出国托福考试阅读知识框架学习笔记

出国托福考试阅读知识框架学习笔记，导图内容简洁、逻辑清晰、重点突出，希望对大家有所帮助～

出国托福考试阅读知识框架学习笔记

• 1. 词汇题
  • 【1】托福要求的词汇量
    •  3%-5%的生词
  • 【2】阅读中的词汇难点
    • 1. 总量积累不足
    • 2. 不能反应词义，信息理解中断
      • 1. 核心词：掌握全部常用义 approach, object, overlook
      • 2. 非核心词：掌握主要释义 execute
      • 3. 特定话题高频：要求熟知
        • - 在同一类话题文章中反复出现,且不可替代
        • - photosynthesis, metabolism,precipitation, hormone, stegosaurus
    • 3. 对应不够准确 信息理解偏差
      • 1. 抽象词:intensify, contribute
      • 2. 多义词 settle, solution
      • 3. 形似词 resemble/assemble; secret/secrete; object/subjet
  • 【3】如何准备阅读词汇
    • 1. 确定理解重点：动词及形容词
      • 单词识记应以【动词】、【形容词】、【连词】为重点。 [例1] We do a mile in four minutes. [例2] This room will do us very nicely. / That will do. [例3] This coat will do for another season. 1. However, unlike cases of sea otters and pinnipeds.... 2. ....seals. sea lion, and walruses, whose limbs are functional both on land and at sea.... 3. It should be obvious that cetaceans-whales, porpoises, and dolphins-are mammals.... 4. Inequalities of gender have also existed in pastoralist societies, but they seem to have been softened by the absence of steep hierarchies of wealth in most communities, and also by the requirement that women acquire most of the skills of men, including, often, their military skills. ○ Despite the fact that wealth is relatively evenly distributed in pastoral societies, gender inequality still exists because only men can acquire military skills and social status. ○ Inequalities of gender existed in pastoralist societies until most communities began to require women to possess the same skills as men and take part in the military. ○ Inequalities of gender in pastoralist societies were caused by steep hierarchies of wealth and differences in military training between men and women. ○ In pastoral societies, gender inequality is comparatively mild because wealth is relatively evenly distributed and women have to learn most of the same skills that men do. 5. The explanation is that the Maya excavated depressions, or modified natural depressions, and then plugged up leaks in the karst by plastering the bottoms of the depressions in order to create reservoirs, which collected rain from large plastered catchment basins and stored it for use in the dry season. ○ Southern Maya populations obtained the water they needed for the dry season by collecting and storing rainwater in sealed depressions. ○ The Maya are credited with creating methods for modifying natural rainwater and storing it. ○ Leaks in the karst caused difficulties in the creation of reservoirs, which were needed to store water for the dry season. ○ Southern Mayans were more successful at collecting rain than storing it during dry seasons. 6. Therefore, when observational assessment is used as a technique for studying infant perceptual abilities, care must be taken not to overgeneralize from the data or to rely on one or two studies as conclusive evidence of a particular perceptual ability of the infant. ○ Researchers using observational assessment techniques on infants must not overgeneralize and must base their conclusions on data from many studies. ○ On the basis of the data from one or two studies, it seems that some infants develop a particular perceptual ability not observed in others. ○ To use data from one or two studies on infant's perceptual abilities, it is necessary to use techniques that will provide conclusive evidence. ○ When researchers fail to make generalizations from their studies, their observed data is often inconclusive. 7. Indeed, stability of the biological clock's period is one of its major features, even when the organism's environment is subjected to considerable changes in factors, such as temperature, that would be expected to affect biological activity strongly. ○ Stability, a feature of the biological clock's period, depends on changeable factors such as temperature. ○ A major feature of the biological clock is that its period does not change despite significant changes in the environment. ○ A factor such as temperature is an important feature in the establishment of the biological clock's period. ○ Biological activity is not strongly affected by changes in temperature.
    • 2. 形成有效重复
      • 
    • 3. 结合文章语境记忆更牢靠
      • Haroun Tazieff, the Polish scientist, has spent his lifetime studying active volcanoes and deep caves in all parts of the world. 休眠火山：dormant volcano 死火山：extinct volcano
    • 4. 辅助工具
      • 1）Lingoes词霸（内置朗文、同义词字典、韦伯大学字典）
      • 2）新东方背单词（第四版）：四级词汇=>四级词组=>托福词汇=>托福听力习惯用语
      • 3）王玉梅
      • 4）机经词汇+学科分类词汇
  • 【4】如何推测单词含义
    • 1. 拆分词根词缀法：前缀－词根－后缀
      • 1. 最重要：词根 anim - animal / animate / animation Aqua - aquatic / aquarium aquaculture / aqueduct 2. 次重要：前缀 macro / micro; mono / poly 3. 不重要：后缀：词性（例外less） Potash and soda are not interchangeable, but for glass- or soap- making either would do. Equivalent 同等的可互换的 The specialized requirements of particular urban situations have further expanded the use of art in public places: in Memphis, sculptor Richard Hunt has created a monument to Martin Luther King, Jr.., who was slain there; in New York, Dan Flavin and Bill Brand have contributed neon and animation works to the enhancement of mass transit facilities. And in numerous cites, art is being raised as a symbol of the commitment to revitalize urban areas. The word “revitalize” in line 22 is closet in meaning to ( ) A. show the importance of B. promise to enlarge C. bring new life to D. provide artworks for In 1938 the Fair Labor Standards Act mandated a weekly maximum of 40 hours to begin in 1940, and since that time the 8-hour day, 5-day workweek has been the standard in the United States. Adjustments in various places, however, show that this standard is not immutable. In 1987, for example, German metalworkers struck for and received a 37.5-hour workweek… The word ”immutable” in line 21 is ( ) A. unmatched B. irregular C. unnecessary D. unchangeable immutable: commute communicate transmute
    • 2. 上下文关联法
      • Most funny stories are based on comic situations, but these days, a new type of humor, which stems largely from the U.S, has came into fashion. In contrast , comedians based their jokes on tragic situations like violent death or serious accident. A. 论点与论据对应 - 动词 - 形容词 Another way of enhancing the effectiveness of flight is to move in an erratic and unpredictable way. Many species, like ptarmigans, snipes, and various antelopes and gazelles, flee from predators in a characteristic zigzag fashion. The description of the prey’s movement as “zigzag” in line 9 suggests that the movement is( ) A. Reliable B. fast C. constant D. unpredictable B.性质对应 - 标志性标点： - 双引号 - 破折号 - 双逗号 Unlike those available for painting, the opportunities to exhibit sculpture in the United States around the turn of the twentieth century were quite scarce. There was almost no room for sculpture at the influential Fine Arts Society’s 57th Street Galleries in New York. As late as 1905, the Monumental News, a journal dedicated to the promotion of sculpture, lamented, “Exhibitions of sculptors’ works are so comparatively rare.” The word “lamented” in line 5 is closest in meaning to（） A. declared B. complained C. revealed D. described A skyscraper , or building more than twenty stories high, is built on a foundation of concrete supported by piles driven into the ground. C. 语法呼应 - 伴随状语： - 伴随的动作带有主语特征 - 定语及定语从句： - 修饰形容词带有核心词特征 The culture spread southward into the present-day states of Louisiana, Alabama, Georgia, and Florida. Its peoples became great traders, bartering jewellery, pottery, animal pelts, tools, and other goods along extensive trading networks that stretched up and down eastern North America and as far west as the Rocky Mountains. The word “bartering” in line 9 is closest in meaning to ( ) A. producing B. exchanging C. transporting D. loading D.标志词呼应 并列连词：and, as well as, both…and…, not only…but also…, either…or…, neither…nor… Today’s executives must have some grasp of economic realities and the political process, as well as some comprehension of the basic framework within which scientific and technological changes take place. They must gain an understanding of human nature, including its negative aspects, such as the sources of human conflict and the pitfalls of power. (1)The word grasp in the passage is closest in meaning to ( ) A. understanding B. communication C. criticism D. prediction (2)The word pitfalls in the passage is closest in meaning to ( ) A. benefits B. stages C. causes D. hazards 举例短语：take…for example, for example, for instance, such as，like，that is，in other words 小结：上下文关联法-同义推测 A.论点与论据对应 B.内容与概念性质对应 C.语法呼应 D.标志词呼应 2、上下文关联法-反义推测 Joy and sadness are experienced by people in all cultures around the world, but how can we tell when other people are happy or despondent? The word despondent in the passage is closest in meaning to ( ) curious unhappy thoughtful uncertain 标志词法： 1）让步关联词：although 、 even though、 despite、in spite of By 1745 New Market was opened on second street between Pine and Cedar. The next year the Callowhill Market began operation. Along with market days, the institution of twice-yearly fairs persisted in Philadelphia even after similar trading days had been discontinued in other colonial cities. The word “persisted” in line 9 is closest in meaning to ( ) A. returned B. started C. declined D. continued 2）对比关联词： whereas 、 while、 instead、unlike 、 in contrast 、on the other hand The heavy amounts of heat and pollution rising from cities both delay and stimulate the fall of precipitation, depriving some areas of rain while drenching others. The word drenching in paragraph 1 is closest in meaning to （） A. almost missing B. severely damaging C. thoroughly wetting D. entirely avoiding 3）转折关联词：but、however、yet、 nevertheless Twilight rays are nearly parallel , but because of the observer’s perspective, they appear to diverge . 词汇题解题总结： 
• 2. 指代题
  • 指代词后的动词可以和指代对象建立关联。
• 3. 改写题
  • 【1】出题思路分析
    • Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information
      • 1. essential information
      • 2. Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways（逻辑、动词、主宾）
      • 3. Incorrect choices leave out essential information（遗失重要信息）
  • 【2】详细解题步骤
    • 1. 先进行句子拆分
      • 1. 找出标点符号，随后断句（如有）
      • 2. 找出连词，随后断句（如有）
      • 3. 删减解释性从句（如有）：which/that/when/where/whether....
      • 4. 删减插入語、非完整句、状语从句穴ꁖߐĀ⒄
      • 5. 删减分词结构（如有）：-ing/-ed 介 +….
      • 6. 删减介词结构（如有）：n/v 介 n 介 n 介 n...
      • PS. 保留重點：逻辑关系[连词、动词]+谓语概念+谓语动词前后的主宾
    • 2. 改写题具体分类
      • 句内有逻辑关系
        • 因果
          • ❤ 1. These plants are termed opportunists because they rely on their seeds’ falling into settings where competing plants have been removed by natural processes, such as along an eroding riverbank, on landslips, or where a tree falls and creates a gap in the forest canopy. ○ Dandelions are called opportunists because they contribute to the natural processes of erosion and the creation of gaps in the forest canopy. ○ The term opportunists apply to plants whose seeds fall in places where they can compete with the seeds of other plants. ○ The term opportunists apply to plants whose falling seeds are removed by natural processes. ○ Because their seeds grow in places where competing plants are no longer present, dandelions are classified as opportunists. 答案：D ******************************************************************************** 2. In a countercurrent exchange system, the blood vessels carrying cooled blood from the flippers run close enough to the blood vessels carrying warm blood from the body to pick up some heat from the warmer blood vessels; thus, the heat is transferred from the outgoing to the ingoing vessels before it reaches the flipper itself. ○ Within the turtle's flippers, there is a countercurrent exchange system that allows colder blood vessels to absorb heat from nearby warmer blood vessels and then return warmed blood to the turtle's body. ○ In a countercurrent exchange system, a turtle can pick up body heat from being close enough to other turtles, thus raising its blood temperature as it passes them. ○ When a turtle places its flippers close to its body, it is able to use its countercurrent exchange system to transfer heat from the warmer blood vessels in its body to the cooler blood vessels in its flippers. ○ In a turtle's countercurrent exchange system, outgoing vessels lie near enough to ingoing ones that heat can be exchanged from the former to the latter before reaching the turtle's flippers. 答案：D ******************************************************************************** 3. Because the medium was so prolific, in the sense that it was possible to produce a multitude of images very cheaply, it was soon treated as the poor relation of fine art, rather than its destined successor. ○ Photography did not replace other fine arts because people felt the image looked cheap in relation to the other arts. ○ Photography was not considered a true art because people could use it to create many images cheaply. ○ Photography was so cheap and readily available that it could be purchased by people who were too poor to purchase fine art. ○ Photography not only spread quickly but also was a cheap art form and so became true successor of fine arts rather than its poor relation. 答案：B ******************************************************************************** 4. The frequency with which certain simple motifs appear in these oldest sites has led rock-art researchers to adopt a descriptive term — the Panaramitee style — a label which takes its name from the extensive rock pavements at Panaramitee North in desert South Australia, which are covered with motifs pecked into the surface. ○ The oldest rock art sites have simpler motifs than the best known sites of Panaramitee North. ○ Because motifs primarily associated with the Panaramitee region are common in the oldest sites, the term Panaramitee style has become the general term for rock art of this type. ○ Because the Panaramitee style is so common in the older sites, researchers have described it most extensively. ○ The motifs carved in the rocky surface of the Panaramitee region make up the oldest form of rock art discovered in Australia. 答案：B ******************************************************************************** 5. The extreme seriousness of desertification results from the vast areas of land and the tremendous numbers of people affected, as well as from the great difficulty of reversing or even slowing the process. ○ Slowing down the process of desertification is difficult because of population growth that has spread over large areas of land. ○ The spread of deserts is considered a very serious problem that can be solved only if large numbers of people in various countries are involved in the effort. ○ Desertification is extremely hard to reverse unless the population is reduced in the vast areas affected. ○ Desertification is a significant problem because it is so hard to reverse and affects large areas of land and great numbers of people. 答案：D ******************************************************************************** 6. Many complex factors led to the adoption of the new economies, not only at Abu Hureyra, but at many other locations such as 'Ain Ghazal, also in Syria, where goat toe bones showing the telltale marks of abrasion caused by foot tethering (binding) testify to early herding of domestic stock. ○ In many areas besides Abu Hureyra, complex factors led to new economies including the herding of domestic stock. ○ In 'Ain Ghazal and Syria, domestic stock was more important than it was at Abu Hureyra. ○ Once early methods of herding animals improved, new economies were adopted. ○ Many complex theories attempt to explain the early domestication of animals. ******************************************************************************** 7. Inequalities of gender have also existed in pastoralist societies , but they seem to have been softened by the absence of steep hierarchies of wealth in most communities , and also by the requirement that women acquire most of the skills of men, including, often, their military skills. ○ Despite the fact that wealth is relatively evenly distributed in pastoral societies, gender inequality still exists because only men can acquire military skills and social status. ○ Inequalities of gender existed in pastoralist societies until most communities began to require women to possess the same skills as men and take part in the military. ○ Inequalities of gender in pastoralist societies were caused by steep hierarchies of wealth and differences in military training between men and women. ○ In pastoral societies, gender inequality is comparatively mild because wealth is relatively evenly distributed and women have to learn most of the same skills that men do. 答案：D ******************************************************************************** 8. Physiological immaturity may be part of why infants and toddlers do not form extremely enduring memories, even when they hear stories that promote such remembering in preschoolers. ○ One reason why preschoolers fail to comprehend the stories they hear is that they are physiologically immature. ○ Given the chance to hear stories, infants and toddlers may form enduring memories despite physiological immaturity. ○ Physiologically mature children seem to have no difficulty remembering stories they heard as preschoolers. ○ Incomplete physiological development may partly explain why hearing stories does not improve long-term memory in infants and toddlers. 答案：D ******************************************************************************** 9. Geothermal energy is in a sense not renewable, because in most cases the heat would be drawn out of a reservoir much more rapidly than it would be replaced by the very slow geological processes by which heat flows through solid rock into a heat reservoir. ○ Heat flows through solid rock very slowly, so it takes a very long time for geological processes to produce a reservoir of geothermal energy. ○ Geothermal energy is not renewable because heat flows very slowly through solid rock into or out of a heat reservoir. ○ The heat quickly removed from a heat reservoir is replaced so slowly by geological processes that geothermal energy is not practically speaking, renewable. ○ In most cases, heat travels into a heat reservoir so slowly that it is a much quicker process to remove the heat from a reservoir than to replace it. 答案：C ******************************************************************************** 10. The amount of air exchanged is even lower in REM than NREM because, although breathing is more rapid in REM , it is also more irregular, with brief episodes of shallow breathing or absence of breathing. ○ Because breathing is more shallow and irregular in REM than in NREM, less air is exchanged in REM. ○ Breathing in NREM is less effective than breathing in REM because of irregular episodes of rapid breathing during NREM. ○ Because breathing is more rapid in NREM sleep than in REM sleep, breathing often becomes shallow. ○ Although REM has brief episodes of shallow breathing or lack of breathing, breathing is more rapid than in NREM. 答案：A ******************************************************************************** 11. But as more and more accumulations of strata were cataloged in more and more places, it became clear that the sequences of rocks sometimes differed from region to region and that no rock type was ever going to become a reliable time marker throughout the world. ○ The discovery of regional differences in the sequences of rocks led geologists to believe that rock types could someday become reliable time markers. ○ Smith's catalogs of rock strata indicated that the sequences of rocks are different from place to place and from region to region. ○ Because people did not catalog regional differences in sequences of rocks, it was believed that rocks could never be reliable time markers. ○ Careful analysis of strata revealed that rocks cannot establish geological time because the pattern of rock layers varies from place to place. 答案：D ******************************************************************************** 12. As among tribes people, personal relationships and a careful weighing of character have always been crucial in a mercantile economy with little regulation, where one's word is one's bond and where informal ties of trust cement together an international trade network. ○ Tribes people were comfortable forming personal relationships with merchants, who, like them, were bound by their promises to one another. ○ Because trade was not formally regulated, merchants were careful about whom they trusted and often conducted business with people they knew personally. ○ While trade among merchants relied somewhat on regulation, among tribes people trade was based on personal relationships and careful character evaluation. ○ Because tribes people were bound only by their promises to one another, personal relationships were formed only after careful weighing of character. 答案：D ******************************************************************************** 13. The temperature increased dramatically in a short period of time (years rather than centuries), allowing for a growth of the hunting-gathering population due to the abundance of resources. There were, however, fluctuations in the climatic conditions, with the consequences that wet conditions were followed by dry ones, so that the availability of plants and animals oscillated brusquely. Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information. ○ The resources needed by the growing hunting and gathering population increased rapidly once temperatures rose. ○ Dramatic temperature increases and the simultaneous growth of the hunting and gathering population led to the need for more resources. ○ Higher temperatures led to the existence of increased resources, thus enabling the hunting and gathering population to grow. ○ The dramatic temperature increase occurred during the few years when abundant resources allowed the hunting and gathering population to grow. 答案：C ******************************************************************************** 14. He refused to develop projection technology, reasoning that if he made and sold projectors, then exhibitors would purchase only one machine-a projector-from him instead of several. ○ Edison was more interested in developing a variety of machines than in developing a technology based on only one. ○ Edison refused to work on projection technology because he did not think exhibitors would replace their projectors with newer machines. ○ Edison did not want to develop projection technology because it limited the number of machines he could sell. ○ Edison would not develop projection technology unless exhibitors agreed to purchase more than one projector from him. 答案：C ******************************************************************************** 15. Wind velocity also increases with altitude and may cause serious stress for trees, as is made evident by the deformed shapes at high altitudes ○ Because of their deformed shapes at high altitudes, trees are not likely to be seriously harmed by the strong winds typical of those altitudes. ○ As altitude increases, the velocity of winds increase, leading to a serious decrease in the number of trees found at high altitudes. ○ The deformed shapes of trees at high altitudes show that wind velocity, which increase with altitude, can cause serious hardship for trees. ○ Increased wind velocity at high altitudes deforms the shapes of trees, and this may cause serious stress for trees. 答案：C ******************************************************************************** 14. In order for the structure to achieve the size and strength necessary to meet its purpose, architecture employs methods of support that, because they are based on physical laws, have changed little since people first discovered them-even while building materials have changed dramatically. ○ Unchanging physical laws have limited the size and strength of buildings that can be made with materials discovered long ago. ○ Building materials have changed in order to increase architectural size and strength, but physical laws of structure have not changed. ○ When people first started to build, the structural methods used to provide strength and size were inadequate because they were not based on physical laws. ○ Unlike building materials, the methods of support used in architecture have not changed over time because they are based on physical laws. 答案：D ******************************************************************************** 15. As a result of crustal adjustments and faulting, the Strait of Gibraltar, where the Mediterranean now connects to the Atlantic, opened, and water cascaded spectacularly back into the Mediterranean. ○ The strait of Gibraltar reopened when the Mediterranean and the Atlantic became connected and the cascades of water from one sea to the other caused crustal adjustments and faulting. ○ The Mediterranean was dramatically refilled by water from the Atlantic when crustal adjustments and faulting opened the Strait of Gibraltar, the place where the two seas are joined. ○ The cascades of water from the Atlantic to the Mediterranean were not as spectacular as the crustal adjustments and faulting that occurred when the Strait of Gibraltar was connected to those seas. ○ As a result of crustal adjustments and faulting and the creation of the Strait of Gibraltar, the Atlantic and Mediterranean were connected and became a single sea with spectacular cascades of water between them. 答案：B ******************************************************************************** 16. But detractors maintain that the terraces could also have been created by geological activity, perhaps related to the geologic forces that depressed the Northern Hemisphere far below the level of the south, in which case they have nothing whatever to do with Martian water. ○ But detractors argue that geological activity may be responsible for the water associated with the terraces. ○ But detractors argue that the terraces may have been formed by geological activity rather than by the presence of water. ○ But detractors argue that the terraces may be related to geological forces in the Northern Hemisphere of Mars, rather than to Martian water in the south. ○ But detractors argue that geological forces depressed the Northern Hemisphere so far below the level of the south that the terraces could not have been formed by water. 答案：B ******************************************************************************** 17. Sociologists view primary groups as bridges between individuals and the larger society because they transmit, mediate, and interpret a society's cultural patterns and provide the sense of oneness so critical for social solidarity. ○ Sociologists think that cultural patterns establish connections between the individual and the larger society. ○ Sociologists believe that individuals with a sense of oneness bridge the gap between society and primary groups. ○ Sociologists think primary groups contribute to social solidarity because they help maintain a society's cultural patterns. ○ Sociologists believe that the cultural patterns that provide social solidarity arise as bridges from primary groups. 答案：C ********************************************************************************
          • 明显因果关系词类
            • 因果连词
              • - because/because of, since, for, as, due to, owing to, in that (因为), and that…(因此) - so, so that, as a result, therefore, thereby, hence, thus consequently, and accordingly…
            • 因果名词
              • reason/result/consequence/outcome….
