续的）
            • She has lived here for 10 years.
            • I have been to the Great Wall.
          • 现在完成时常用时间副词
            • 1.since + 时间点，自从……
            • 2.for + 时间段，有若干赶时间之久
              • Mr. Hart has trained his daughter for years.
            • 3.so far / up to now，到目前为止
            • 4.recently/lately ,最近
            • 5.once/twice/a few times/many times， 一次/两次/几次
            • 6.over/during/for + the last/past +数字+years/months/days，过去若干年/月/日以来
        • 08.过去完成时
          • 表示截止过去某事为止所完成的动作或经验。（过去完成时不能单独存在，要与另一使用一般过去时的句子或者表示过去的副词短语连用）。（had翻译为“已经”或“曾经”）
            • A short time before,great trees had covered the countryside for miles around.
        • 09.将来完成时
          • 表示到将来某时为止所完成或仍然继续的动作或经验等。（常与介词by 构成的时间状语连用，表示“到……的时候”）
            • Workers will have completed the new roads by the end of this year.
      • 完成进行态
        • 同时强调动作的过程和结果（延续性动词）
        • 10.现在完成进行时
          • 表示一直继续到现在，且可能继续下去的动作（通常和表示时间段的副词连用，如 for,since,all morning……）
            • If you haven't discovered your dream,probably you've been missing too much.
        • 11.过去完成进行时
          • 表示一直继续到过去某时，而当时仍然在持续的动作（过去完成进行时的句中必须有表示过去的时间状语）
            • The planes had been planting seed for nearly a month when it began to rain.
        • 12.将来完成进行时
          • 一直继续到将来某时，且可能继续下去的动作
            • By the time you come back tonight,I will have been sleeping for five hours.
        • 总结
          • 任何完成进行态，都能改为完成态。但是完成态不一定能改成完成进行态，必须是延续性动词，才能改。
      • 过去将来时
        • 通常用于叙述性故事中，或间接引语中。
        • 13.一般过去将来时
          • Then he smiled and told me I would receive an extra thousand pounds a year.
        • 14.过去将来进行时
          • She said she would be setting off on the 10 o'clock train.
        • 15.过去将来完成时
          • I guessed that Helen would have told her something.
        • 16.过去将来完成进行时
          • He told me that by the end of the year he would have been living there for thirty years.
• 语态
  • 主动语态
  • 被动语态
    • 只有及物动词才有被动语态（不及物动词没有被动语态）
    • 所谓被动语态，其实是一种特殊的主系表句型：过去分词做表语
      • 与中文的“把字句”和“被字句”不一样。
      • 某些中文可以做主语，但是英文却不可以。
        • 如：奥运会明年在伦敦举行。中文奥运会可以做主语，但英语中，奥运会不能自己举办，只能用被动语态。
    • 及物动词面可以加宾语
      • I eat meat.(主动)
        • 主谓宾结构
      • The meat is eaten by me.（被动）
        • 主系表结构
    • 不及物动词后面不可以加宾语，没有被动语态
      • I appear.(主动，没有被动语态)
  • 主动语态变成被动语态的方式
    • 1.be 动词（根据16 种时态变化，与原句时态一致） +过去分词，原句的宾语做主语，而原句的主语，在被动语态中省略，或者前面加上介词 by 做状语。
  • 被动语态的时态变化
    • 一般态
      • 一般现在时
        • The piano is kept in the living-room.
      • 一般过去时
        • The piano was bought by my grandfather many years ago.
      • 一般将来时
        • The Olympic Games will be held in our country in four years' time.
      • 被动语态中出现情态动词时，用法同will
        • The work must be finished in one way or another.
    • 进行态
      • be 动词+being+过去分词，be 动词时态和原句保持一致。
      • 现在进行时
        • It is being repaired by Tom.
      • 过去进行时
        • I was being tested for a driving licence for the third time.
      • 将来进行时
        • He will be being examined when we get there.
          • 主动语态：Somebody will be examming him when we get there.
    • 完成态
      • have/has/had been +动词过去分词
      • 现在完成时
        • The buildings have been designed by Tom.
      • 过去完成时
        • I had been asked to drive in heavy traffic and had done so successfully.
      • 将来完成时
        • Your character will have been completed by the time your life comes to an end.
    • *完成进行态很少用于被动语态，故不细讲
  • 最好使用被动语态的情况
    • 为了突出受动者（主动语态中的宾语）
      • A liar is not believed when he tells the truth.
    • 施动者（主动语态中的主语）不明确或不必指明时
      • Once a year,a race is held for old cars.
• 非谓语动词
  • 不定式
    • to V. 不定式同时具有和动名词与分词类似的功能。 要特别注意，不定式有“逻辑将要”的含义，故其动作发生在前面的动词之后，而且多表达意愿、目的、企图等。
    • 不定式分词短语的构成和功能
      • 名词从句的化简：做主语，及物动词的宾语，表语，宾语补语
        • 做主语
          • 做主语
            • To make large sums of money is my dream.
            • 和动名词一样，不定式短语做主语是，一律作为第三人称单数。但如果and连接两个不定式做主语是，视为复数。
              • To become a great scientist is his ultimate(终极的) goal.
        • 做及物动词的宾语
          • 只能用不定式做宾语的动词（绝对不能做介词的宾语）
            • attempt企图，choose选择，decide决定，expect期望，hope希望intend打算，manage设法，offer/volunteer主动提议，plan计划，want要，wish希望，endeavor努力(表示“企图”或者“意愿”)
              • Debbie is only eleven years old and she hopes to set up a new world record.(相当于……that she can set up a new world record.)
          • 和名词从句不同，不定式短语还可以和动词make构成宾补句型，用于表示“使某种事情变得怎样”
            • make +it+(to be)+名词或形容词（补语）+不定式（宾语）
              • I made it my business to know all about them.
          • 有些及物动词，既可以用动名词也可以用不定式做宾语，但含义不同，要注意区分。（一般动名词表示已经做过的事情，不定式表示打算去做的事情）
            • Stop doing 停止做某事；Stop to do 停下来做某事remember doing 记得做过某事，remember to do 记住要去做某事forget doing 忘记做过某事，forget to do 忘记去做某事
        • 作表语（名词性）
          • My hope is to become a scientist like Einstein.
        • 做宾语补语或被动语态的主语补语
          • She wanted him to repair their son's bicycle.
        • 做同位语
          • My plan to visit the town was refused.=My plan that I will visit the town was refused.
        • 疑问词+不定式 构成名词短语，用法和名词相同
          • I was just wondering how to spend the morning.=I was just wondering how I would spend the morning.
      • 状语从句的化简：做状语
        • 分词短语做状语，可以表示伴随，时间，原因，结果，目的，方式，让步，条件。 但是不定式状语只能表目的和结果。
        • 做目的状语
          • Fifteen Policemen had to push very hard to get him off the main street.
        • 做结果状语(不定式表示意料之外的结果，而分词表示意料之中的结果)
          • Farm laborers said that they always woke up to find the work had been done overnight.（意料之外）
      • 定语从句的化简：做定语
        • 关系代词作主语引导的定语从句化简（修饰的名词被绝对性形容词修饰的时候）
          • I have no friend to advise me.=I have no friend who can advise me.
        • 关系代词做宾语引导的定语从句化简（通常表示“有某事要做”）
          • I have a letter to write.
        • 关系副词引导的定语从句化简（此时不定式短语必须是不及物动词，或者及物动词+宾语）
          • The time to go is July.（不及物动词go）=The time when we should go is July.
          • It is time to draw a conclusion.(及物动词draw+宾语conclusion)
    • 不定式的逻辑主语
      • 当不定式的逻辑主语和句子的主语不一致的时候，通用for+名词+不定式
        • He expects for his sister to meet you.
      • 想要表达“对于……来说做某事是怎样的”，通常用It is +adj. +for sb. to do sth.这种不定式带上逻辑主语的结构。
        • It is necessary for him to study English every day.
      • 在It is+形容词+for sb.to do sth.句型中，表示人物性格的形容词（聪明，善良，初心，愚蠢……）和不定式连用时，要用of代替for
        • It's wise of you not to argue with our boss.
    • 不定式短语的时态和语态的变化
      • • 不定式的完成态，表示不定式的动作发生在谓语动作之前
          • Fishermen and sailors sometimes claim to have seen monsters in the sea.(完成态，主动语态)
          • This building was said to have been built form their own designs.(完成态，被动语态)
        • 常见固定搭配
          • claim to do 宣称……be said to do 据说……be supposed/thought/expected to do 应该……seem/appear 似乎……
            • Everyone went to the funeral,for the 'ghost' was none other than Eric Cox,a third brother who was supposed to have died as a young man.