            • 因果动词
              • be due to/base on/result from/result in/arise from/give rise to/permit/enable/allow/lead to/make/push/fuel/motivate/let/promote/be responsible for/determine/derive from/come from/stem from/originate from, initiate from, be attributable to, attribute to
          • 隐含因果关系词类
            • be v-ed by; enough...that; so…that; in that因为; and that...因此
            • 同位语表示解释关系
        • 转折
          • 1. Hills and mountains are often regarded as the epitome of permanence, successfully resisting the destructive forces of nature, but in fact they tend to be relatively short-lived in geological terms. ○ When they are relatively young, hills and mountains successfully resist the destructive forces of nature. ○ Although they seem permanent, hills and mountains exist for a relatively short period of geological time. ○ Hills and mountains successfully resist the destructive forces of nature, but only for a short time. ○ Hills and mountains resist the destructive forces of nature better than other types of landforms. 答案：B ******************************************************************************** 2. If the pores are large, the water in them will exist as drops too heavy for surface tension to hold, and it will drain away; but if the pores are small enough, the water in them will exist as thin films, too light to overcome the force of surface tension holding them in place; then the water will be firmly held. ○ Water in rocks is held in place by large pores and drains away from small size pores through surface tension. ○ Small pores and large pores both interact with surface tension to determine whether a rock will hold water as heavy drops or as a thin film. ○ Surface tension is not strong enough to retain drops of water in rocks with large pores but it strong enough to hold on to thin films of water in rocks with small pores. ○ If the force of surface tension is too weak to hold water in place as heavy drops, the water will continue to be held firmly in place as a thin film when large pores exist. 答案：C ******************************************************************************** 3. Estimates indicate that the aquifer contains enough water to fill Lake Huron, but unfortunately, under the semiarid climatic conditions that presently exist in the region, rates of addition to the aquifer are minimal, amounting to about half a centimeter a year. ○ Despite the current impressive size of the Ogallala aquifer, the region’s climate keeps the rates of water addition very small. ○ Although the aquifer has been adding water at the rate of only half a centimeter a year, it will eventually accumulate enough water of fill Lake Huron. ○ Because of the region’s present climatic conditions, water is being added each year to the aquifer. ○ Even when the region experiences unfortunate climatic conditions, the rates of addition of water continue to increase. 答案：A ******************************************************************************** 4. Only the last of these was suited at all to the continuous operating of machines, and although waterpower abounded in Lancashire and Scotland and ran grain mills as well as textile mills, it had one great disadvantage: streams flowed where nature intended them to and water-driven factories had to be located on their banks whether or not the location was desirable for other reasons. ○ Running water was the best power source for factories since it could keep machines operating continuously but since it was abundant only in Lancashire and Scotland, most mills and factories that were located elsewhere could not be water driven. ○ The disadvantage of using waterpower is that streams do not necessarily flow in places that are the most suitable for factories which explains why so many water-powered grain and textile mills were located in undesirable places. ○ Since machines could be operated continuously only where running water was abundant, grain and textile mills as well as other factories tended to be located only in Lancashire and Scotland . ○ Running water was the only source of power that was suitable for the continuous operation of machines, but to make use of it factories had to be located where the water was, regardless of whether such locations made sense otherwise. 答案：D ******************************************************************************** 5. At one time, the animals present in these fossil beds were assigned to various modern animal groups, but most paleontologists now agree that all Tommotian fossils represent unique body forms that arose in the early Cambrian period and disappeared before the end of the period, leaving no descendants in modern animal groups. ○ The animals found in the Tommotian fossil bed were once thought to belong to a variety of modern animal groups, but now they are thought to have descended from a single group. ○ Animals in the Tommotian fossil beds were initially assigned to modern animal groups but are now thought to belong to groups that emerged and died out during the Cambrian period. ○ Though at first they thought otherwise, paleontologists now agree that the animals in the Tommotian have body forms from which modern animals have descended. ○ It is unclear whether the Tommotian fossils from the early Cambrian period represent unique body forms or whether they should be assigned to various modern animal groups. 答案：B ******************************************************************************** 6. Scientists have no direct evidence for recent or ongoing eruptions, but if these volcanoes were active as recently as 100 million years ago (an estimate of the time of last eruption based on the extent of impact cratering on their slopes), some of them may still be at least intermittently active. ○ Although direct evidence of recent eruptions is lacking, scientists believe that these volcanoes were active as recently as 100 million years ago. ○ Scientists estimate that volcanoes active more recently than 100 years ago will still have extensive impact cratering on their slopes. ○ If, as some evidence suggests, these volcanoes erupted as recently as 100 million years ago, they may continue to be intermittently active. 答案：C ******************************************************************************** 7. For example, some early societies ceased to consider certain rites essential to their well-being and abandoned them, nevertheless, they retained as parts of their oral tradition the myths that had grown up around the rites and admired them for their artistic qualities rather than for their religious usefulness. ○ A society’s rites were more likely to be retained in the oral tradition if its myths were admired for artistic qualities. ○ The artistic quality of a myth was sometimes an essential reason for a society to abandon it from the oral tradition. ○ Some early societies stopped using myths in their religious practices when rites ceased to be seen as useful for social well-being. ○ Myths sometimes survived in a society’s tradition because of their artistic qualities even after they were no longer deemed religiously beneficial. 答案：D ******************************************************************************** 8. Unlike in the Americas, where metallurgy was a very late and limited development, Africans had iron from a relatively early date, developing ingenious furnaces to produce the high heat needed for production and to control the amount of air that reached the carbon and iron ore necessary for making iron. 比较结构 ○ While American iron makers developed the latest furnaces, African iron makers continued using earlier techniques. ○ Africans produced iron much earlier than Americans, inventing technologically sophisticated heating systems. ○ Iron making developed earlier in Africa than in the Americas because of the ready availability of carbon and iron ore. ○ Both Africa and the Americas developed the capacity for making iron early, but African metallurgy developed at a slower rate. 答案：C ******************************************************************************** 9. One explanation for green icebergs attributes their color to an optical illusion when blue ice is illuminated by a near-horizon red Sun, but green icebergs stand out among white and blue icebergs under a great variety of light conditions. ○ One explanation notes that green icebergs stand out among other icebergs under a great variety of light conditions, but this is attributed to an optical illusion. ○ One explanation for the color of green icebergs attributes their color to an optical illusion that occurs when the light from a near-horizon red Sun shines on a blue iceberg. ○ One explanation for green icebergs attributes their color to a great variety of light conditions, but green icebergs stand out best among other icebergs when illuminated by a near-horizon red Sun. ○ One explanation attributes the color of green icebergs to an optical illusion under special light conditions, but green icebergs appear distinct from other icebergs under a great variety of light conditions. 答案：D ******************************************************************************** 10. The tradition of religious sculpture extends over most historical periods but is less clearly delineated than that of stonewares or porcelains, for it embraces the old custom of earthenware burial ceramics with later religious images and architectural ornament. ○ While stonewares and porcelains are found throughout most historical periods, religious sculpture is limited to the ancient period. ○ Religious sculpture was created in most periods, but its history is less clear than that of stonewares or porcelains because some old forms continued to be used even when new ones were developed. ○ While stonewares and porcelains changed throughout history, religious sculpture remained uniform in form and use. ○ The historical development of religious sculpture is relatively unclear because religious sculptures sometimes resemble earthenware architectural ornaments. 答案：B ******************************************************************************** 11. Though it may be difficult to imagine from a later perspective, a strain of critical opinion in the 1920 s predicted that sound film would be a technical novelty that would soon fade from sight, just as had many previous attempts, dating well back before the First World War, to link images with recorded sound. ○ It was difficult for some critics in the 1920s to imagine why the idea of sound film had faded from sight well before the First World War. ○ As surprising as it seems today, some critics in the 1920s believed that the new attempts at sound films would fade just as quickly as the attempts made before the First World War. ○ Though some early critics thought that sound film would fade, its popularity during the First World War proved that it was not simply a technical novelty. ○ Although some critics predicted well before the First World War that sound film would be an important technical innovation, it was not attempted until the 1920s. 答案：B ******************************************************************************** 12. Numerous seeming exceptions to this law have since been found, but they can usually be explained as cases in which the two species, even though competing for a major joint resource, did not really occupy exactly the same niche. ○ Apparent exceptions to this law usually involve cases in which two species compete for the same major resource but occupy slightly different niches. ○ Although it may appear two species always have different niches, many exceptions show that species compete with each other. ○ Cases in which two species not only for a shared resource but also occupy similar niches are considered exceptions to this law. ○ Cases in which the two species do not occupy the same niche yet still compete for the same resource are believed to exceptions to this law. 答案：B ******************************************************************************** 13. The growth of the electric-power industry was the result of a remarkable series of scientific discoveries and developments in electrotechnology during the nineteenth century, but significant changes in what we might now call hydro (water) technology also played their part. ○ The growth of the electric-power industry stimulated significant changes in hydro technology and scientific progress in electrotechnology in the nineteenth centry. ○ The changes in hydro technology that led to the growth of the electric-power industry also led to discoveries and developments in electrotechnology in the nineteenth century. ○ Advances in electrotechnology in the nineteenth century and changes in hydro technology were responsible for the growth of the electric-power industry. ○ In the nineteenth century, the scientific study of electrotechnology and hydro technology benefited greatly from the growth of the electric-power industry. 答案：C ********************************************************************************
          • 明显转折关系词类
            • but, although, nonetheless, nevertheless, even if, even though, despite of, despite…, in despite, yet
          • 隐含转折关系词类
            • 【较少考核】and in fact, indeed, virtually, actually, practically, literally
        • 比较
          • 1. In addition to finding an increase of suitable browse, like huckleberry and vine maple, Arthur Einarsen, longtime game biologist in the Pacific Northwest, found quality of browse in the open areas to be substantially more nutritive. ○ Arthur Einarsen`s longtime family with the Pacific Northwest helped him discover areas where deer had an increase in suitable browse. ○ Biologist like Einarsen believe it is important to find additional open areas with suitable browse for deer to inhabit. ○ According to Einarsen, huckleberry and vine maple are examples of vegetation that may someday improve the nutrition of deer in the open areas of the Pacific Northwest. ○ Arthur Einarsen found that deforested feeding grounds provided deer with more and better food. 答案：D ******************************************************************************** 2. Certainly, rational appeals in advertising aimed at children are limited, as most advertisements use emotional and indirect appeals to psychological states or associations. ○ Rational appeals in advertising are certainly limited by children's emotional immaturity and the indirect nature of their associations. ○ Indirect appeals to children's psychological states or associations can limit the effectiveness of rational appeals in advertising. ○ Rational appeals play a much smaller role in advertisements for children than emotional appeals and psychological associations do. ○ Rational appeals in advertising aimed at children should certainly be limited until the children are emotionally and psychologically ready. 答案：C ******************************************************************************** 3. For example, people who believe that aggression is necessary and justified-as during wartime- are likely to act aggressively, whereas people who believe that a particular war or act of aggression is unjust, or who think that aggression is never justified, are less likely to behave aggressively. ○People who believe that they are fighting a just war act aggressively while those who believe that they are fighting an unjust war do not. ○People who believe that aggression is necessary and justified are more likely to act aggressively than those who believe differently. ○People who normally do not believe that aggression is necessary and justified may act aggressively during wartime. ○People who believe that aggression is necessary and justified do not necessarily act aggressively during wartime. 答案：B ******************************************************************************** 4. The Whigs were strongest in the towns, cities, and those rural areas that were fully integrated into the market economy, whereas Democrats dominated areas of semisubsistence farming that were more isolated and languishing economically. ○ Whigs were able to attract support only in the wealthiest parts of the economy because Democrats dominated in other areas. ○ Whig and Democratic areas of influence were naturally split between urban and rural areas, respectively. ○ The semisubsistence farming areas dominated by Democrats became increasingly isolated by the Whigs' control of the market economy. ○ The Democrats' power was greatest in poorer areas while the Whigs were strongest in those areas where the market was already fully operating. 答案：D ******************************************************************************** 5. All of these factors led to a war between the North and South which would be the bloodiest in the nation's history. ○ There are many reasons for the war in which more people died than any other war. ○ During the war, there are more casualties in the south and north than in the east and west. ○ The only one reason contributed to the war which is the worst in the world history. ○ Many people died because of lack of blood transfusion which led to a war. 答案：A ******************************************************************************** 6. It is significant that the earliest living things that built communities on these islands are examples of symbiosis, a phenomenon that depends upon the close cooperation of two or more forms of life and a principle that is very important in island communities. ○ Some of the earliest important examples of symbiosis-the close cooperation of two or more living things-occur in island communities. ○ Symbiosis-the close cooperation of pairs or small groups of living organisms-is especially important in these island environments. ○ The first organisms on these islands worked together closely in a relationship known as symbiosis, which is particularly important on islands. ○ It is significant to note that organisms in the beginning stages of the development of island life cannot survive without close cooperation. 答案：C ******************************************************************************** 7. Contrary to the arguments of some that much of the pacific was settled by Polynesians accidentally marooned after being lost and adrift, it seems reasonable that this feat was accomplished by deliberate colonization expeditions that set out fully stocked with food and domesticated plants and animals. ○ Some people have argued that the Pacific was settled by traders who became lost while transporting domesticated plants and animals. ○ The original Polynesian settlers were probably marooned on the islands, but they may have been joined later by carefully prepared colonization expeditions. ○ Although it seems reasonable to believe that colonization expeditions would set out fully stocked, this is contradicted by much of the evidence. ○ The settlement of the Pacific islands was probably intentional and well planned rather than accidental as some people have proposed. 答案：D ******************************************************************************** 8. Like the stone of Roman wall, which were held together both by the regularity of the design and by that peculiarly powerful Roman cement, so the various parts of the Roman realm were bonded into a massive, monolithic entity by physical, organizational, and psychological controls. ○ The regularity and power of stone walls inspired Romans attempting to unify the parts of their realm. ○ Although the Romans used different types of designs when building their walls, they used regular controls to maintain their realm. ○ Several types of control united the Roman realm, just as design and cement held Roman walls together. ○ Romans built walls to unite the various parts of their realm into a single entity, which was controlled by powerful laws. 答案：C ******************************************************************************** 9 . Although her early theatrical career had included stints as an actress, she was not primarily interested in storytelling or expressing emotions through dance; the drama of her dancing emanated from her visual effects. ○ Fuller used visual effects to dramatize the stories and emotions expressed in her work. ○ Fuller believed that the drama of her dancing sprang from her emotional style of storytelling. ○ Fuller was more interested in dance’s visual impact than in its narrative or emotional possibilities. ○ Fuller’s focus on the visual effects of dance resulted from her early theatrical training as an actress. 答案：C ******************************************************************************** 10. Most engravings, for example, are best lit from the left, as befits the work of right-handed artists, who generally prefer to have the light source on the left so that the shadow of their hand does not fall on the tip of the engraving tool or brush. ○ Right-handed artists could more easily have avoided casting shadows on their work, because engravings in prehistoric caves were lit from the left. ○ The tips of engraving tools and brushes indicate that these instruments were used by right-handed artists whose work was lit from the left. ○ The best lighting for most engravings suggests that they were made by right-handed people trying to avoid the shadow of their hands interfering with their work. ○ Right-handed artists try to avoid having the brush they are using interfere with the light source. 答案：C ********************************************************************************
          • 类比逻辑：like, just as, as…as
          • 对比逻辑：while, whereas, rather than, contrary to,...than…/higher pressure=increased pressure/A...,most B. => B… more than A.