        • 不定式的进行态，表示不定式的动作与位于动作同时发生。（不定式进行态不常用，通常只用于seem/appear,happen等动词之后），表达“似乎正在做某事”、“碰巧正在做某事”等等。
          • A pilot noticed a balloon which seemed to be making for a Royal Air Force Station nearby.
  • 分词
    • 分词短语，其实就是简化的句子。 过去分词（Ved.）/现在分词（Ving.）
    • 充当成分
      • 形容词
        • 表主动/被动的概念
          • 修饰人（Ved，过去分词）
            • He was excited when he heard the news.
          • 修饰物（Ving，现在分词）
            • The competition is quite exciting.
        • 表进行/完成的概念
          • 正在......的 （现在分词）
            • Do you see that speeding car?
          • 即将......的 （现在分词）
            • The retiring teacher walked into the classroom.
          • 已经......的 （过去分词）
            • He is aged, but he stays young at heart.
      • 表语
        • be动词或连系动词之后的表语
          • 作表语的分词，均为形容词（……的）
          • The baby is tiring.
        • 及物动词之后的宾语补语
          • 宾补若为及物动词，后面无宾语用过去分词表被动
            • I found him killed.
          • 后面有宾语用现在分词表正在进行
            • I saw him kissing marry.
          • 宾补若为不及物动词，用现在分词表正在进行
            • I found him trembling.
        • with复合结构中的宾语补语
          • 置于句尾，用以修饰句中的主语，以表示主语所处的状况。
          • He came here with a gun in one hand.=He came here gun in hand.
          • He talked to me with a pipe in his mouth.=He talked to me pipe in mouth.
      • 名词
        • 凡可作形容词用的分词，前面若有定冠词the，可当作单数/复数的名词使用
          • The wounded were rushed to the hospital.=Wounded people were rushed to the hospital.（复数）
          • The unexpected has happened.=Something (which) we didn't expect has happened.（单数）
      • 副词
        • 少数的现在分词有副词very的意味，可修饰其后的形容词。
          • It's freezing/biting cold today.The tea is boiling hot.He was hopping mad on hearing his dismissal.
        • 也有少数过去分词作副词用
          • An estimated 54 people were killed in the air crash. =It is estimated that 54 people were killed in the air crash.
    • 句子的简化
      • 一句中有两个动词同时存在，彼此一定要有连接词相连。 若无连接词，动词需变化.
      • 时态（动词）的变化
        • 若两个动词所代表的动作同时发生时，第二个动词一定要变成 现在分词，若该动词是be动词，变成现在分词being之后要省略。
          • He came home crying.
          • He sat in the corner reading a newspaper.
          • He came home (being) tired.
          • He left young and came back old.
        • 若两个动词所代表的动作并非同时发生，而是有先后次序时， 第二个动词就要变成‘to+原形动词’形成的不定式短语
          • He came here to see me.
          • He stood up to smoke a cigarette.
        • 若两动词有逗号相隔，而无连接时，就不必考虑动词所代 表的动作先后发生的次序，第二个动词一定要变成现在分词
          • He left home at six in the morning, arriving here about fourin the afternoon.
          • He ran away quickly, looking as if something terrible had happened.
      • 并列句的化简
        • 两句在一起，若无连接词相连时，往往第一个句子要化简，变成分词短语。法则如下： a.两句的主语相同时，被化简的句子的主语要删除，若主语不同时要保留； b.之后的动词要变成现在分词； c.若该动词为be动词时，变成现在分词being之后，可予以省略，但亦可不予省略，以强调‘因为...’的意思。
          • 变成否定分词结构时，not要置于分词前。
            • He was not satisfied with the result;He decided to try again. =Not (being) satisfied with the result, he decided to try again.
          • 句中有助动词do,does,did时，可直接删除。
            • He didn't intend to see her;He left early. =Not intending to see her,he left early.
          • 句中有完成时助动词have,has,had,要视为动词而变成现在分词having.
            • I have not seen her for ages; I miss her. =Not having seen her for ages,I miss her.
          • 主语不同时，所形成的分词结构，称为分词的独立主格结构。 所谓分词的独立主格结构，就是独立修饰不同主语的分词结构。
            • All things were considered; I decided to major in business administration. =All things considered, I decided to major in business administration.