      • 句内无解题逻辑
        • 連詞斷句
          • 1. The Fore also displayed familiar facial expressions when asked how they would respond if they were the characters in stories that called for basic emotional responses. ○ The Fore's facial expressions indicated their unwillingness to pretend to be story characters. ○ The Fore were asked to display familiar facial expressions when they told their stories. ○ The Fore exhibited the same relationship of facial expressions and basic emotions that is seen in Western culture when they acted out stories. ○ The Fore were familiar with the facial expressions and basic emotions of characters in stories. 答案：C ******************************************************************************** 2. Over long periods of time, substances whose physical and chemical properties change with the ambient climate at the time can be deposited in a systematic way to provide a continuous record of changes in those properties overtime, sometimes for hundreds or thousands of years. ○ Because physical and chemical properties of substances are unchanging, they are useful records of climate fluctuations over time. ○ For hundreds or thousands of years, people have been observing changes in the chemical and physical properties of substances in order to infer climate change. ○ Because it takes long periods of time for the climate to change, systematic changes in the properties of substances are difficult to observe. ○ Changes in systematically deposited substances that are affected by climate can indicate climate variations over time. 答案：D ******************************************************************************** 3 . The sheer scale of the investment it took to begin commercial expansion at sea reflects the immensity of the profits that such East-West trade could create . ○ The profits that could be created by sea trade between East and West were immense compared with the investment required to develop such trade. ○ The increase in commercial activity by using sea routes reflects the importance trade between East and West had for investors seeking great profits. ○ Because people made large investments in sea commerce between East and West, they expected to make immense profits. ○ The high cost to investors of developing trade by sea between East and West indicates the great size of the profits that such trade could produce. 答案：D ******************************************************************************** 4 . When broken open, Allende stones are revealed to contain an assortment of small, distinctive objects, spherical or irregular in shape and embedded in a dark gray matrix (binding material), which were once constituents of the solar nebula—the interstellar cloud of gas and dust out of which our solar system was formed. ○ Allende meteorites were formed when constituents of the interstellar cloud of gas and dust got trapped inside small, roughly spherical objects and these objects became bound together in a dark gray matrix. ○ Inside Allende meteorites is a dark gray matrix that binds together small spherical or irregular objects formed from the interstellar cloud of gas and dust out of which the solar system was made. ○ By breaking open Allende meteorites, scientists were able to find out what the solar nebula was made of. ○ Allende meteorites were filled with material formed almost entirely from interstellar gas and dust. 答案：B ******************************************************************************** 5. Fladmark’s hypothesis received additional support from the fact that the greatest diversity in native American languages occurs along the west coast of the Americas, suggesting that this region has been settled the longest. ○ Because this region has been settled the longest, it also displays the greatest diversity in Native American languages. ○ Fladmark's hypothesis states that the west coast of the Americas has been settled longer than any other region. ○ The fact that the greatest diversity of Native American languages occurs along the west coast of the Americans lends strength to Fradmark's hypothesis. ○ According to Fladmark, Native American languages have survived the longest along the west coast of the Americas. 答案：C ******************************************************************************** 6. The explanation is that the Maya excavated depressions, or modified natural depressions, and then plugged up the leaks in the karst by plastering the bottoms of the depressions in order to create reservoirs, which collected rain from large plastered catchment basins and stored it for use in the dry season. ○ Southern Maya populations obtained the water they needed for the dry season by collecting and storing rainwater in sealed depressions. ○ The Maya are credited with creating methods for modifying natural rainwater and storing it. ○ Leaks in the karst caused difficulties in the creation of reservoirs, which were needed to store water for the dry season. ○ Southern Mayans were more successful at collecting rain than storing it during dry seasons. 答案：A ******************************************************************************** 7. The West had plenty of attractions: the alluvial river bottoms, the fecund soils of the rolling forest lands, the black loads of the prairies were tempting to New England farmers working their rocky, sterile land and to southeastern farmers plagued with soil depletion and erosion. ○ Because the West had more rivers and forests than the East, its soil was more productive. ○ The fertile soils of the West drew farmers from regions with barren soils. ○ Farmers living in western areas of the United States were more affected by soil erosion than farmers living in eastern areas. ○ The soil in western areas of the United States was richer than soil in eastern areas. 答案：B ******************************************************************************** 8. The empty shell of a snail or clam may be left behind, and if it is sufficiently durable and resistant to dissolution, it may remain basically unchanged for a long period of time. ○ When snail or clam shells are left behind, they must be empty in order to remain durable and resist dissolution. ○ Although snail and clam shells are durable and resist dissolving, over time they slowly begin to change. ○ Although the soft parts of snails or clams dissolve quickly, their hard shells resist dissolution for a long time. ○ Empty snail or clam shells that are strong enough not to dissolve may stay in their original state for a long time. 答案：D ******************************************************************************** 9. Scientists have no direct evidence for recent or ongoing eruptions, but if these volcanoes were active as recently as 100 million years ago (an estimate of the time of last eruption based on the extent of impact cratering on their slopes), some of them may still be at least intermittently active. ○ Although direct evidence of recent eruptions is lacking, scientists believe that these volcanoes were active as recently as 100 million years ago. ○ Scientists estimate that volcanoes active more recently than 100 years ago will still have extensive impact cratering on their slopes. ○ If, as some evidence suggests, these volcanoes erupted as recently as 100 million years ago, they may continue to be intermittently active. ○ Although these volcanoes were active as recently as 100 million years ago, there is no direct evidence of recent or ongoing eruptions. Although/despite/even A, if B, C. Although/despite/even A, because B, C. Although/despite/even A, unless B, C. Although/despite/even A, when B, C. Although/despite/even A, ****** B, C. Although/despite/even A, B. Because A, if B, C. Because A, C. 答案：C ******************************************************************************** 10. With "climax," "biome," "superorganism," and various other technical terms for the association of animals and plants at a given locality being criticized, the term "ecosystem" was more and more widely adopted for the whole system of associated organisms together with the physical factors of their environment. ○ Unlike the terms “climax”, “biome,” and “superorganism,” which refer to the particular association of plants and animals at a given location, the term “ecosystem” refers specifically to the physical factors within an environment. ○ The terms “climax,” “biome,” “superorganism,” and “ecosystem” all refer to the system of plants and animals in an associated environment, but some are more controversial than others. ○ When the older terms of ecology became too technical, they were replaced by the more popular and more widely used term “ecosystem.” ○ The term “ecosystem” gradually replaced discredited terms for the combination of a physical environment and the plants and animals living together in it. 答案：D ******************************************************************************** 11. Escape involves such actions as aestivation, a condition of prolonged dormancy, or torpor, during which animals reduce their metabolic rate and body temperature during the hot season or during very dry spells. ○ One way animals escape is by entering a state of extended dormancy, known as aestivation, during the hottest and driest times of year. ○ Animals can escape without using direct action, or aestivation, simply by reducing their metabolic rate and body temperature. ○ The actions that an animal uses to escape are known as aestivation, which sometimes involves a reduction in metabolic rate or body temperature. ○ When the weather is especially hot and dry, an animal may suffer from a condition known as aestivation, at which point the animal needs to escape. 答案：D ******************************************************************************** 12. A major development was the discovery, again about 3000 B.C.E., that if copper, which had been known in Mesopotamia since about 3500 B.C.E., was mixed with tin, a much harder metal, bronze, would result. ○ Also around 3000 B.C.E., it was discovered that mixing copper, known from about 3500 B.C.E., with tin would create a much harder metal known as bronze. ○ Although copper had been known since 3500 B.C.E in Mesopotamia, the discovery of bronze did not occur until around 3000 B.C.E. ○ Another major development around 3000 B.C.E. was the discovery that copper could be mixed with a much harder metal known as tin. ○ The development of bronze by mixing copper and tin probably occurred around 3000 B.C.E. but may have happened as early as 3500 B.C.E. 答案：A ******************************************************************************** 13. Ramsay then studied a gas that was present in natural gas deposits and discovered that it was helium, an element whose presence in the Sun had been noted earlier in the spectrum of sunlight but that had not previously been known on Earth. ○ Ramsay found evidence of helium in the spectrum of sunlight before he discovered that the element was also contained in natural gas deposits on Earth. ○ Ramsay thought he had discovered a new element present in natural gas deposits, but he was wrong since that element had been previously observed elsewhere on Earth. ○ After Ramsay had discovered a new element, called helium, in natural gas deposits on Earth, he also found evidence of its presence in the Sun. ○ Ramsay later discovered that helium, an element that was already known to be present in the Sun, was also present in natural gas deposits on Earth. 答案：D ******************************************************************************** 14. The key factor in the success of these countries (along with high literacy, which contributed to it) was their ability to adapt to the international division of labor determined by the early industrializers and to stake out areas of specialization in international markets for which they were especially well suited. ○ The early industrializes controlled most of the international economy, leaving these countries to stake out new areas of specialization along the margins. ○ Aided by their high literacy rates these countries were able to claim key areas of specialization within established international markets. ○ High literacy rates enabled these countries to take over international markets and adapt the international division of labor to suit their strengths. ○ The international division of labor established by the early industrializers was suited to these countries, a key factor in their success. 答案：B ******************************************************************************** 15. If the water table intersects the land surface , groundwater will flow out onto the surface at springs, either to be collected there or to subsequently flow farther along a drainage. ○ Groundwater only flows out of the ground if the water-table intersects the land surface. ○ If the land surface and the water table intersects, groundwater can flow underground. ○ Groundwater may be drained if springs occur where the water table intersects the land surface ○ Where the water table meets the land surface, groundwater flows out through surface springs 答案：D ******************************************************************************** 16. According to conventional theory, yawning takes place when people are bored or sleepy and serves the function of increasing alertness by reversing, through deeper breathing, the drop in blood oxygen levels that are caused by the shallow breathing that accompanies lack of sleep or boredom. ○ It is the conventional theory that when people are bored or sleepy, they often experience a drop in blood oxygen levels due to their shallow breathing. ○ The conventional theory is that people yawn when bored or sleepy because yawning raises blood oxygen levels, which in turn raises alertness. ○ According to conventional theory, yawning is more likely to occur when people are bored or sleepy than when they are alert and breathing deeply. ○ Yawning according to the conventional theory, is caused by boredom or lack of sleep and can be avoided through deeper breathing. 答案：B ******************************************************************************** 17. The empty shell of a snail or clam may be left behind, and if it is sufficiently durable and resistant to dissolution, it may remain basically unchanged for a long period of time. ○ When snail or clam shells are left behind, they must be empty in order to remain durable and resist dissolution. ○ Although snail and clam shells are durable and resist dissolving, over time they slowly begin to change. ○ Although the soft parts of snails or clams dissolve quickly, their hard shells resist dissolution for a long time. ○ Empty snail or clam shells that are strong enough not to dissolve may stay in their original state for a long time. 答案：D ******************************************************************************** 18. Many ecologists now think that the relative long-term stability of climax communities comes not from diversity but from the “patchiness” of the environment, an environment varies supports more kinds of organisms than an environment that is uniform. ○ Ecologists now think that the stability of an environment is a result of diversity rather than patchiness. ○ Patchy environments that vary from place to place do not often have high species diversity. ○ Uniform environments cannot be climax communities because they do not support as many types of organisms as patchy environments. ○ A patchy environment is thought to increase stability because it is able to support a wide variety of organisms. 答案：D ******************************************************************************** 19. Many plants and animals disappear abruptly from the fossil record as one moves from layers of rock documenting the end of the Cretaceous up into rocks representing the beginning of the Cenozoic (the era after the Mesozoic). ○ Few fossils of the Mesozoic era have survived in the rocks that mark the end of the Cretaceous. ○ Fossils from the Cretaceous period of the Mesozoic up to the beginning of the Cenozoic era have been removed abruptly from the layers of rock that surrounded them. ○ The fossil record suggests that there was an abrupt extinction of many plants and animals at the end of the Mesozoic era. ○ Plants and animals from the Mesozoic era were unable to survive in the Cenozoic era. 答案：C ******************************************************************************** 20. As among tribes people, personal relationships and a careful weighing of character have always been crucial in a mercantile economy with little regulation, where one's word is one's bond and where informal ties of trust cement together an international trade network. ○ Tribes people were comfortable forming personal relationships with merchants, who, like them, were bound by their promises to one another. ○ Because trade was not formally regulated, merchants were careful about whom they trusted and often conducted business with people they knew personally. ○ While trade among merchants relied somewhat on regulation, among tribes people trade was based on personal relationships and careful character evaluation. ○ Because tribes people were bound only by their promises to one another, personal relationships were formed only after careful weighing of character. 答案：B ******************************************************************************** 21. But detractors maintain that the terraces could also have been created by geological activity, perhaps related to the geologic forces that depressed the Northern Hemisphere far below the level of the south, in which case they have nothing whatever to do with Martian water. ○ But detractors argue that geological activity may be responsible for the water associated with the terraces. ○ But detractors argue that the terraces may have been formed by geological activity rather than by the presence of water. ○ But detractors argue that the terraces may be related to geological forces in the Northern Hemisphere of Mars, rather than to Martian water in the south. ○ But detractors argue that geological forces depressed the Northern Hemisphere so far below the level of the south that the terraces could not have been formed by water. 答案：B ******************************************************************************** 22. Earth is a target in a cosmic shooting gallery, subjected to random violent events that were unsuspected a few decades ago. ○ Until recently, nobody realized that Earth is exposed to unpredictable violent impacts from space. ○ In the last few decades, the risk of a random violent impact from space has increased. ○ Since most violent events on Earth occur randomly, nobody can predict when or where they will happen. ○ A few decades ago, Earth became the target of random violent events originating in outer space. 答案：A ******************************************************************************** 23. From a plant’s evolutionary view point, however, it was also a land of opportunity, free of competitors and predators and full of carbon dioxide and sunlight (the raw materials for photosynthesis, which are present in far higher concentrations in air than in water). ○ Terrestrial plants had the advantages of not having rivals and having easy access to photosynthetic material ○ The abundance of photosynthetic material made life on land easier for pioneering plants ○ Once plants had eliminated their competitors and their predators, their evolutionary process proceeded smoothly. ○ Plant evolution eliminated competitors and 答案：A ******************************************************************************** 24. Historian Frederic Lane observes that after the loss of ships in battle in the late sixteenth century, the shipbuilding industry no longer had the capacity to recover that it had displayed at the start of the century. ○ The loss of ships in battle at the end of the sixteenth century showed that Venetian shipbuilders lacked the skills they had possessed at the beginning of the century. ○ Venetian shipbuilding failed to quickly replace the ships lost in battle at the end of the sixteenth century as it would have done earlier in the century. ○ Frederic Lane noted that Venice lost ships in battle at the end of the sixteenth century showing that Venetian shipbuilding was no longer known for its reliability. ○ Venetian shipbuilding had been known for its high quality of work at the beginning of the sixteenth century, but toward the end of the century Venetian ships were poorer in quality. 答案：B ******************************************************************************** 25. Large wind farms might also interfere with the flight patterns of migratory birds in certain areas, and they have killed large birds of prey (especially hawks, falcons, and eagles) that prefer to hunt along the same ridge lines that are ideal for wind turbines. ○ Hawks, falcons, and eagles prefer to hunt along ridge lines, where wind turbines can kill large numbers of migratory birds. ○ Wind turbines occasionally cause migratory birds to change their flight patterns and therefore may interfere with the areas where birds of prey prefer to hunt. ○ Some of the best locations for large wind farms are places that may cause problems for migrating birds and birds of prey. ○ Large wind farms in certain areas kill hawks, falcons, and eagles and thus might create a more ideal path for the flight of migratory birds. 