          • 有时，亦可消灭第二个句子，变成分词结构。
            • He was reading a book, his wife knitting beside him. =He was reading a book,and his wife was knitting beside him.
      • 定语从句的化简
        • 在限制性定语从句中，关系代词作主语时，可化简成分词短语，法则如下： a,删除关系代词； b,其后动词变成现在分词； c,若该动词为be动词，变成现在分词being之后，可予以省略。
          • The man who is talking to Mary over there is my father.↓ The man talking to Mary over there is my father.
          • Who is the boy that is locked behind the door?↓ Who is the boy locked behind the door?
      • 状语从句的化简
        • once,when,while,if,unless,though等六个连接词所引导的状语从句中， 若主语与主句中的主语相同时，亦可化简为分词结构。法则同单句化简法↓
        • a.两句的主语相同时，被化简的句子的主语要删除，若主语不同时要保留； b.之后的动词要变成现在分词； c.若该动词为be动词时，变成现在分词being之后，可予以省略，但亦可不予省略，以强调‘因为...’的意思。
        • once,if,unless所引导的状语从句若化简为分词短语，多限于 ‘主语+be+分词/形容词’的结构，而when,while,though则不在此限。
          • Unless you are otherwise instructed,you should do as I said. =Unless otherwise instructed, you should do as I said.
          • Once I have money, I'll buy a car.=Once rich, I'll buy a car.
          • Though I have money,I won't buy a car. =Though having money, I won't buy a car.
    • 表身体组织的名词可变成过去分词当形容词用
      • I love the big-eyed girl.
      • Do you see the red-haired girl there?
      • The one-legged soldier was a hero.
    • 少数现在分词可当介词用
      • including/excluding
        • Everyone likes the movie,excluding/including John. =Everyone likes the movie,John (being) excluded/included. =Everyone likes the movie,exclusive/inclusive of John.
      • considering
        • Considering his performance,he can be a good teacher. =His performance considered, he can be a good teacher.
      • regarding/concerning
        • He wrote an article regarding/concering/about/on environmental pollution.
    • 独立分词短语
      • 某些独立分词短语有副词的功能，通常置于句首，修饰整个句子
      • Strictly speaking严格说来，Frankly speaking老实说，Generally speaking通常来说
        • Generally speaking, men are physically stronger than women.
    • 与使役动词有关分词短语
      • I start the ball rolling.
      • The news set my heart throbbing.
      • I am sorry to have kept you waiting.
      • I couldn't make myself understood.
      • I had my shoes repaired.
      • He got a new suit made.
      • You should leave it unsaid.
      • I like my eggs half boiled.
      • I had my watch stolen.
  • 动名词
    • Ving（动名词）
    • 具有名词的性质在句中可作
      • 主语
        • 仍有动词的意味，若该动词原为及物动词，之后仍须加宾语，动名词短语之后必接单数动词。 Helping others gives me great pleasure.
        • 动名词短语作主语时，亦可被形式主语it代替，而将该动名词短语移至句尾，改成不定式短语。 It gives me great pleasure to help others.
        • 唯在It is no use的结构中，真正主语仍应为动名词。 It is no use crying over spilt milk. =It is of no use to cry over spilt milk. =There is no use in crying over spilt milk.
      • 表语
        • 表示一种经验或已知的事。
          • My favorite sport is skating.
        • 动名词OR现在分词？
          • A is B=B is A 语意顺畅为动名词
      • 宾语
        • 动词的宾语
          • a.anticipate V-ing期望......
            • I anticipate cooperating with him.=I expect to cooperate with him.
          • b.stop V-ing 停止从事......
            • He stopped/quit/ceased writing when he saw me.=He cased to write when he saw me.
          • c.allow允许、permit准许、forbid禁止
            • He allowed/permitted me to smoke.He allowed/permitted smoking. He forbate me to smoke.He forbate smoking.
          • d.remember,forget,regret.
            • 过去的已发生的
              • I remember seeing her before.(having seen her before.) I forgot mailing that letter.(having mailed that letter.) I regret doing it.(having done it .)
            • 将来的未发生的
              • I'll remember to see him tomorrow.
          • e.I like/dilike/love/hate to do it.=...doing it. I continued/began/started to do it.=....doing it.
        • 介词的宾语
          • None would have dreamed of there being such a place.
          • 比较worth,worthy,worthwhile.
            • worth prep.值得
              • 置于be动词之后，可接动名词或名词作其宾语。
              • The issue is worth paying attention to. The car is worth a fortune.
            • worthy adj.值得的(~of)
              • be worthy of +名词
              • The issue is worthy of everyone's attention.
            • worthwhile adj.值得的
              • 置于名词前，亦可置于It is 之后。
              • That's a worthwhile book to read. =It is worthwhile to read that book. =It pays to read that book.
    • 所有格与动名词的关系
      • 动名词短语的逻辑主语——所有格+动名词
      • that引导的名词性从句作主语时，可化为动名词短语，仍作主语
        • That he teaches well is something that pleases me. =His teaching well is something that pleases me.
      • that引导的名词性从句可作表认知或意愿的及物动词的宾语。 (think,feel,find,believe...)(hope,wish,expect,desire...)
        • I believe that he works hard.
        • I hope that he may join us.
      • 而表示喜欢、厌恶、在乎之意的及物动词，如like,dislike,enjoy,mind 等就不可接that从句作宾语。此时可改用“所有格+动名词”的短语。
        • I don't like that he smokes here.
        • →I don't like his smoking here.
      • that从句亦不可直接作介词的宾语
        • ，可改用‘所有格+动名词’短语。
          • I am curious about that he stays up late every night.
          • I am curious about his staying up late every night.
        • 但若that从句中的主语是物时，就不用所有格， 而直接将主语作宾语，之后接现在分词。
          • In spite of that the sun shone,the air was very cold.
          • In spite of the sun shining,the air was very cold.
    • 与名词连用，形成复合名词
      • a sleeping car火车中的卧车厢a writing pad便条纸a walking stick手杖a sewing machine缝纫机 a dining room饭厅a starting point起点a laughing stock笑柄a visiting card名片drinking water饮用水
      • 区分‘动名词+名词’与‘现在分词+名词’
        • 若为‘动名词+名词’，则后者有前者的功能，即动名词有‘用来......’之意 A walking stick手杖-用来走路的棍子
        • 若为‘现在分词+名词’，则后者有前者的性质，即现在分词有‘正在......’或‘会......’之意。 A sleeping baby睡觉中的婴儿-正在睡觉的婴儿a walking dictionary活字典-会走路的字典
    • 有些可作可数的普通名词用。
      • As an old saying goes,"Honesty is the best policy."
      • A knocking at the door was heard.
      • He has a good understanding of the problem.
      • Don't forget to take your belongings（恒用复数：东西） with you.
    • 动名词习惯用语
      • there is no Ving（不可能）
        • There is no reasoning with such a stubborn man. =It is impossible to reason with such a stubborn man.
      • It is no use Ving（......是无用的）
        • It is no use trying to escape. =It is of no use to try to escape.
      • cannot help/resist/refrain from/stop +V-ing（忍不住......）
        • He couldn't help crying when he saw her. =He couldn't but cry when he saw her.
      • on Ving （一......就......）
        • On/Upon hearing it ,he cried.=As soon as/Once/The moment/The instant he heard it,he cried. =He had no sooner heard it than/hardly heard it when/scarcely heard it when he cried. =No sooner had he heard it than/Hardly had he heard it when/Scarcely had he heard it when he cried.
• 特殊句式
  • 比较结构
    • 比较句，并不是宾语从句，而是一种特殊的并列句
    • 比较句就是：原级比较：as +(副词)+形容词或副词的原级…as（连词）…比较级比较：形容词或副词的比较级…than（连词）…
      • 原级比较
        • He is as handsome as John.
      • 如果than 后面的句子中的动词和前面完全一致，可以省略；如果不一致，比如is 变成了am,are,was,were等形式，那就不能省略。如果是一般动词，应该以do,does,did 代替。
        • Mary is more beautiful than Jane.(都是is，可省略)
        • John is more handsome than I am.（一个是is，一个是am,不可省略）
        • I love her more than you do.