答案：C ******************************************************************************** 26. Apprentices were considered part of the family, and masters were responsible not only for teaching their apprentices a trade but also for providing them some education and for supervising their moral behavior. ○ Masters demanded moral behavior from apprentices but often treated them irresponsibly. ○ The responsibilities of the master to the apprentice went beyond the teaching of a trade. ○ Masters preferred to maintain the trade within the family by supervising and educating the younger family members. ○ Masters who trained members of their own family as apprentices demanded excellence from them. 答案：B ******************************************************************************** 27. One potential problem is that opening the mouth to breathe detracts from the streamlining of these fishes and tends to slow them down. ○ These fishes often have a problem opening their mouths while swimming. ○ The streamlining of these fishes prevents them from slowing down. ○ The streamlining of these fishes tends to slow down their breathing. ○ Opening the mouth to breathe can reduce the speed of these fishes. 答案：D ******************************************************************************** 28. Continued sedimentation—the process of deposits' settling on the sea bottom—buries the organic matter and subjects it to higher temperatures and pressures, which convert the organic matter to oil and gas. ○ Higher temperatures and pressures promote sedimentation, which is responsible for petroleum formation. ○ Deposits of sediments on top of organic matter increase the temperature of and pressure on the matter. ○ Increase pressure and heat from the weight of the sediment turn the organic remains into petroleum. ○ The remains of microscopic organisms transform into petroleum once they are buried under mud. 答案：C ******************************************************************************** 29. Earth is a target in a cosmic shooting gallery, subject to random violent events that were unsuspected a few decades ago. ○ Until recently, nobody realized that Earth is exposed to unpredictable violent impacts from space. ○ In the last few decades, the risk of a random violent impact from space has increased. ○ Since most violent events on Earth occur randomly, nobody can predict when or where they will happen. ○ A few decades ago, Earth became the target of random violent events originating in outer space. 答案：A ******************************************************************************** 30. This scenario begins with the planting of hyper accumulating species in the target area, such as an abandoned mine or an irrigation pond contaminated by runoff. ○ Before considering phytoremediation, hyper accumulating species of plants local to the target area must be identified. ○ The investigation begins with an evaluation of toxic sites in the target area to determine the extent of contamination. ○ The first step in phytoremediation is the planting of hyper accumulating plants in the area to be cleaned up. ○ Mines and irrigation ponds can be kept from becoming contaminated by planting hyper accumulating species in targeted areas. 答案：C ******************************************************************************** 31. Many plants and animals disappear abruptly from the fossil record as one moves from layers of rock documenting the end of the Cretaceous up into rocks representing the beginning of the Cenozoic (the era after the Mesozoic). ○ The fossil record suggests that there was an abrupt extinction of many plants and animals at the end of the Mesozoic era. ○ Few fossils of the Mesozoic era have survived in the rocks that mark the end of the Cretaceous. ○ Fossils from the Cretaceous period of the Mesozoic up to the beginning of the Cenozoic era have been removed from the layers of rock that surrounded them. ○ Plants and animals from the Mesozoic era were unable to survive in the Cenozoic era. 答案：A ******************************************************************************** 32. There appear to be many unexplored matters about the motivation to reflect-for example, the value of externally motivated reflection as opposed to that of teachers who might reflect by habit. ○ The practice of being reflective is no longer simply a habit among teachers but something that is externally motivated ○ Most teachers need to explore ways to form the habit of reflection even when no external motivation exists ○ Many aspects of the motivation to reflect have not been studied, including the comparative benefits of externally motivated and habitual reflection among teachers ○ There has not been enough exploration of why teachers practice reflection as a habit with or without external motivation 答案：C ******************************************************************************** 33. He then set up experiments with caged starlings and found that their orientation was, in fact, in the proper migratory direction except when the sky was overcast, at which times there was no clear direction to their restless movements. ○ Experiments revealed that caged starlings displayed a lack of directional sense and restless movements. ○ Experiments revealed that caged starlings were unable to orient themselves in the direction of their normal migratory route. ○ Experiments revealed that the restless movement of caged starlings had no clear direction. ○ Experiments revealed that caged starlings' orientation was accurate unless the weather was overcast. 答案：D ******************************************************************************** 34. Indeed, stability of the biological clock's period is one of its major features, even when the organism's environment is subjected to considerable changes in factors, such as temperature, that would be expected to affect biological activity strongly. ○ Stability, a feature of the biological clock's period, depends on changeable factors such as temperature. ○ A major feature of the biological clock is that its period does not change despite significant changes in the environment. ○ A factor such as temperature is an important feature in the establishment of the biological clock's period. ○ Biological activity is not strongly affected by changes in temperature 答案：B ******************************************************************************** 35. Therefore, when observational assessment is used as a technique for studying infant perceptual abilities, care must be taken not to overgeneralize from the data or to rely on one or two studies as conclusive evidence of a particular perceptual ability of the infant. ○ Researchers using observational assessment techniques on infants must not overgeneralize and must base their conclusions on data from many studies. ○ On the basis of the data from one or two studies, it seems that some infants develop a particular perceptual ability not observed in others. ○ To use data from one or two studies on infant's perceptual abilities, it is necessary to use techniques that will provide conclusive evidence. ○ When researchers fail to make generalizations from their studies, their observed data is often inconclusive. 答案：A ******************************************************************************** 2. American paleontologists David Raup and John Sepkoski, who have studied extinction rates in a number of fossil groups, suggest that episodes of increased extinction have recurred periodically, approximately every 26 million years since the mid-Cretaceous period. ○ Based on their studies of extinction rates of numerous fossil groups, paleontologists David Raup and John Sepkoski have determined that mass extinctions occur about every 26 million years. ○ David Raup and John Sepkoski studied extinction rates of numerous fossil groups and suggest that mass extinctions during the Cretaceous period continued for 26 million years. ○ Studies that paleontologists David Raup and John Sepkoski conducted of various fossil groups have revealed that extinction rates have increased over the past 26 million years. ○ The studies conducted by paleontologists David Raup and John Sepkoski of the fossil remains of species suggest that the extinction rate of species started to increase by the middle of the Cretaceous period. 3. Glaciers move slowly across the land with tremendous energy, carving into even the hardest rock formations and thereby reshaping the landscape as they engulf, push, drag, and finally deposit rock debris in places far from its original location. ○ As a glacier moves, it leaves behind rock formations that have been engulfed, pushed, and dragged by the glacier. ○ Glaciers reshape the landscape by carving into rock and transporting the resulting debris to distant locations. ○ Glaciers carve the hardest rock formations with great energy and slowly reshape them into debris. ○ The tremendous energy of slowly moving glaciers transports and finally deposits rock debris into large rock formations. 4. As among tribespeople, personal relationships and a careful weighing of character have always been crucial in a mercantile economy with little regulation, where one's word is one's bond and where informal ties of trust cement together an international trade network. ○ Tribespeople were comfortable forming personal relationships with merchants, Who, like them, were bound by their promises to one another. ○ Because trade was not formally regulated, merchants were careful about whom they trusted and often conducted business with people they knew personally. ○ While trade among merchants relied somewhat on regulation, among tribes people trade was based on personal relationships and careful character evaluation. ○ Because tribespeople were bound only by their promises to one another, personal relationships were formed only after careful weighing of character. 5. Ramsay then studied a gas that was present in natural gas deposits and discovered that it was helium, an element whose presence in the Sun had been noted earlier in the spectrum of sunlight but that had not previously been known on Earth. ○ Ramsay found evidence of helium in the spectrum of sunlight before he discovered that the element was also contained in natural gas deposits on Earth. ○ Ramsay thought he had discovered a new element present in natural gas deposits, but he was wrong since that element had been previously observed elsewhere on Earth ○ After Ramsay had discovered a new element, called helium, in natural gas deposits on Earth, he also found evidence of its presence in the Sun. ○ Ramsay later discovered that helium, an element that was already known to be present in the Sun, was also present in natural gas deposits on Earth. 6. The sheer scale of the investment it took to begin commercial expansion at sea reflects the immensity of the profits that such East-West trade could create. ○ The high cost to investors of developing trade by sea between East and West indicates the great size of the profits that such trade could produce. ○ The profits that could be created by sea trade between East and West were immense compared with the investment required to develop such trade. ○ The increase in commercial activity by using sea routes reflects the importance trade between East and West had for investors seeking great profits. ○ Because people made large investments in sea commerce between East and West, they expected to make immense profits. 7. In the green-to-yellow lighting conditions of the lowest levels of the forest, yellow and green would be the brightest colors, but when an animal is signaling, these colors would not be very visible if the animal was sitting in an area with a yellowish or greenish background. ○ When an animal is signaling in an area with green-to- yellow lighting conditions, its signal will not be visible if the background is brightly lit. ○ In the lowest levels of the forest, an animal s signals are not easily see unless there is a yellowish or greenish background ○ In the green-to-yellow lighting conditions at the lowest levels of the forest, only signals that are themselves green or yellow will be bright enough to be seen in most areas. ○ Although green and yellow would be the brightest colors near the forest floor, these colors would make poor signals whenever the forest background was also in the green-to-yellow range. 8. In the second case, pollinators (insects, birds) obtain food from the flowering plant, and the plant has its pollen distributed and seeds dispersed much more efficiently than they would be if they were carried by the wind only. ○ The relationship between flowering plants and pollinators provides pollinators with food and flowers with efficient reproduction ○ In some cases birds obtain food from the seeds that are dispersed in the wind. ○ The wind not only helps the flowers distribute their seeds but enables birds to find more food. ○ Animals and insects are more effective in distributing pollen and seeds than the wind 9. The key factor in the success of these countries (along with high literacy, which contributed to it) was their ability to adapt to the international division of labor determined by the early industrializers and to stake out areas of specialization in international markets for which they were especially well suited. ○ The early industrializes controlled most of the international economy, leaving these countries to stake out new areas of specialization along the margins. ○ Aided by their high literacy rates these countries were able to claim key areas of specialization within established international markets. ○ High literacy rates enabled these countries to take over international markets and adapt the international division of labor to suit their strengths. ○ The international division of labor established by the early industrializes was well suited to these countries, a key factor in their success. 10. According to conventional theory, yawning takes place when people are bored or sleepy and serves the function of increasing alertness by reversing, through deeper breathing, the drop in blood oxygen levels that are caused by the shallow breathing that accompanies lack of sleep or boredom. ○ It is the conventional theory that when people are bored or sleepy, they often experience a drop in blood oxygen levels due to their shallow breathing. ○ The conventional theory is that people yawn when bored or sleepy because yawning raises blood oxygen levels, which in turn raises alertness. ○ According to conventional theory, yawning is more likely to occur when people are bored or sleepy than when they are alert and breathing deeply. ○ Yawning according to the conventional theory, is caused by boredom or lack of sleep and can be avoided through deeper breathing. 11. In the wake of the Roman Empire's conquest of Britain in the first century A.D., a large number of troops stayed in the new province, and these troops had a considerable impact on Britain with their camps, fortifications, and participation in the local economy. ○ Many Roman soldiers remained in Britain after conquering it, and their presence had a strong influence. ○ The new Roman province of Britain seemed to awaken in the first century A.D as the local economy improved. ○ Camps, fortifications, and economic change contributed to the Roman conquest of Britain. ○ With the conquest of Britain by Roman troops, the Roman Empire gained considerable economic strength. 12. With "climax," "biome," "superorganism," and various other technical terms for the association of animals and plants at a given locality being criticized, the term "ecosystem" was more and more widely adopted for the whole system of associated organisms together with the physical factors of their environment. ○ Unlike the terms "climax." "biome." And " superorganism," which refer to the particular association of plants and animals at a given location, the term 'ecosystem" refers specifically to the physical factors within an environment. ○ The terms "climax.' "biome," 'superorganism,' and " ecosystem" all refer to the system of plants and animals in an associated environment, but some are more controversial than others. ○ When the older terms of ecology became too technical, they were replaced by the more popular and more widely used term ecosystem." ○ The term "ecosystem" gradually replaced discredited terms for the combination of a physical environment and the plants and animals living together in it. 15. They empty shell of a snail or clam may be left behind, and if it is sufficiently durable and resistant to dissolution, it may remain basically unchanged for a long period of time. ○ When snail or clam shells are left behind, they must be empty in order to remain durable and resist dissolution. ○ Although snail and clam shells are durable and resist dissolving, over time they slowly begin to change. ○ Although the soft parts of snails or clams dissolve quickly, their hard shells resist dissolution for a long time. ○ Empty snail or clam shells that are strong enough not to dissolve may stay in their original state for a long time. 17. The temperature increased dramatically in a short period of time (years rather than centuries), allowing for a growth of the hunting-gathering population due to the abundance of resources. ○ The resources needed by the growing bunting and gathering population increased rapidly once temperatures rose. ○ Dramatic temperature increases and the simultaneous growth of the hunting and gathering population led to the need for more resources. ○ Higher temperatures led to the existence of increased resources, thus enabling the hunting and gathering population to grow. ○ The dramatic temperature increase occurred during the few years when abundant resources allowed the hunting and gathering population to grow. 18. Numerous insects occupy the marsh, feeding on living or dead cordgrass tissue, and redwing blackbirds, sparrows, rodents, rabbits, and deer feed directly on the cordgrass. ○ Insects feed only on dead cordgrass, while most other marsh inhabitants feed on live cordgrass. ○ The marsh is a good habitat for insects, but a relatively poor one for birds and animals. ○ Although cordgrass provides food for birds and animals, it gives insects both food and a place to live. ○ Cordgrass provides food for numerous insects, birds, and other animals. 21. Importing the grain, which would have been expensive and time consuming for the Dutch to have produced themselves, kept the price of grain low and thus stimulated individual demand for other foodstuffs and consumer goods. ○ Buying imported grain led to the Dutch demanding that other foodstuffs and consumer goods be imported. ○ Because the Dutch were able to import inexpensive grain, they had money available to create a demand for other food products and consumer goods. ○ Keeping the price of grain low was a primary goal of the Dutch at a time when they could not produce enough grain to provide for all their needs. ○ The demand for other foodstuffs and consumer goods forced the Dutch to import grain and other products at a time when maintaining low prices was especially important. 24. Some scholars expand on this idea by emphasizing a corresponding need for arable land to feed growing numbers of people: construction of small dams, reservoirs, terraces, and field houses indicates that farmers were intensifying their efforts during the 1200s. ○ Some scholars even claim that the intensification of farmers' various efforts during the 1200s led to further population growth and the consequent need for more arable land. ○ Evidence of intensifying agriculture in the 1200s indicates a need to feed a larger population and so extends the argument that a growing population was the cause of the move to pueblos. ○ During the 1200s, farmers met the demand for more arable land, but they also succeeded in cultivating existing land more intensively with the help of agricultural construction projects. ○ Some scholars feel strongly that the construction of small dams, reservoirs, terraces, and field houses in the thirteenth century is independent evidence for growth in the number of people.
    • 3. 错误选项的设置
      • 改变原文逻辑/逻辑倒置
        • Because A, B. 错误=> Because B, A.
        • Although A, B. 错误=> Although B, A./ B, but A.
        • 多出极端内容：unless; until; only if; almost, 比较级...
      • 主宾倒置/偷换主宾
      • 谓语动词偷换: 多出否定成分(注意是否存在反义同义替换)
  • 【3】课后备考作业
    • 复习课堂笔记(包括出题/解题思路，及课堂所讲例题)
    • 按照解题思路解题 (作业: TPO1-12+OG49题)
    • 标出原句到选项保留的重要逻辑；错误选项如何设置
    • 分析正确选项和原文进行了怎么样的同义改写
• 4. 插句题
  • 【1】出题思路分析
    • 【1】插入句为考官后来加入的句子
      • 插入句可有可无
      • 前句或后句对应
    • 【2】插句题考察【句间指代关系】
      • this, these, that, those, he, she, they, it, such, each, other, one, another, both, each, anybody, none, some, any….
    • 【3】插句题考察【句间逻辑关系】
      • 【1】逻辑对应关系
        • - 递进解释
        • - 转折对比
      • 【2】先概括再具体
      • 【3】对应后句的也
      • 【4】存在问句位置
  • 【2】详细解题步骤
    • 【1】阅读插入句并做好预判
    • 【2】直接用排除法的插入句
      • 排除位置：×段前99%> ×指代99%>×逻辑80% 優選位置：√双段中99%>√ 段尾90%>√ 无逻辑/无指代 排除法解题的应用 1. ■Because they are always swimming, tunas simply have to open their mouths and water is forced in and over their gills. ■Accordingly, they have lost most of the muscles that other fishes use to suck in water and push it past the gills. ■In fact, tunas must swim to breathe. ■They must also keep swimming to keep from sinking, since most have largely or completely lost the swim bladder, the gas-filled sac that helps most other fish remain buoyant. Consequently, tunas do not need to suck in water. 答案：B ******************************************************************************** 2. Nomadism also subjects pastoralist communities to strict rules of portability. ■If you are constantly on the move, you cannot afford to accumulate large material surpluses. ■Such rules limit variations in accumulated material goods between pastoralist households (though they may also encourage a taste for portable goods of high value such as silks or jewelry). ■So, by and large, nomadism implies a high degree of self-sufficiency and inhibits the appearance of an extensive division of labor. ■Inequalities of wealth and rank certainly exist, and have probably existed in most pastoralist societies, but except in periods of military conquest, they are normally too slight to generate the stable, hereditary hierarchies that are usually implied by the use of the term class. There is a good reason for this. 答案：A ******************************************************************************** 3. ■Modern architectural forms generally have three separate components comparable to elements of the human body; a supporting skeleton or frame, an outer skin enclosing the interior spaces, equipment, similar to the body’s vital organs and systems. ■The equipment includes plumbing, electrical wiring, hot water, and air-conditioning. ■Of course in early architecture --- such as igloos and adobe structures --- there was no such equipment, and the skeleton and skin were often one.■ However, some modern architectural designs, such as those using folded plates of concrete or air-inflated structures, are again unifying skeleton and skin. 答案：D ******************************************************************************** 4. The reaction of farmers to the inevitable depletion of the Ogallala varies. Many have been attempting to conserve water by irrigating less frequently or by switching to crops that require less water. ■Other, however, have adopted the philosophy that it is best to use the water while it is still economically profitable to do so and to concentrate on high-value crops such as cotton. ■The incentive of the farmers who wish to conserve water is reduced by their knowledge that many of their neighbors are profiting by using great amounts of water, and in the process are drawing down the entire region’s water supplies.■ In the face of the upcoming water supply crisis, a number of grandiose schemes have been developed to transport vast quantities of water by canal or pipeline from the Mississippi, the Missouri, or the Arkansas rivers. ■Unfortunately, the cost of water obtained through any of these schemes would increase pumping costs at least tenfold, making the cost of irrigated agricultural products from the region uncompetitive on the national and international markets. 否定 But even if uncooperative farmers were to join in the conservation efforts, this would only delay the depletion of the aquifer. 答案：C ******************************************************************************** 5. One of the most puzzling aspects of the paintings is their location. Other rock paintings—for example, those of Bushmen in South Africa—are either located near cave entrances or completely in the open. ■Cave paintings in France and Spain, however, are in recesses and caverns far removed from original cave entrances. ■This means that artists were forced to work in cramped spaces and without sources of natural light. ■It also implies that whoever made them did not want them to be easily found. ■Since cave dwellers normally lived close to entrances, there must have been some reason why so many generations of Lascaux cave dwellers hid their art. This made it easy for the artists to paint and display them for the rest of the cave dwellers. 漂亮。我很喜歡 漂亮。但是，我不喜歡。 太風騷。因此，我不喜歡。 太風騷。可是，我喜歡。 答案：A ******************************************************************************** 6. Another explanation for the focus on animals might be that these people sought to improve their luck at hunting. ■This theory is suggested by evidence of chips in the painted figures, perhaps made by spears thrown at the drawings. ■But if improving their hunting luck was the chief motivation for the paintings, it is difficult to explain why only a few show signs of having been speared. ■Perhaps the paintings were inspired by the need to increase the supply of animals. Cave art seems to have reached a peak toward the end of the Upper Paleolithic period, when the herds of game were decreasing.■ Therefore, if the paintings were connected with hunting, some other explanation is needed. 答案：C ******************************************************************************** 7. Continued sedimentation—the process of deposits' settling on the sea bottom—buries the organic matter and subjects it to higher temperatures and pressures, which convert the organic matter to oil and gas. ■As muddy sediments are pressed together, the gas and small droplets of oil may be squeezed out of the mud and may move into sandy layers nearby. ■Over long periods of time (millions of years), accumulations of gas and oil can collect in the sandy layers. ■Both oil and gas are less dense than water, so they generally tend to rise upward through water-saturated rock and sediment.■ Unless something acts to halt this migration, these natural resources will eventually reach the surface. 答案：D ******************************************************************************** 8. It has long been accepted that the Americas were colonized by a migration of peoples from Asia, slowly traveling across a land bridge called Beringia (now the Bering Strait between northeastern Asia and Alaska) during the last Ice Age. ■The first water craft theory about the migration was that around 11,000-12,000 years ago there was an ice-free corridor stretching from eastern Beringia to the areas of North America south of the great northern glaciers. It was the midcontinental corridor between two massive ice sheets-the Laurentide to the west-that enabled the southward migration. ■But belief in this ice-free corridor began to crumble when paleoecologist Glen MacDonald demonstrated that some of the most important radiocarbon dates used to support the existence of an ice-free corridor were incorrect. ■He persuasively argued that such an ice-free corridor did not exist until much later, when the continental ice began its final retreat.■ Moreover, other evidence suggests that even if an ice-free corridor did exist, it would have lacked the resources needed for human colonization. 答案：D ******************************************************************************** 9. By measuring how many of these meteorites fall to Earth over a given period of time, scientists can estimate how long it might have taken to deposit the observed amount of lr in the boundary clay. ■These calculations suggest that a period of about one million years would have been required. ■However, other reliable evidence suggests that the deposition of the boundary clay could not have taken one million years. ■So the unusually high concentration of lr seems to require a special explanation.■ Consequently, the idea that the Lr in the boundary clay came from microscopic meteorites cannot be accepted. 答案：C ******************************************************************************** 10. Of all the physiological differences in human sleep compared with wakefulness that have been discovered in the last decade, changes in respiratory control are most dramatic. Not only are there differences in the level of the functioning of respiratory systems, there are even changes in how they function. Movements of the rib cage for breathing are reduced during sleep, making the contractions of the diaphragm more important. [■] Yet because of the physics of lying down, the stomach applies weight against the diaphragm and makes it more difficult for the diaphragm to do its job. [■] However, there are many other changes that affect respiration when asleep. [■] During wakefulness, breathing is controlled by two interacting systems. [■]The first is an automatic, metabolic system whose control is centered in the brain stem. It subconsciously adjusts breathing rate and depth in order to regulate the levels of carbon dioxide (CO2) and oxygen (O2), and the acid-base ratio in the blood. The second system is the voluntary, behavioral system. Its control center is based in the forebrain, and it regulates breathing for use in speech, singing, sighing, and so on. It is capable of ignoring or overriding the automatic, metabolic system and produces an irregular pattern of breathing. To better understand breathing during sleep, it is, however, helpful to first understand how respiration works in general. 答案：C ******************************************************************************** 11. Once all this information has been gathered, it becomes possible to judge whether a lake’s flow is mainly due to its surface inputs and outputs or to its underground inputs and outputs. [■] If the former are greater, the lake is a surface-water-dominated lake; if the latter, it is a seepage-dominated lake. [■] Occasionally, common sense tells you which of these two possibilities applies. [■] For example, a pond in hilly country that maintains a steady water level all through a dry summer in spite of having no streams flowing into it must obviously be seepage dominated. Conversely, a pond with a stream flowing in one end and out the other, which dries up when the stream dries up, is clearly surface water dominated. [■] Of course, a lake may be neither surface-water nor seepage-dominated if, for example, its inputs are predominantly surface and its outputs are predominantly seepage. 答案：D ******************************************************************************** 12. ■Only rarely can we derive any "real" quantities from deposits of broken pots. ■ However, there is one exceptional dump, which does represent a very large part of the site's total history of consumption and for which an estimate of quantity has been produced. ■On the left bank of the Tiber River in Rome, by one of the river ports of the ancient city, is a substantial hill some 50 meters high called Monte Testaccio. ■lt is made up entirely of broken oil amphorae, mainly of the second and third centuries A.D. It has been estimated that Monte Testaccio contains the remains of some 53 million amphorae, 否定 That is because residents of a city did not usually discard used pottery at the same site over a long period of time. 答案：B ******************************************************************************** 13. Think back to your childhood and try to identify your earliest memory. How old were you? ■Most people are not able to recount memories for experiences prior to the age of three years, a phenomenon called infantile amnesia. ■The question of why infantile amnesia occurs has intrigued psychologists for decades, especially in light of ample evidence that infants and young children can display impressive memory capabilities. ■Many find that understanding the general nature of autobiographical memory, that is, memory for events that have occurred in one's own life, can provide some important clues to this mystery. ■Between ages three and four, children begin to give fairly lengthy and cohesive descriptions of events in their past. What factors are responsible for this developmental turning point? It is unlikely that this memory will be from the first two years of life. 答案：A ******************************************************************************** 14. ■ Another task for the Glomar Challenger’s scientists was to try to determine the origin of the domelike masses buried deep beneath the Mediterranean seafloor. ■These structures had been detected years earlier by echo-sounding instruments, but they had never been penetrated in the course of drilling. ■Were they salt domes such as are common along the United States Gulf Coast, and if so, why should there have been so much solid crystalline salt beneath the floor of the Mediterranean? ■ 否定 Thus, scientists had information about the shape of the domes but not about their chemical composition and origin. 答案：C ******************************************************************************** 15. ■Day and night were divided into the same number of parts, so that except at the equinoxes, days and night hours were unequal; and then of course the length of these hours varied with the seasons. ■But the mechanical clock kept equal hours, and this implied a new time reckoning. ■The Catholic Church resisted, not coming over to the new hours for about a century. ■ The division of time no longer reflected the organization of religious ritual. 答案：C ******************************************************************************** 先【概括】后【具体】的对应关系：无法直接用排除法解决的题目类型 1. But this is fair-weather feeding. What keeps the black-tailed deer a lived in the harsher seasons of plant decay and dormancy? One compensation for not hibernating is the built-in urge to migrate. ■Deer may move from high-elevation browse areas in summer down to the lowland areas in late fall. ■Even with snow on the ground, the high bushy understory is exposed; also snow and wind bring down leafy branches of cedar, hemlock, red alder, and other arboreal fodder. ■The numbers of deer have fluctuated markedly since the entry of Europeans into Puget Sound country. ■The early explorers and settlers told of abundant deer in the early 1800s and yet almost in the same breath bemoaned the lack of this succulent game animal. There food is available and accessible throughout the winter. 答案：B ******************************************************************************** 2. In the Mesa Verde area of the ancient North American Southwest, living patterns changed in the thirteenth century, with large numbers of people moving into large communal dwellings called pueblos, often constructed at the edges of canyons, especially on the sides of cliffs. Abandoning small extended-family households to move into these large pueblos with dozens if not hundreds of other people was probably traumatic. Few of the cultural traditions and rules that today allow us to deal with dense populations existed for these people accustomed to household autonomy and the ability to move around the landscape almost at will. [■] And besides the awkwardness of having to share walls with neighbors, living in aggregated pueblos introduced other problems. [■] For people in cliff dwellings, hauling water, wood, and food to their homes was a major chore. [■] The stress on local resources, especially in the firewood needed for daily cooking and warmth, was particularly intense, and conditions in aggregated pueblos were not very hygienic. [■] Performing everyday household tasks required more effort. 答案：B ******************************************************************************** 3. At its height, between about A.D. 150 and 700, it probably had a population of more than 125,000 people and covered at least 20 square kilometers. ■It had over 2,000 apartment complexes, a great market, a large number of industrial workshops, an administrative center, a number of massive religious edifices, and a regular grid pattern of streets and buildings. ■Clearly, much planning and central control were involved in the expansion and ordering of this great metropolis. ■Moreover, the city had economic and perhaps religious contacts with most parts of Mesoamerica (modern Central America and Mexico).■ In fact, artifacts and pottery from Teotihuacán have been discovered in sites as far away as the Mayan lowlands, the Guatemalan highlands, northern Mexico, and the Gulf Coast of Mexico. 答案：D ******************************************************************************** 4. During Jackson's second term, his opponents had gradually come together to form the Whig party. ■Whigs and Democrats held different attitudes toward the changes brought about by the market, banks, and commerce. ■The Democrats tended to view society as a continuing conflict between "the people”-farmers, planters, and workers-and a set of greedy aristocrats. ■This "paper money aristocracy" of bankers and investors manipulated the banking system for their own profit, Democrats claimed, and sapped the nation's virtue by encouraging speculation and the desire for sudden, unearned wealth. ■The Democrats wanted the rewards of the market without sacrificing the features of a simple agrarian republic. They wanted the wealth that the market offered without the competitive, changing society; the complex dealing; the dominance of urban centers; and the loss of independence that came with it. This new party argued against the policies of Jackson and his party in a number of important areas, beginning with the economy. 答案：Agrarian ******************************************************************************** 5. ■Ecologists are especially interested to know what factors contribute to the resilience of communities because climax communities all over the world are being severely damaged or destroyed by human activities. ■The destruction caused by the volcanic explosion of Mount St. Helens, in the northwestern United States, for example, pales in comparison to the destruction caused by humans. ■We need to know what aspects of a community are most important to the community’s resistance to destruction, as well as its recovery.■ In fact, damage to the environment by humans is often much more severe than damage by natural events and processes. 答案：B ******************************************************************************** 6. Scientists have known for some time that certain plants, called hyper accumulators, can concentrate minerals at levels a hundredfold or greater than normal. ■A survey of known hyper accumulators identified that 75 percent of them amassed nickel, cobalt, copper, zinc, manganese, lead, and cadmium are other minerals of choice. ■Hyper accumulators run the entire range of the plant world. ■They may be herbs, shrubs, or trees. ■Many members of the mustard family, spurge family, legume family, and grass family are top hyper accumulators. Certain minerals are more likely to be accumulated in large quantities than others. 答案：A ******************************************************************************** 7. Impacts by meteorites represent one mechanism that could cause global catastrophes and seriously influence the evolution of life all over the planet. ■According to some estimates, the majority of all extinctions of species may be due to such impacts. ■Such a perspective fundamentally changes our view of biological evolution. ■The standard criterion for the survival of a species is its success in competing with other species and adapting to slowly changing environments. ■Yet an equally important criterion is the ability of a species to survive random global ecological catastrophes due to impacts. This is the criterion emphasized by Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection. 答案：C ******************************************************************************** 8. As her technological expertise grew more sophisticated, so did the other aspects of her dances. ■Although she gave little thought to music in her earliest dances, she later used scores by Gluck, Beethoven, Schubert, Chopin, and Wagner, eventually graduating to Stravinsky, Faure, Debussy, and Mussorgsky, composers who were then considered progressive. ■She began to address more ambitious themes in her dances such as The Sea, in which her dancers invisibly agitated a huge expanse of silk, played upon by colored lights. ■Always open to scientific and technological innovations, she befriended the scientists Marie and Pierre Curie upon their discovery of radium and created a Radium Dance, which simulated the phosphorescence of that element. ■She both appeared in films—then in an early stage of development—and made them herself; the hero of her fairy-tale film Le Lys de la Vie (1919) was played by René Clair, later a leading French film director. For all her originality in dance, her interests expanded beyond it into newly emerging artistic media. 答案：D ******************************************************************************** 9. They may change color with changing light conditions and cloud cover, glowing pink or gold in the morning or evening light, but this color change is generally related to the low angle of the Sun above the horizon. ■However, travelers to Antarctica have repeatedly reported seeing green icebergs in the Weddell Sea and, more commonly, close to the Amery Ice Shelf in East Antarctica. ■One explanation for green icebergs attributes their color to an optical illusion when blue ice is illuminated by a near-horizon red Sun, but green icebergs stand out among white and blue icebergs under a great variety of light conditions. ■Another suggestion is that the color might be related to ice with high levels of metallic compounds, including copper and iron. ■Recent expeditions have taken ice samples from green icebergs and ice cores—vertical, cylindrical ice samples reaching down to great depths—from the glacial ice shelves along the Antarctic continent. Scientists have differed as to whether icebergs appear green as a result of light conditions or because of something in the ice itself. 答案：B ******************************************************************************** 概括-》具体：插入句出现also/as well/too表示“也”的概念，那么看哪一句出现“也”后的名词即可。 无法直接用排除法解决的题目类型 1. These people probably originated in eastern Nigeria. ■Their migration may have been set in motion by an increase in population caused by a movement of peoples fleeing the desiccation, or drying up, of the Sahara. ■They spoke a language, prior-Bantu (“Bantu” means “the people”), which is the parent tongue of a language of a large number of Bantu languages still spoken throughout sub-Sahara Africa. Why and how these people spread out into central and southern Africa remains a mystery, but archaeologists believe that their iron weapons allowed them to conquer their hunting-gathering opponents, who still used stone implements. ■Still, the process is uncertain, and peaceful migration—or simply rapid demographic growth—may have also caused the Bantu explosion.■ These people had a significant linguistic impact on the continent as well. 答案：B ******************************************************************************** 2. One of the most far-reaching examples is the impact of the fine ninth-century AD. Chinese porcelain wares imported into the Arab world. ■So admired were these pieces that they encouraged the development of earthenware made in imitation of porcelain and instigated research into the method of their manufacture. ■From the Middle East the Chinese acquired a blue pigment—a purified form of cobalt oxide unobtainable at that time in China—that contained only a low level of manganese. Cobalt ores found in China have a high manganese content, which produces a more muted blue-gray color. ■In the seventeenth century, the trading activities of the Dutch East India Company resulted in vast quantities of decorated Chinese porcelain being brought to Europe, which stimulated and influenced the work of a wide variety of wares, notably Delft. ■The Chinese themselves adapted many specific vessel forms from the West, such as bottles with long spouts, and designed a range of decorative patterns especially for the European market. Foreign trade was also responsible for certain innovations in coloring. 答案：B ******************************************************************************** 3. Bills of exchange, which had their origins in medieval Italy, were promissory notes (written promises to pay a specified amount of money by a certain date) that could be sold to third parties. In this way, they provided credit. ■At mid-century, an Antwerp financier only slightly exaggerated when he claimed, “One can no more trade without bills of exchange than sail without water." ■Merchants no longer had to carry gold and silver over long, dangerous journeys. ■An Amsterdam merchant purchasing soap from a merchant in Marseille could go to an exchanger and pay the exchanger the equivalent sum in guilders, the Dutch currency. ■The exchanger would then send a bill of exchange to a colleague in Marseille, authorizing the colleague to pay the Marseille merchant in the merchant's own currency after the actual exchange of goods had taken place. They could also avoid having to identify and assess the value of a wide variety of coins issued in many different places. 