  • 倒装句和强调句
    • 所谓倒装句，就是改变句子主干的正常顺序，达到强调其中一部分内容的目的。 两者相关性极强，所以一起讲。
    • 否定倒装句
      • 倒装的方法其实就是：把否定副词后面的句子，变成一般疑问句语序：1）句中有be 动词或者助动词的时候，将其与主语倒装2）句中只有一般动词的时候，根据人称和时态在主语前面加上do/does/did
        • 否定性副词：never、hardly/scarcely、rarely/seldom、little/none、nowhere
          • Never is he happy.=He is never happy.
          • Hardly is he ever quiet.=He is hardly ever quiet.
        • 否定性质的副词短语：by no means,in no way,in no situation,on no account
          • By no means are you the person we need.=You are by no means the person we need.
          • In no way am I responsible for what has happened.=I am in no way responsible for what has happened.
    • not 倒装
      • not until/only+副词性质的短语或从句 直到…才/只有……
        • Not until John arrived did I leave.=I did not leave until John arrived.
        • Only in a sparsely-populated rural community is it possible to disregard it.=It is possible to disregard it only in a sparsely-populated rural community.
      • 并列句里的not only…but(also /…as well)(不仅…而已…)句型，在连接两个完整的句子时，要使用倒装。（注意：第二个句子不倒装，但also要省略）
        • Not only was the meal well below the usual standard, but Bessie seemed unable to walk steadily.
          • 原句：The meal was not only well below the usual standard,but Bessie seemed unable to walk steadily.
      • Not only had the poor man been arrested,but he had been sent to prison as well.
        • 原句是：The poor man had not only been arrested,but he had been sent to prison as well.
    • so/such 倒装
      • He is so helpful that we all like him.=So helpful is he that we all like him.
    • nor/and neither 倒装句
      • nor 和neither 都表示“也不”，但nor是连词，而neither是副词，所以前面通常有连词and。（美式英语中有时也可省略）
        • My girlfriend doesn't like singing,and I don't,either.
        • My girlfriend doesn't like singing,nor do I.
        • My girlfriend doesn't like singing,and neither do I.
        • 注意
          • nor 作为副词，还可以单独使用，表示"并非"
            • Nor is the city without its moments of beauty.
    • 副词倒装句
      • 表示地点、方向、次序的副词放在句首，主语是名词，谓语是系动词或者不及物动词的时候，必须倒装（主语是代词不到装）
        • On the desk is a book.(完全倒装)
        • On the hill I saw Lulu.(不倒装)
        • There you have it and that's the news for today.(不倒装)
  • 条件状语从句和虚拟语气
    • 条件状语从句和虚拟语气都是表示”如果……就……“，相关性强，所以最好放在一起讨论。
    • 条件状语从句
      • 真实条件状语从句
        • 条件状语从句最常用的连接副词
          • if
            • if 后面可加then,如果then省略了，也隐含在句子的意思里。
            • 表示客观事实，主句用一般现在时或现在进行时，从句用一般现在时。（可记忆为“主现从现“）
              • If I eat too much,I feel uncomfortable.
              • If you can't beat them,join them.
            • 表示将来可能发生的情况，主句一般将来时，从句要用一般将来时，此时主句的will表示肯定或很有可能发生的情况。（真实的情况，而且主句用的是一般将来时，表示这是推测）（可记忆为“主将从现”）
              • If you park your car in the wrong place,a traffic policeman will soon find it.
            • 如果再条件状语从句中出现了will,不是将来时，而是表示意愿。
              • If I prepare,my chance will come someday.
              • If a man will not seek knowledge,it will not seek him.
          • unless（除非……）
            • All dream are of no value unless they are followed by action.
          • only if（只有…才）与if only（只要…就）
            • He can continue to support himself and his family only if he produces a surplus.
            • Only if I get a job will I have enough money to go go school.(Only if 放句首，主句要倒装)
            • The Almighty（造物主） has given men arms long enough to reach the stars if only they would put them out.
            • 注意：only if 前面可以加上but.
              • I'll do that,but only if we set a few rules.
      • 虚拟语气
        • 虚拟预期，就是不可能发生的情况的假设。 虚拟语气是通过谓语动词的变化实现的。
        • 虚拟语气的常规构成表
          • • 现在虚拟
              • Young man,' she answered,' if you ate more and talked less,we would both enjoy our dinner.(would 表虚拟语气)
              • 注意：现在虚拟be 动词的过去式用were
                • If I were you,I would take the subway.
                • 现实虚拟中的“现在”，不一定是发生在现在的事情，也有可能是“常态”，也就是对客观事实的虚拟。比如“如果太阳从西边出来，中国队就能打败巴西队”
            • 将来虚拟
              • I Peter should come again,I would throw him out.
              • 注：现在虚拟be动词的过去式用were
            • 过去虚拟
              • If the Houses of Parliament had not been burned down in 1834,the great clock would never have been erected.(如果不是国会大厦在1834年被禁毁的话，这座大钟永远不会建造)
                • if 从句中的were,should,had 可以放在主语前，同时省略if.
                  • If he were,I would tell him the truth.=Were he here,I would tell him the truth.
      • 条件状语从句转化为分词短语
        • 分词短语，单从分词短语本身，是看不出真实和虚拟的，只有后主从句的时态才能看出。
        • Cooked in wine,snails are a great luxury in various parts of the world.(主句为一般现在时,真实)
        • Weather permitting,we'll go fishing.(主句为一般将来时，真实)
        • Given more time,I would be able to complete it.（虚拟）
      • 虚拟语气的特殊用法
        • 与客观真理相反的强烈虚拟语气，从句用were to +动词原形，主句用过去将来时（would 可改为should，might，could）
          • If I were to live my life over again,I would have you as my wife.
        • 主观意志动词“建议”，“要求”，“命令”3大类之后的宾语从句，要使用助动词should（可省略）
          • 1.建议：suggest，advise，propose2.要求：demand，require，request，insist3.命令：order，command
            • He suggested that a double railway tunnel (should) be built.
        • should(ought to) have+过去分词，表示与过去事实相反的推测，译为“早应，本应该……”
          • He should have known that the police would never allow this sort thing.
        • Whether 引导的让步状语从句，可用虚拟语气
          • Whether it be bird,fish or beast,the porpoise(海豚) is intrigued with anything that is alive.
        • wish 后面的宾语从句，必须用虚拟语气
          • I wish he were here.(现在虚拟，用一般过去时)
          • I wish I had kept faithful to my childhood dreams.（过去虚拟，用过去完成时）
          • I wish you would keep on trying to improve your English.（将来虚拟，用过去将来时）
        • if only 用于虚拟，表示“要是…该多好啊！”（时态变化同wish）
          • If only he were here.
        • as if/as though 用于虚拟，表示“就像…一样”（时态变化同wish）
          • He acted as if he had never lived in England before.
        • would rather/would sooner 用于虚拟，表示“宁可……”
          • 现在和将来虚拟，均用一般过去时
            • I would rather you had more health than wealth.（现在虚拟）
            • I would rather my father kept his mind and body active after retires in three years.(将来虚拟)
          • 过去虚拟，用过去完成时
            • I would rather my son had become a doctor,but he became a teacher after graduating.
        • lest/in case/for fear 的虚拟，表示“以防……”，谓语均要使用should（可省略）+动词原形
          • Weigh well your words lest they(should) be swords.
        • What if…？ 如果…会怎么样？
          • What if he doesn't agree?
• 介词省略句型
  • 后接名词
    • I am terribly sorry about that.
  • 后接动名词短语
    • She is tired of doing her homework.（is tired of）
    • John has been aware of having done something wrong.(has been aware of)
  • 后面接名词从句
    • 只有whether 从句和疑问词从句，才能直接作介词的宾语
      • I am worried about whether he can do it.
      • I'm curious about how he'll cope with the problem.
    • 介词后如果要用that 从句，那么此时要省略介词 about/of
      • 其实，这样的结构，其实就是去掉了介词 about 或of 的宾语从句。
      • I am worried about that he plays around all day.
      • I am worried that he plays around all day.
    • 此时还可用 介词+the fact+that 从句，此时that从句为同位语从句。或者，将that 从句化简为动名词短语。
      • I am sure of that the team has won the game.
      • I am sure of the fact that the team has won the game.
      • I am sure of the team's winning the game.
  • 后接不定式
    • 不定式的逻辑主语是句子的主语
      • I was excited to receive a letter from my girlfriend in Australia.
      • 有5个特殊的形容词（easy/difficult/hard/possible/impossible，也可以使用类似结构，表示：做某事容易/很难/可能/不可能）。但这个时候，其后的不定式，形式是主动的，但是意思是被动的。
        • He is easy to please.
        • He is difficult to fool.
        • The book is hard to understand.
          • This book is hard to be understood.