答案：C ******************************************************************************** 4. Many signals that animals make seem to impose on the signalers costs that are overly damaging. ■A classic example is noisy begging by nestling songbirds when a parent returns to the nest with food. ■These loud cheeps and peeps might give the location of the nest away to a listening hawk or raccoon, resulting in the death of the defenseless nestlings. ■In fact, when tapes of begging tree swallows were played at an artificial swallow nest containing an egg, the egg in that “noisy” nest was taken or destroyed by predators before the egg in a nearby quiet nest in 29 of 37 trials.■ The cheeping provides important information to the parent, but it could also attract the attention of others. 答案：B ******************************************************************************** 4. Pacific islanders ere variously thought to have come from North America, South America, Egypt, Israel, and India, as well as Southeast Asia. ■Many older theories implicitly deprecated the navigational abilities and overall cultural creativity of the Pacific islanders. ■For example, British anthropologists G. Elliot Smith and W. J. Perry assumed that only Egyptians would have been skilled enough to navigate and colonize the Pacific. ■They inferred that the Egyptians even crossed the Pacific to found the great civilizations of the New World (North and South America). ■In 1947 Norwegian adventurer Thor Heyerdahl drifted on a balsa-log raft westward with the winds and currents across the Pacific from South America to prove his theory that Pacific islanders were Native Americans (also called American Indians). Later theories concentrate on journeys in the other direction. 答案：D ******************************************************************************** 6. Petrifaction may also involve a simultaneous exchange of the original substance of a dead plant or animal with mineral matter of a different composition. This process is termed " replacement" because solutions have dissolved the original material and replaced it with an equal volume of the new substance. Replacement can be a marvelously precise process, so that details of shell ornamentation, tree rings in wood, and delicate structures in bone are accurately preserved. ■ Another type of fossilization, known as carbonization, occurs when soft tissues are preserved as thin films of carbon. ■Leaves and tissue of soft-bodied organisms such as jellyfish or worms may accumulate, become buried and compressed, and lose their volatile constituents. ■The carbon often remains behind as a blackened silhouette.■ But the evidence of past organic life is not limited to petrifaction. 答案：A ******************************************************************************** 7. ■Fantasy is one of the more common techniques in advertising that could possibly mislead a young audience. ■Child-oriented advertisements are more likely to include magic and fantasy than advertisements aimed at adults. ■In a content analysis of Canadian television, the author Stephen Kline observed that nearly all commercials for character toys featured fantasy play. ■Children have strong imaginations and the use of fantasy brings their ideas to life, but children may not be adept enough to realize that what they are viewing is unreal. Fantasy situations and settings are frequently used to attract children's attention, particularly in food advertising. Advertisements for breakfast cereals have, for many years, been found to be especially fond of fantasy techniques, with almost nine out of ten including such content. Generally, there is uncertainty as to whether very young children can distinguish between fantasy and reality in advertising. Certainly, rational appeals in advertising aimed at children are limited, as most advertisements use emotional and indirect appeals to psychological states or associations. Another aspect of advertising that may especially influence children is fantasy. 答案：A ******************************************************************************** 插入句存在指代关系，高于排除法（但仍可运用排除法帮助解题，重点验证！） 1. Extinct but already fully marine cetaceans are known from the fossil record. ■How was the gap between a walking mammal and a swimming whale bridged? ■Missing until recently were fossils clearly intermediate, or transitional, between land mammals and cetaceans. ■Very exciting discoveries have finally allowed scientists to reconstruct the most likely origins of cetaceans. ■In 1979, a team looking for fossils in northern Pakistan found what proved to be the oldest fossil whale. This is a question that has puzzled scientists for ages. 答案：B ******************************************************************************** 2. The systematic study of this art is a relatively new discipline in Australia. Over the past four decades new discoveries have steadily added to the body of knowledge. The most significant data have come from a concentration on three major questions. First, what is the age of Australian rock art? Second, what is its stylistic organization and is it possible to discern a sequence or a pattern of development between styles? Third, is it possible to interpret accurately the subject matter of ancient rock art, bring to bear all available archaeological techniques and the knowledge of present-day Aboriginal informants?■ The age of Australia’s rock art is constantly being revised, and earlier datings have been proposed as the result of new discoveries. ■Currently, reliable scientific evidence dates the earliest creation of art on rock surfaces in Australia to somewhere between 30,000 and 50,000 years ago. ■This in itself is an almost incomprehensible span of generations, and one that makes Australia’s rock art the oldest continuous art tradition in the world. ■ While a great deal of information exists, the answers to these questions are not yet definitive. 答案：A ******************************************************************************** 3. ■The raising of livestock is a major economic activity in semiarid lands, where grasses are generally the dominant type of natural vegetation. ■The consequences of an excessive number of livestock grazing in an area are the reduction of the vegetation cover and the trampling and pulverization of the soil. ■This is usually followed by the drying of the soil and accelerated erosion.■ This economic reliance on livestock in certain regions makes large tracts of land susceptible to overgrazing. 答案：B ******************************************************************************** 4. Before 1815 manufacturing in the United States had been done in homes or shops by skilled artisans. ■As master craft workers, they imparted the knowledge of their trades to apprentices and journeymen. ■In addition, women often worked in their homes part-time, making finished articles from raw material supplied by merchant capitalists. ■After 1815 this older form of manufacturing began to give way to factories with machinery tended by unskilled or semiskilled laborers. ■Cheap transportation networks, the rise of cities, and the availability of capital and credit all stimulated the shift to factory production. This new form of manufacturing depended on the movement of goods to distant locations and a centralized source of laborers. 答案：D ******************************************************************************** 5. Opportunists must constantly invade new areas to compensate for being displaced by more competitive species. Human landscapes of lawns, fields, or flowerbeds provide settings with bare soil and a lack of competitors that are perfect habitats for colonization by opportunists. ■Hence, many of the strongly opportunistic plants are the common weeds of fields and gardens.■ Because each individual is short-lived, the population of an opportunist species is likely to be adversely affected by drought, bad winters, or floods. ■If their population is tracked through time, it will be seen to be particularly unstable—soaring and plummeting in irregular cycles.■ Such episodic events will cause a population of dandelions, for example, to vary widely. 答案：C ******************************************************************************** 6. ■Most investigators concur that certain facial expressions suggest the same emotions in all people. ■Moreover, people in diverse cultures recognize the emotions manifested by the facial expressions. ■In classic research Paul Ekman took photographs of people exhibiting the emotions of anger, disgust, fear, happiness, and sadness. ■He then asked people around the world to indicate what emotions were being depicted in them. This universality in the recognition of emotions was demonstrated by using rather simple methods. 答案：C ******************************************************************************** 7. Children normally desire to vent aggressive impulses on other people, including their parents, because even the most attentive parents cannot gratify all of their demands immediately. ■Yet children, also fearing their parents' punishment and the loss of parental love, come to repress most aggressive impulses. ■The Freudian perspective, in a sense: sees us as "steam engines." ■By holding in rather than venting "steam," we set the stage for future explosions. ■Pent-up aggressive impulses demand outlets. They may be expressed toward parents in indirect ways such as destroying furniture, or they may be expressed toward strangers later in life. According to Freud, however, impulses that have been repressed continue to exist and demand expression. 答案：B ******************************************************************************** 8. ■Exhibitors, however, wanted to maximize their profits, which they could do more readily by projecting a handful of films to hundreds of customers at a time (rather than one at a time) and by charging 25 to 50 cents admission. ■About a year after the opening of the first Kinetoscope parlor in 1894, showmen such as Louis and Auguste Lumiere, Thomas Armat and Charles Francis Jenkins, and Orville and Woodville Latham (with the assistance of Edison's former assistant, William Dickson) perfected projection devices. ■These early projection devices were used in vaudeville theaters, legitimate theaters, local town halls, makeshift storefront theaters, fairgrounds, and amusement parks to show films to a mass audience.■ When this widespread use of projection technology began to hurt his Kinetoscope business, Edison acquired a projector developed by Armat and introduced it as “Edison’s latest marvel, the Vitascope." 答案：D ******************************************************************************** 9. Under very cold conditions, rocks can be shattered by ice and frost. Glaciers may form in permanently cold areas, and these slowly moving masses of ice cut out valleys, carrying with them huge quantities of eroded rock debris. ■In dry areas the wind is the principal agent of erosion. ■It carries fine particles of sand, which bombard exposed rock surfaces, thereby wearing them into yet more sand. ■Even living things contribute to the formation of landscapes. ■Tree roots force their way into cracks in rocks and, in so doing, speed their splitting. In contrast, the roots of grasses and other small plants may help to hold loose soil fragments together, thereby helping to prevent erosion by the wind. Under different climatic conditions, another type of destructive force contributes to erosion. 答案：A ******************************************************************************** 10. Since 1980, the use of wind to produce electricity has been growing rapidly. ■In 1994 there were nearly 20,000 wind turbines worldwide, most grouped in clusters called wind farms that collectively produced 3,000 megawatts of electricity. ■Most were in Denmark (which got 3 percent of its electricity from wind turbines) and California (where 17,000 machines produced 1 percent of the state’s electricity, enough to meet the residential needs of a city as large as San Francisco). ■In principle, all the power needs of the United States could be provided by exploiting the wind potential of just three states—North Dakota, South Dakota, and Texas.■ Some companies in the power industry are aware of this wider possibility and are planning sizable wind-farm projects in states other than California. 答案：D ******************************************************************************** 11. Outflow channels are probably relics of catastrophic flooding on Mars long ago. ■They appear only in equatorial regions and generally do not form extensive interconnected networks. ■Instead, they are probably the paths taken by huge volumes of water draining from the southern highlands into the northern plains. ■The onrushing water arising from these flash floods likely also formed the odd teardrop-shaped “islands” (resembling the miniature versions seen in the wet sand of our beaches at low tide) that have been found on the plains close to the ends of the outflow channels. ■Judging from the width and depth of the channels, the flow rates must have been truly enormous―perhaps as much as a hundred times greater than the 105 tons per second carried by the great Amazon river. These landscape features differ from runoff channels in a number of ways. 答案：A ******************************************************************************** 12. The differences in feeding preferences lead, in turn, to differences in migratory habits.■The wildebeests follow, in their migration, the pattern of local rainfall. ■The other species do likewise. ■But when a new area is fueled by rain, the mammals migrate toward it in a set order to exploit it. ■The larger, less fastidious feeders, the zebras, move in first; the choosier, smaller wildebeests come later; and the smallest species of all, Thomson’s gazelle, arrives last. The sequence in which they migrate correlates with their body size. 答案：C ******************************************************************************** 13. Earth's internal heat, fueled by radioactivity, provides the energy for plate tectonics and continental drift, mountain building, and earthquakes. It can also be harnessed to drive electric generators and heat homes. Geothermal energy becomes available in a practical form when underground heat is transferred by water that is heated as it passes through a subsurface region of hot rocks (a heat reservoir) that may be hundreds or thousands of feet deep. ■The water is usually naturally occurring groundwater that seeps down along fractures in the rock; less typically, the water is artificially introduced by being pumped down from the surface. ■The water is brought to the surface, as a liquid or steam, through holes drilled for the purpose.■ By far the most abundant form of geothermal energy occurs at the relatively low temperatures of 80° to 180° centigrade. ■Water circulated through heat reservoirs in this temperature range is able to extract enough heat to warm residential, commercial, and industrial spaces. More than 20,000 apartments in France are now heated by warm underground water drawn from a heat reservoir in a geologic structure near Paris called the Paris Basin. Iceland sits on a volcanic structure known as the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. Reykjavik, the capital of Iceland, is entirely heated by geothermal energy derived from volcanic heat. In either case, the heated water will usually be under considerable pressure, and so may have a temperature that is well above its sea-level boiling point of 100° centigrade. 答案：B ******************************************************************************** 14. We all know that many more people today are right-handed than left-handed. Can one trace this same pattern far back in prehistory? ■Much of the evidence about right-hand versus left-hand dominance comes from stencils and prints found in rock shelters in Australia and elsewhere, and in many Ice Age caves in France, Spain, and Tasmania. ■When a left hand has been stenciled, this implies that the artist was right-handed, and vice versa. ■Even though the paint was often sprayed on by mouth, one can assume that the dominant hand assisted in the operation. One also has to make the assumption that hands were stenciled palm downward—a left hand stenciled palm upward might of course look as if it were a right hand. ■Of 158 stencils in the French cave of Gargas, 136 have been identified as left, and only 22 as right; right-handedness was therefore heavily predominant. The stencils of hands found in these shelters and caves allow us to draw conclusions about which hand was dominant. 答案：B ******************************************************************************** 15. Their competition and collaboration were creating the broadcasting industry in the United States, beginning with the introduction of commercial radio programming in the early 1920s. ■With financial assets considerably greater than those in the motion picture industry, and perhaps a wider vision of the relationships among entertainment and communications media, they revitalized research into recording sound for motion pictures. ■In 1929 the United States motion picture industry released more than 300 sound films—a rough figure, since a number were silent films with music tracks, or films prepared in dual versions, to take account of the many cinemas not yet wired for sound. ■At the production level, in the United States the conversion was virtually complete by 1930. ■In Europe it took a little longer, mainly because there were more small producers for whom the costs of sound were prohibitive, and in other parts of the world problems with rights or access to equipment delayed the shift to sound production for a few more years (though cinemas in major cities may have been wired in order to play foreign sound films). When this research resulted in the development of vastly improved sound techniques, film studios became convinced of the importance of converting to sound. 答案：B ******************************************************************************** 16. Basaltic rocks also support springs, notably at the Jabal Al-Arab on the Jordan-Syria border. ■Endogenous rivers often do not reach the sea but drain into inland basins, where the water evaporates or is lost in the ground. ■Most desert streambeds are normally dry, but they occasionally receive large flows of water and sediment.■ Deserts contain large amounts of groundwater when compared to the amounts they hold in surface stores such as lakes and rivers. ■But only a small fraction of groundwater enters the hydrological cycle-feeding the flows of streams, maintaining lake levels, and being recharged (or refilled) through surface flows and rainwater. These sudden floods provide important water supplies but can also be highly destructive. 答案：B ******************************************************************************** 17. To understand the ancient Mayan people who lived in the area that is today southern Mexico and Central America and the ecological difficulties they faced, one must first consider their environment, which we think of as "jungle" or "tropical rainforest." ■This view is inaccurate, and the reason proves to be important. ■Properly speaking, tropical rainforests grow in high-rainfall equatorial areas that remain wet or humid all year round. But the Maya homeland lies more than sixteen hundred kilometers from the equator, at latitudes 17 to 22 degrees north, in a habitat termed a "seasonal tropical forest." ■That is, while there does tend to be a rainy season from May to October, there is also a dry season from January through April. If one focuses on the wet months, one calls the Maya homeland a "seasonal tropical forest"; if one focuses on the dry months, one could instead describe it as a "seasonal desert."■ The difference between the two climates challenged the Maya who had to deal with both. 答案：D ******************************************************************************** 问句：一般位于段末位置 1. Much of the water in a sample of water-saturated sediment or rock will drain from it if the sample is put in a suitable dry place. ■But some will remain, clinging to all solid surfaces. ■It is held there by the force of surface tension without which water would drain instantly from any wet surface, leaving it totally dry. ■The total volume of water in the saturated sample must therefore be thought of as consisting of water that can, and water that cannot, drain away.■ What, then, determines what proportion of the water stays and what proportion drains away? 答案：D ******************************************************************************** TPO15-24 插句题 1. Leatherbacks keep their body heat in three different ways. The first, and simplest, is size. The bigger the animal is, the lower its surface-to-volume ratio; for every ounce of body mass, there is proportionately less surface through which heat can escape. An adult leatherback is twice the size of the biggest cheloniid sea turtles and will therefore take longer to cool off. Maintaining a high body temperature through sheer bulk is called gigantothermy. ■It works for elephants, for whales, and, perhaps, it worked for many of the larger dinosaurs. ■It apparently works, in a smaller way, for some other sea turtles. ■Large loggerhead and green turtles can maintain their body temperature at a degree or two above that of the surrounding water, and gigantothermy is probably the way they do it. ■Muscular activity helps, too, and an actively swimming green turtle may be 7°C (12.6°F) warmer than the waters it swims through. However, these animals have additional means of staying warm. 2. ■Cases in which many species become extinct within a geologically short interval of time are called mass extinctions. ■There was one such event at the end of the Cretaceous period (around 70 million years ago). ■There was another, even larger, mass extinction at the end of the Permian period (around 250 million years ago). ■The Permian event has attracted much less attention than other mass extinctions because mostly unfamiliar species perished at that time. In general, it is believed that these two extinctions resulted from drastic environmental changes that followed meteorite impacts or massive volcanic eruptions. 3. Glaciers are slowly moving masses of ice that have accumulated on land in areas where more snowfalls during a year than melts. Snow falls as hexagonal crystals, but once on the ground, snow is soon transformed into a compacted mass of smaller, rounded grains. ■As the air space around them is lessened by compaction and melting, the grains become denser. ■With further melting, refreezing, and increased weight from newer snowfall above, the snow reaches a granular recrystallized stage intermediate between flakes and ice known as firn. ■With additional time, pressure, and refrozen meltwater from above, the small firn granules become larger, interlocked crystals of blue glacial ice. ■When the ice is thick enough, usually over 30 meters, the weight of the snow and firn will cause the ice crystals toward the bottom to become plastic and to flow outward or downward from the area of snow accumulation. Firn has the appearance of wet sugar, but it is almost as hard as ice. 4. Reliance on trade had several important consequences. ■Production was generally in the hands of skilled individual artisans doing piecework under the tutelage of a master who was also the shop owner. ■In these shops differences of rank were blurred as artisans and masters labored side by side in the same modest establishment, were usually members of the same guild and religious sect, lived in the same neighborhoods, and often had assumed (or real) kinship relationships. ■The worker was bound to the master by a mutual contract that either one could repudiate, and the relationship was conceptualized as one of partnership. ■ For one thing, it created a demand for finished goods to be sold both locally and abroad. 5. Various proposals were put forth to arrange the elements into groups based on similarities in chemical and physical properties. ■The next step was to recognize a connection between group properties (physical or chemical similarities) and atomic mass (the measured mass of an individual atom of an element). ■When the elements known at the time were ordered by increasing atomic mass, it was found that successive elements belonged to different chemical groups and that the order of the groups in this sequence was fixed and repeated itself at regular intervals. ■Thus when the series of elements was written so as to begin a new horizontal row with each alkali metal, elements of the same groups were automatically assembled in vertical columns in a periodic table of the elements. ■This table was the forerunner of the modern table. It was a natural Idea to break up the series of elements at the points where the sequence of chemical groups to which the elements belonged began to repeat itself. 6. Other dimensions along which the two groups differ markedly are density and composition. The densities of the terrestrial planets average about 5 times the density of water, whereas the Jovian planets have densities that average only 1.5 times the density of water. One of the outer planets, Saturn, has a density of only 0.7 that of water, which means that Saturn would float in water. Variations in the composition of the planets are largely responsible for the density differences. ■The substances that make up both groups of planets are divided into three groups—gases, rocks, and ices—based on their melting points. ■The terrestrial planets are mostly rocks: dense rocky and metallic material, with minor amounts of gases. ■The Jovian planets, on the other hand, contain a large percentage of the gases hydrogen and helium, with varying amounts of ices: mostly water, ammonia, and methane ices. ■ This explains their relatively low densities. 7. Other dimensions along which the two groups differ markedly are density and composition. The densities of the terrestrial planets average about 5 times the density of water, whereas the Jovian planets have densities that average only 1.5 times the density of water. One of the outer planets, Saturn, has a density of only 0.7 that of water, which means that Saturn would float in water. Variations in the composition of the planets are largely responsible for the density differences. ■The substances that make up both groups of planets are divided into three groups—gases, rocks, and ices—based on their melting points. ■The terrestrial planets are mostly rocks: dense rocky and metallic material, with minor amounts of gases. ■The Jovian planets, on the other hand, contain a large percentage of the gases hydrogen and helium, with varying amounts of ices: mostly water, ammonia, and methane ices. ■ This explains their relatively low densities. 8. The chief problem was technological: How were the Europeans to reach the East? Europe's maritime tradition had developed in the context of easily navigable seas—the Mediterranean, the Baltic, and, to a lesser extent, the North Sea between England and the Continent—not of vast oceans. New types of ships were needed, new methods of finding one's way, new techniques for financing so vast a scheme. The sheer scale of the investment it took to begin commercial expansion at sea reflects the immensity of the profits that such East-West trade could create. ■ Spices were the most sought-after commodities. ■ Spices not only dramatically improved the taste of the European diet but also were used to manufacture perfumes and certain medicines. ■ But even high-priced commodities like spices had to be transported in large bulk in order to justify the expense and trouble of sailing around the African continent all the way to India and China. ■ They were highly valued for a couple of reasons. 9. Less colorful birds and animals that inhabit the rain forest tend to rely on forms of signaling other than the visual, particularly over long distances. ■ The piercing cries of the rhinoceros hornbill characterize the Southeast Asian rain forest, as do the unmistakable calls of the gibbons. ■ In densely wooded environments, sound is the best means of communication over distance because in comparison with light, it travels with little impediment from trees and other vegetation. ■ In forests, visual signals can be seen only at short distances, where they are not obstructed by trees. ■ The male riflebird exploits both of these modes of signaling simultaneously in his courtship display. The sounds made as each wing is opened carry extremely well over distance and advertise his presence widely. The ritualized visual display communicates in close quarters when a female has approached. There is also the long, rather terrifying call of the male orangutan, which carries over considerable distances to advertise his presence. 10. At times, it is actually possible to watch the effects of natural selection in host-parasite relationships. For example, Australia during the 1940 s was overrun by hundreds of millions of European rabbits. ■ The rabbits destroyed huge expanses of Australia and threatened the sheep and cattle industries. ■ In 1950, myxoma virus, a parasite that affects rabbits, was deliberately introduced into Australia to control the rabbit population. ■ Spread rapidly by mosquitoes, the virus devastated the rabbit population. ■ The virus was less deadly to the offspring of surviving rabbits, however, and it caused less and less harm over the years. Apparently, genotypes (the genetic make-up of an organism) in the rabbit population were selected that were better able to resist the parasite. Meanwhile, the deadliest strains of the virus perished with their hosts as natural selection favored strains that could infect hosts but not kill them. Thus, natural selection stabilized this host-parasite relationship. This massive population began a century earlier as a mere twelve pairs of imported rabbits that reproduced quickly and developed into a major problem. 11. While some European countries, such as England and Germany, began to industrialize in the eighteenth century, the Netherlands and the Scandinavian countries of Denmark, Norway, and Sweden developed later. ■ All four of these countries lagged considerably behind in the early nineteenth century. ■ However, they industrialized rapidly in the second half of the century, especially in the last two or three decades. ■ In view of their later start and their lack of coal—undoubtedly the main reason they were not among the early industrializers—it is important to understand the sources of their success. ■ During this period, Sweden had the highest rate of growth of output per capita of any country in Europe, and Denmark was second. 12. Another flaw of the tiredness theory is that yawning does not raise alertness or physiological activity, as the theory would predict. When researchers measured the heart rate, muscle tension and skin conductance of people before, during and after yawning, they did detect some changes in skin conductance following yawning, indicating a slight increase in physiological activity. However, similar changes occurred when the subjects were asked simply to open their mouths or to breathe deeply. Yawning did nothing special to their state of physiological activity. Experiments have also cast serious doubt on the belief that yawning is triggered by a drop in blood oxygen or a rise in blood carbon dioxide. ■Volunteers were told to think about yawning while they breathed either normal air, pure oxygen, or an air mixture with an above-normal level of carbon dioxide. ■If the theory was correct, breathing air with extra carbon dioxide should have triggered yawning, while breathing pure oxygen should have suppressed yawning. ■In fact, neither condition made any difference to the frequency of yawning, which remained constant at about 24 yawns per hour. ■Another experiment demonstrated that physical exercise, which was sufficiently vigorous to double the rate of breathing, had no effect on the frequency of yawning Again the implication is that yawning has little or nothing to do with oxygen. This, however, was not the case 13. The formation of the channel is initiated when electrons surge from the cloud base toward the ground. When a stream of these negatively charged electrons comes within 100 meters of the ground it is met by a stream of positively charged particles that comes up from the ground. When the negatively and positively charged streams meet, a complete channel connecting the cloud and the ground is formed. The channel is only a few centimeters in diameter, but that is wide enough for electrons to follow the channel to the ground in the visible form of a flash of lightning. The stream of positive particles that meets the surge of electrons from the cloud often arises from a tall pointed structure such as a metal flagpole or a tower. That is why the subsequent lightning that follows the completed channel often strikes a tall structure. ■ Once a channel has been formed, it is usually used by several lightning discharges, each of them consisting of a stream of electrons from the cloud meeting a stream of positive particles along the established path. ■Sometimes, however, a stream of electrons following an established channel is met by a positive stream making a new path up from the ground. ■The result is a forked lightning that strikes the ground in two places. ■ The descending stream of electrons divides at the point where the new positive-stream channel intersects the established path. 14. Economic exchange was clearly very important as the Roman army brought with it very substantial spending power. Locally a fort had two kinds of impact. Its large population needed food and other supplies. ■ Some of these were certainly brought from long distances, but demands were inevitably placed on the local area. ■ Although goods could be requisitioned, they were usually paid for, and this probably stimulated changes in the local economy. ■ When not campaigning, soldiers needed to be occupied; otherwise they represented a potentially dangerous source of friction and disloyalty. ■ Hence a writing tablet dated 25 April tells of 343 men at one fort engaged on tasks like shoemaking, building a bathhouse, operating kilns, digging clay, and working lead. Such activities had a major effect on the local area, in particular with the construction of infrastructure such as roads, which improved access to remote areas. One solution was to keep them busy as sources of labor. 15. Although the ecosystem concept was very popular in the 1950s and 1960s, it is no longer the dominant paradigm. ■ Gleason's arguments against climax and biome are largely valid against ecosystems as well. ■ Furthermore, the number of interactions is so great that they are difficult to analyze, even with the help of large computers. Finally, younger ecologists have found ecological problems involving behavior and life-history adaptations more attractive than measuring physical constants. ■ Nevertheless, one still speaks of the ecosystem when referring to a local association of animals and plants, usually without paying much attention to the energy aspects. ■ They may be more interested in researching, for example, the adaptations that some aquatic animals undergo to survive in dry desert environments. 16. In the middle of the nineteenth century, Louis Agassiz, one of the first scientists to study glaciers, immigrated to the United States from Switzerland and became a professor at Harvard University, where he continued his studies in geology and other sciences. For his research, Agassiz visited many places in the northern parts of Europe and North America, from the mountains of Scandinavia and New England to the rolling hills of the American Midwest. ■ In all these diverse regions, Agassiz saw signs of glacial erosion and sedimentation. ■ In flat plains country, he saw moraines (accumulations of earth and loose rock that form at the edges of glaciers) that reminded him of the terminal moraines found at the end of valley glaciers in the Alps. ■ The heterogeneous material of the drift (sand, clay, and rocks deposited there) convinced him of its glacial origin. ■ In his view, there could be no other explanation for the composition of such drift. 17. Transportation was becoming less of a problem for those who wished to move west and for those who had farm surpluses to send to market. ■Prior to 1815, western farmers who did not live on navigable waterways were connected to them only by dirt roads and mountain trails. ■Livestock could be driven across the mountains, but the cost of transporting bulky grains in this fashion was several times greater than their value in eastern markets. ■The first step toward an improvement of western transportation was the construction of turnpikes. ■These roads made possible a reduction in transportation costs and thus stimulated the commercialization of agriculture along their routes. In fact, goods could be shipped more cheaply across the much greater distance of the Atlantic Ocean than they could from western New York to coastal cities. 18. The universal global warming at the end of the Ice Age had dramatic effects on temperate regions of Asia, Europe, and North America. Ice sheets retreated and sea levels rose. ■The climatic changes in southwestern Asia were more subtle, in that they involved shifts in mountain snow lines, rainfall patterns, and vegetation cover. ■However, these same cycles of change had momentous impacts on the sparse human populations of the region. ■At the end of the Ice Age, no more than a few thousand foragers lived along the eastern Mediterranean coast, in the Jordan and Euphrates valleys. Within 2,000 years, the human population of the region numbered in the tens of thousands, all as a result of village life and farming. ■Thanks to new environmental and archaeological discoveries, we now know something about this remarkable change in local life. One of the major effects was the rapid growth of the human population itself. 19. ■Another type of fossilization, known as carbonization, occurs when soft tissues are preserved as thin films of carbon. ■Leaves and tissue of soft-bodied organisms such as jellyfish or worms may accumulate, become buried and compressed, and lose their volatile constituents. ■The carbon often remains behind as a blackened silhouette.■ But the evidence of past organic life is not limited to petrifaction. 20. Earth's internal heat, fueled by radioactivity, provides the energy for plate tectonics and continental drift, mountain building, and earthquakes. It can also be harnessed to drive electric generators and heat homes. Geothermal energy becomes available in a practical form when underground heat is transferred by water that is heated as it passes through a subsurface region of hot rocks (a heat reservoir) that may be hundreds or thousands of feet deep. ■The water is usually naturally occurring groundwater that seeps down along fractures in the rock; less typically, the water is artificially introduced by being pumped down from the surface. ■The water is brought to the surface, as a liquid or steam, through holes drilled for the purpose.■ By far the most abundant form of geothermal energy occurs at the relatively low temperatures of 80° to 180° centigrade. ■Water circulated through heat reservoirs in this temperature range is able to extract enough heat to warm residential, commercial, and industrial spaces. More than 20,000 apartments in France are now heated by warm underground water drawn from a heat reservoir in a geologic structure near Paris called the Paris Basin. Iceland sits on a volcanic structure known as the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. Reykjavik, the capital of Iceland, is entirely heated by geothermal energy derived from volcanic heat. In either case, the heated water will usually be under considerable pressure, and so may have a temperature that is well above its sea-level boiling point of 100° centigrade. 21. How did it come about that farming developed independently in a number of world centers (the Southeast Asian mainland, Southwest Asia, Central America, lowland and highland South America, and equatorial Africa) at more or less the same time? Agriculture developed slowly among populations that had an extensive knowledge of plants and animals. ■Changing from hunting and gathering to agriculture had no immediate advantages. ■To start with, it forced the population to abandon the nomad's life and became sedentary, to develop methods of storage and, often, systems of irrigation. ■While hunter-gatherers always had the option of moving elsewhere when the resources were exhausted, this became more difficult with farming. ■Furthermore, as the archaeological record shows, the state of health of agriculturalists was worse than that of their contemporary hunter-gatherers. Because humans had built up this knowledge as hunter-gatherers, it is logical to conclude that over time they would have become extremely efficient. 22. Think back to your childhood and try to identify your earliest memory. How old were you? ■Most people are not able to recount memories for experiences prior to the age of three years, a phenomenon called infantile amnesia. ■The question of why infantile amnesia occurs has intrigued psychologists for decades, especially in light of ample evidence that infants and young children can display impressive memory capabilities. ■Many find that understanding the general nature of autobiographical memory, that is, memory for events that have occurred in one's own life, can provide some important clues to this mystery. ■Between ages three and four, children begin to give fairly lengthy and cohesive descriptions of events in their past. What factors are responsible for this developmental turning point? It is unlikely that this memory will be from the first two years of life. 23. Spartina is an exceedingly competitive plant. ■ It spreads primarily by underground stems; colonies form when pieces of the root system or whole plants float into an area and take root or when seeds float into a suitable area and germinate. ■ Spartina establishes itself on substrates ranging from sand and silt to gravel and cobble and is tolerant of salinities ranging from that of near freshwater (0.05 percent) to that of salt water (3.5 percent). ■ Because they lack oxygen, marsh sediments are high in sulfides that are toxic to most plants. ■ Spartina has the ability to take up sulfides and convert them to sulfate, a form of sulfur that the plant can use; this ability makes it easier for the grass to colonize marsh environments. Another adaptive advantage is Spartina’s ability to use carbon dioxide more efficiently than most other plants. Spartina is particularly able to tolerate high salinities because salt glands on the surface of the leaves remove the salt from the plant sap. 24. This was finally achieved by Louis Daguerre (1787-1851), who perfected a way of fixing them on a silvered copper plate. His discovery, the "daguerreotype," was announced in 1839.■ A second and very different process was patented by the British inventor William Henry Talbot (1800-1877) in 1841.■ Talbot's "calotype" was the first negative-to-positive process and the direct ancestor of the modern photograph. The calotype was revolutionary in its use of chemically treated paper in which areas hit by light became dark in tone, producing a negative image.■ This "negative," as Talbot called it, could then be used to print multiple positive images on another piece of treated paper.■ Although his process produced permanent images, each was unique and no reproduction of the picture was possible. 25. Equally perplexing constituents of Allende are the refractory inclusions: irregular white masses that tend to be larger than chondrules. ■ They are composed of minerals uncommon on Earth, all rich in calcium, aluminum, and titanium, the most refractory (resistant to melting) of the major elements in the nebula. ■ The same minerals that occur in refractory inclusions are believed to be the earliest-formed substances to have condensed out of the solar nebula. ■ However, studies of the textures of inclusions reveal that the order in which the minerals appeared in the inclusions varies from inclusion to inclusion, and often does not match the theoretical condensation sequence for those metals. ■ It is therefore still unclear if all inclusions were formed in the same way. 26. Cities, then, are warmer than the surrounding rural areas, and together they produce a phenomenon known as the urban heat island. Heat islands develop best under particular conditions associated with light winds, but they can form almost any time. ■The precise configuration of a heat island depends on several factors. ■For example, the wind can make a heat island stretch in the direction it blows. ■When a heat island is well developed, variations can be extreme; in winter, busy streets in cities can be 1.7 ℃ warmer than the side streets. ■Areas near traffic lights can be similarly warmer than the areas between them because of the effect of cars standing in traffic instead of moving. The maximum differences in temperature between neighboring urban and rural environments is called the heat-island intensity for that region. In general, the larger the city, the greater its heat-island intensity. The actual level of intensity depends on such factors as the physical layout, population density, and productive activities of a metropolis. Another possibility is for the heat island to be stretched along the course of major rivers, since large waterways typically have a warming effect on the air directly above them. 27. In addition to dairy farming and cultivating industrial crops, a third sector of the Dutch economy reflected the way in which agriculture was being modernized-horticulture. ■In the sixteenth century, fruit and vegetables were to be found only in gardens belonging to wealthy people. ■This changed in the early part of the seventeenth century when horticulture became accepted as an agricultural sector. ■Whole villages began to cultivate fruit and vegetables. ■The produce was then transported by water to markets in the cities, where the consumption of fruit and vegetables was no longer restricted to the wealthy. Some villages specialized in growing cabbages and carrots; others grew onions, mustard, and coriander; and still others produced fruit and cultivated trees in nurseries. 28. The systematic study of this art is a relatively new discipline in Australia. Over the past four decades new discoveries have steadily added to the body of knowledge. The most significant data have come from a concentration on three major questions. First, what is the age of Australian rock art? Second, what is its stylistic organization and is it possible to discern a sequence or a pattern of development between styles? Third, is it possible to interpret accurately the subject matter of ancient rock art, bring to bear all available archaeological techniques and the knowledge of present-day Aboriginal informants? ■ The age of Australia’s rock art is constantly being revised, and earlier datings have been proposed as the result of new discoveries. ■Currently, reliable scientific evidence dates the earliest creation of art on rock surfaces in Australia to somewhere between 30,000 and 50,000 years ago. ■This in itself is an almost incomprehensible span of generations, and one that makes Australia’s rock art the oldest continuous art tradition in the world. ■ While a great deal of information exists, the answers to these questions are not yet definitive. 29. Once all this information has been gathered, it becomes possible to judge whether a lake’s flow is mainly due to its surface inputs and outputs or to its underground inputs and outputs. [■] If the former are greater, the lake is a surface-water-dominated lake; if the latter, it is a seepage-dominated lake. [■] Occasionally, common sense tells you which of these two possibilities applies. [■] For example, a pond in hilly country that maintains a steady water level all through a dry summer in spite of having no streams flowing into it must obviously be seepage dominated. Conversely, a pond with a stream flowing in one end and out the other, which dries up when the stream dries up, is clearly surface water dominated. [■] Of course, a lake may be neither surface-water-nor seepage-dominated if, for example, its inputs are predominantly surface and its outputs are predominantly seepage. 30. Paragraph1: Of all the physiological differences in human sleep compared with wakefulness that have been discovered in the last decade, changes in respiratory control are most dramatic. Not only are there differences in the level of the functioning of respiratory systems, there are even changes in how they function. Movements of the rib cage for breathing are reduced during sleep, making the contractions of the diaphragm more important. [■] Yet because of the physics of lying down, the stomach applies weight against the diaphragm and makes it more difficult for the diaphragm to do its job. [■] However, there are many other changes that affect respiration when asleep. Paragraph2: [■] During wakefulness, breathing is controlled by two interacting systems. [■]The first is an automatic, metabolic system whose control is centered in the brain stem. It subconsciously adjusts breathing rate and depth in order to regulate the levels of carbon dioxide (CO2) and oxygen (O2), and the acid-base ratio in the blood. The second system is the voluntary, behavioral system. Its control center is based in the forebrain, and it regulates breathing for use in speech, singing, sighing, and so on. It is capable of ignoring or overriding the automatic, metabolic system and produces an irregular pattern of breathing. To better understand breathing during sleep, it is, however, helpful to first understand how respiration works in general. 31. In the Mesa Verde area of the ancient North American Southwest, living patterns changed in the thirteenth century, with large numbers of people moving into large communal dwellings called pueblos, often constructed at the edges of canyons, especially on the sides of cliffs. Abandoning small extended-family households to move into these large pueblos with dozens if not hundreds of other people was probably traumatic. Few of the cultural traditions and rules that today allow us to deal with dense populations existed for these people accustomed to household autonomy and the ability to move around the landscape almost at will. [■] And besides the awkwardness of having to share walls with neighbors, living in aggregated pueblos introduced other problems. [■] For people in cliff dwellings, hauling water, wood, and food to their homes was a major chore. [■] The stress on local resources, especially in the firewood needed for daily cooking and warmth, was particularly intense, and conditions in aggregated pueblos were not very hygienic. [■] Performing everyday household tasks required more effort.
      • 1. 【段落之前的空】， 99% 错误！ - 每段中心/背景句容易出现在第一句，如果把第一句改变，也就改变段意了。 - 但同时请注意【两段式的插句题】，两个段落中间的位置，正确率99%！
      • 2. 【段落结尾的空】，90%正确！ - 这里说的是段落最后的，而不是最后一个空！ ( 因为有时候最后一个空在段中 ) 。因为放在最末尾，本身对文章没什么影响。 - 但是一定要验证！
      • 3. 空后有代词的空■ this, these, that, those, he, she, they, it, such, each, other, one, another, both, anybody, none, some, any, many...，99%错误！ - 缘由是【指代关系不能跨距！】，如果在代词前面加了一句话，导致指代关系错乱。 - 但注意例外，如该段只有一个对象，其他各句出现连续指代前面的对象，就无法排除后有代词词的位置。
      • 4. 【空后有逻辑关系】: 转折 however/ but.... /因果 Because, as…./并列In addition/Moreover/secondly/what's more/first/ second…. 【 80% 】错误！ - 因为插入句承起不到那么强悍的、连接句间逻辑关系作用！ - 但经过详细排查位置之后，能对应或前或后的信息，则可放入！
      • 5. 插入句中若出现肯定或否定概念，可用否定解题法快速选择。 - 第一、插入句为消极和前句构成转折对立，则前一句存在积极概念； - 第二、插入句和前句构成递进解释，则前一句为存在消极概念。 - 原理是句子之间一般存在两种关系：第一、递进解释 ; 第二、转折对比。简化一下就是：递进解释前后两句一正则正，一负则负；转折对比前后一正则负，一负则正。
    • 【3】存在指代内容的插入句
      • 插入句存在指代关系，高于排除法（但仍可运用排除法帮助解题，重点验证！） 1. Extinct but already fully marine cetaceans are known from the fossil record. ■How was the gap between a walking mammal and a swimming whale bridged? ■Missing until recently were fossils clearly intermediate, or transitional, between land mammals and cetaceans. ■Very exciting discoveries have finally allowed scientists to reconstruct the most likely origins of cetaceans. ■In 1979, a team looking for fossils in northern Pakistan found what proved to be the oldest fossil whale. This is a question that has puzzled scientists for ages. 答案：B ******************************************************************************** 2. The systematic study of this art is a relatively new discipline in Australia. Over the past four decades new discoveries have steadily added to the body of knowledge. The most significant data have come from a concentration on three major questions. First, what is the age of Australian rock art? Second, what is its stylistic organization and is it possible to discern a sequence or a pattern of development between styles? Third, is it possible to interpret accurately the subject matter of ancient rock art, bring to bear all available archaeological techniques and the knowledge of present-day Aboriginal informants?■ The age of Australia’s rock art is constantly being revised, and earlier datings have been proposed as the result of new discoveries. ■Currently, reliable scientific evidence dates the earliest creation of art on rock surfaces in Australia to somewhere between 30,000 and 50,000 years ago. ■This in itself is an almost incomprehensible span of generations, and one that makes Australia’s rock art the oldest continuous art tradition in the world. ■ While a great deal of information exists, the answers to these questions are not yet definitive. 答案：A ******************************************************************************** 3. ■The raising of livestock is a major economic activity in semiarid lands, where grasses are generally the dominant type of natural vegetation. ■The consequences of an excessive number of livestock grazing in an area are the reduction of the vegetation cover and the trampling and pulverization of the soil. ■This is usually followed by the drying of the soil and accelerated erosion.■ This economic reliance on livestock in certain regions makes large tracts of land susceptible to overgrazing. 答案：B ******************************************************************************** 4. Before 1815 manufacturing in the United States had been done in homes or shops by skilled artisans. ■As master craft workers, they imparted the knowledge of their trades to apprentices and journeymen. ■In addition, women often worked in their homes part-time, making finished articles from raw material supplied by merchant capitalists. ■After 1815 this older form of manufacturing began to give way to factories with machinery tended by unskilled or semiskilled laborers. ■Cheap transportation networks, the rise of cities, and the availability of capital and credit all stimulated the shift to factory production. This new form of manufacturing depended on the movement of goods to distant locations and a centralized source of laborers. 答案：D ******************************************************************************** 5. Opportunists must constantly invade new areas to compensate for being displaced by more competitive species. Human landscapes of lawns, fields, or flowerbeds provide settings with bare soil and a lack of competitors that are perfect habitats for colonization by opportunists. ■Hence, many of the strongly opportunistic plants are the common weeds of fields and gardens.■ Because each individual is short-lived, the population of an opportunist species is likely to be adversely affected by drought, bad winters, or floods. ■If their population is tracked through time, it will be seen to be particularly unstable—soaring and plummeting in irregular cycles.■ Such episodic events will cause a population of dandelions, for example, to vary widely. 答案：C ******************************************************************************** 6. ■Most investigators concur that certain facial expressions suggest the same emotions in all people. ■Moreover, people in diverse cultures recognize the emotions manifested by the facial expressions. ■In classic research Paul Ekman took photographs of people exhibiting the emotions of anger, disgust, fear, happiness, and sadness. ■He then asked people around the world to indicate what emotions were being depicted in them. This universality in the recognition of emotions was demonstrated by using rather simple methods. 答案：C ******************************************************************************** 7. Children normally desire to vent aggressive impulses on other people, including their parents, because even the most attentive parents cannot gratify all of their demands immediately. ■Yet children, also fearing their parents' punishment and the loss of parental love, come to repress most aggressive impulses. ■The Freudian perspective, in a sense: sees us as "steam engines." ■By holding in rather than venting "steam," we set the stage for future explosions. ■Pent-up aggressive impulses demand outlets. They may be expressed toward parents in indirect ways such as destroying furniture, or they may be expressed toward strangers later in life. According to Freud, however, impulses that have been repressed continue to exist and demand expression. 答案：B ******************************************************************************** 8. ■Exhibitors, however, wanted to maximize their profits, which they could do more readily by projecting a handful of films to hundreds of customers at a time (rather than one at a time) and by charging 25 to 50 cents admission. ■About a year after the opening of the first Kinetoscope parlor in 1894, showmen such as Louis and Auguste Lumiere, Thomas Armat and Charles Francis Jenkins, and Orville and Woodville Latham (with the assistance of Edison's former assistant, William Dickson) perfected projection devices. ■These early projection devices were used in vaudeville theaters, legitimate theaters, local town halls, makeshift storefront theaters, fairgrounds, and amusement parks to show films to a mass audience.■ When this widespread use of projection technology began to hurt his Kinetoscope business, Edison acquired a projector developed by Armat and introduced it as “Edison’s latest marvel, the Vitascope." 答案：D ******************************************************************************** 9. Under very cold conditions, rocks can be shattered by ice and frost. Glaciers may form in permanently cold areas, and these slowly moving masses of ice cut out valleys, carrying with them huge quantities of eroded rock debris. ■In dry areas the wind is the principal agent of erosion. ■It carries fine particles of sand, which bombard exposed rock surfaces, thereby wearing them into yet more sand. ■Even living things contribute to the formation of landscapes. ■Tree roots force their way into cracks in rocks and, in so doing, speed their splitting. In contrast, the roots of grasses and other small plants may help to hold loose soil fragments together, thereby helping to prevent erosion by the wind. Under different climatic conditions, another type of destructive force contributes to erosion. 答案：A ******************************************************************************** 10. Since 1980, the use of wind to produce electricity has been growing rapidly. ■In 1994 there were nearly 20,000 wind turbines worldwide, most grouped in clusters called wind farms that collectively produced 3,000 megawatts of electricity. ■Most were in Denmark (which got 3 percent of its electricity from wind turbines) and California (where 17,000 machines produced 1 percent of the state’s electricity, enough to meet the residential needs of a city as large as San Francisco). ■In principle, all the power needs of the United States could be provided by exploiting the wind potential of just three states—North Dakota, South Dakota, and Texas.■ Some companies in the power industry are aware of this wider possibility and are planning sizable wind-farm projects in states other than California. 答案：D ******************************************************************************** 11. Outflow channels are probably relics of catastrophic flooding on Mars long ago. ■They appear only in equatorial regions and generally do not form extensive interconnected networks. ■Instead, they are probably the paths taken by huge volumes of water draining from the southern highlands into the northern plains. ■The onrushing water arising from these flash floods likely also formed the odd teardrop-shaped “islands” (resembling the miniature versions seen in the wet sand of our beaches at low tide) that have been found on the plains close to the ends of the outflow channels. ■Judging from the width and depth of the channels, the flow rates must have been truly enormous―perhaps as much as a hundred times greater than the 105 tons per second carried by the great Amazon river. These landscape features differ from runoff channels in a number of ways. 答案：A ******************************************************************************** 12. The differences in feeding preferences lead, in turn, to differences in migratory habits.■The wildebeests follow, in their migration, the pattern of local rainfall. ■The other species do likewise. ■But when a new area is fueled by rain, the mammals migrate toward it in a set order to exploit it. ■The larger, less fastidious feeders, the zebras, move in first; the choosier, smaller wildebeests come later; and the smallest species of all, Thomson’s gazelle, arrives last. The sequence in which they migrate correlates with their body size. 答案：C ******************************************************************************** 13. Earth's internal heat, fueled by radioactivity, provides the energy for plate tectonics and continental drift, mountain building, and earthquakes. It can also be harnessed to drive electric generators and heat homes. Geothermal energy becomes available in a practical form when underground heat is transferred by water that is heated as it passes through a subsurface region of hot rocks (a heat reservoir) that may be hundreds or thousands of feet deep. ■The water is usually naturally occurring groundwater that seeps down along fractures in the rock; less typically, the water is artificially introduced by being pumped down from the surface. ■The water is brought to the surface, as a liquid or steam, through holes drilled for the purpose.■ By far the most abundant form of geothermal energy occurs at the relatively low temperatures of 80° to 180° centigrade. ■Water circulated through heat reservoirs in this temperature range is able to extract enough heat to warm residential, commercial, and industrial spaces. More than 20,000 apartments in France are now heated by warm underground water drawn from a heat reservoir in a geologic structure near Paris called the Paris Basin. Iceland sits on a volcanic structure known as the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. Reykjavik, the capital of Iceland, is entirely heated by geothermal energy derived from volcanic heat. In either case, the heated water will usually be under considerable pressure, and so may have a temperature that is well above its sea-level boiling point of 100° centigrade. 答案：B ******************************************************************************** 14. We all know that many more people today are right-handed than left-handed. Can one trace this same pattern far back in prehistory? ■Much of the evidence about right-hand versus left-hand dominance comes from stencils and prints found in rock shelters in Australia and elsewhere, and in many Ice Age caves in France, Spain, and Tasmania. ■When a left hand has been stenciled, this implies that the artist was right-handed, and vice versa. ■Even though the paint was often sprayed on by mouth, one can assume that the dominant hand assisted in the operation. One also has to make the assumption that hands were stenciled palm downward—a left hand stenciled palm upward might of course look as if it were a right hand. ■Of 158 stencils in the French cave of Gargas, 136 have been identified as left, and only 22 as right; right-handedness was therefore heavily predominant. The stencils of hands found in these shelters and caves allow us to draw conclusions about which hand was dominant. 答案：B ******************************************************************************** 15. Their competition and collaboration were creating the broadcasting industry in the United States, beginning with the introduction of commercial radio programming in the early 1920s. ■With financial assets considerably greater than those in the motion picture industry, and perhaps a wider vision of the relationships among entertainment and communications media, they revitalized research into recording sound for motion pictures. ■In 1929 the United States motion picture industry released more than 300 sound films—a rough figure, since a number were silent films with music tracks, or films prepared in dual versions, to take account of the many cinemas not yet wired for sound. ■At the production level, in the United States the conversion was virtually complete by 1930. ■In Europe it took a little longer, mainly because there were more small producers for whom the costs of sound were prohibitive, and in other parts of the world problems with rights or access to equipment delayed the shift to sound production for a few more years (though cinemas in major cities may have been wired in order to play foreign sound films). When this research resulted in the development of vastly improved sound techniques, film studios became convinced of the importance of converting to sound. 答案：B ******************************************************************************** 16. Basaltic rocks also support springs, notably at the Jabal Al-Arab on the Jordan-Syria border. ■Endogenous rivers often do not reach the sea but drain into inland basins, where the water evaporates or is lost in the ground. ■Most desert streambeds are normally dry, but they occasionally receive large flows of water and sediment.■ Deserts contain large amounts of groundwater when compared to the amounts they hold in surface stores such as lakes and rivers. ■But only a small fraction of groundwater enters the hydrological cycle-feeding the flows of streams, maintaining lake levels, and being recharged (or refilled) through surface flows and rainwater. These sudden floods provide important water supplies but can also be highly destructive. 答案：B ******************************************************************************** 17. To understand the ancient Mayan people who lived in the area that is today southern Mexico and Central America and the ecological difficulties they faced, one must first consider their environment, which we think of as "jungle" or "tropical rainforest." ■This view is inaccurate, and the reason proves to be important. ■Properly speaking, tropical rainforests grow in high-rainfall equatorial areas that remain wet or humid all year round. But the Maya homeland lies more than sixteen hundred kilometers from the equator, at latitudes 17 to 22 degrees north, in a habitat termed a "seasonal tropical forest." ■That is, while there does tend to be a rainy season from May to October, there is also a dry season from January through April. If one focuses on the wet months, one calls the Maya homeland a "seasonal tropical forest"; if one focuses on the dry months, one could instead describe it as a "seasonal desert."■ The difference between the two climates challenged the Maya who had to deal with both. 答案：D ******************************************************************************** TPO15-24 插句题 1. Leatherbacks keep their body heat in three different ways. The first, and simplest, is size. The bigger the animal is, the lower its surface-to-volume ratio; for every ounce of body mass, there is proportionately less surface through which heat can escape. An adult leatherback is twice the size of the biggest cheloniid sea turtles and will therefore take longer to cool off. Maintaining a high body temperature through sheer bulk is called gigantothermy. ■It works for elephants, for whales, and, perhaps, it worked for many of the larger dinosaurs. ■It apparently works, in a smaller way, for some other sea turtles. ■Large loggerhead and green turtles can maintain their body temperature at a degree or two above that of the surrounding water, and gigantothermy is probably the way they do it. ■Muscular activity helps, too, and an actively swimming green turtle may be 7°C (12.6°F) warmer than the waters it swims through. However, these animals have additional means of staying warm. 2. ■Cases in which many species become extinct within a geologically short interval of time are called mass extinctions. ■There was one such event at the end of the Cretaceous period (around 70 million years ago). ■There was another, even larger, mass extinction at the end of the Permian period (around 250 million years ago). ■The Permian event has attracted much less attention than other mass extinctions because mostly unfamiliar species perished at that time. In general, it is believed that these two extinctions resulted from drastic environmental changes that followed meteorite impacts or massive volcanic eruptions. 3. Glaciers are slowly moving masses of ice that have accumulated on land in areas where more snowfalls during a year than melts. Snow falls as hexagonal crystals, but once on the ground, snow is soon transformed into a compacted mass of smaller, rounded grains. ■As the air space around them is lessened by compaction and melting, the grains become denser. ■With further melting, refreezing, and increased weight from newer snowfall above, the snow reaches a granular recrystallized stage intermediate between flakes and ice known as firn. ■With additional time, pressure, and refrozen meltwater from above, the small firn granules become larger, interlocked crystals of blue glacial ice. ■When the ice is thick enough, usually over 30 meters, the weight of the snow and firn will cause the ice crystals toward the bottom to become plastic and to flow outward or downward from the area of snow accumulation. Firn has the appearance of wet sugar, but it is almost as hard as ice. 4. Reliance on trade had several important consequences. ■Production was generally in the hands of skilled individual artisans doing piecework under the tutelage of a master who was also the shop owner. ■In these shops differences of rank were blurred as artisans and masters labored side by side in the same modest establishment, were usually members of the same guild and religious sect, lived in the same neighborhoods, and often had assumed (or real) kinship relationships. ■The worker was bound to the master by a mutual contract that either one could repudiate, and the relationship was conceptualized as one of partnership. ■ For one thing, it created a demand for finished goods to be sold both locally and abroad. 5. Various proposals were put forth to arrange the elements into groups based on similarities in chemical and physical properties. ■The next step was to recognize a connection between group properties (physical or chemical similarities) and atomic mass (the measured mass of an individual atom of an element). ■When the elements known at the time were ordered by increasing atomic mass, it was found that successive elements belonged to different chemical groups and that the order of the groups in this sequence was fixed and repeated itself at regular intervals. ■Thus when the series of elements was written so as to begin a new horizontal row with each alkali metal, elements of the same groups were automatically assembled in vertical columns in a periodic table of the elements. ■This table was the forerunner of the modern table. It was a natural idea to break up the series of elements at the points where the sequence of chemical groups to which the elements belonged began to repeat itself. 6. Other dimensions along which the two groups differ markedly are density and composition. The densities of the terrestrial planets average about 5 times the density of water, whereas the Jovian planets have densities that average only 1.5 times the density of water. One of the outer planets, Saturn, has a density of only 0.7 that of water, which means that Saturn would float in water. Variations in the composition of the planets are largely responsible for the density differences. ■The substances that make up both groups of planets are divided into three groups—gases, rocks, and ices—based on their melting points. ■The terrestrial planets are mostly rocks: dense rocky and metallic material, with minor amounts of gases. ■The Jovian planets, on the other hand, contain a large percentage of the gases hydrogen and helium, with varying amounts of ices: mostly water, ammonia, and methane ices. ■ This explains their relatively low densities. 8. The chief problem was technological: How were the Europeans to reach the East? Europe's maritime tradition had developed in the context of easily navigable seas—the Mediterranean, the Baltic, and, to a lesser extent, the North Sea between England and the Continent—not of vast oceans. New types of ships were needed, new methods of finding one's way, new techniques for financing so vast a scheme. The sheer scale of the investment it took to begin commercial expansion at sea reflects the immensity of the profits that such East-West trade could create. ■ Spices were the most sought-after commodities. ■ Spices not only dramatically improved the taste of the European diet but also were used to manufacture perfumes and certain medicines. ■ But even high-priced commodities like spices had to be transported in large bulk in order to justify the expense and trouble of sailing around the African continent all the way to India and China. ■ They were highly valued for a couple of reasons. 9. Less colorful birds and animals that inhabit the rain forest tend to rely on forms of signaling other than the visual, particularly over long distances. ■ The piercing cries of the rhinoceros hornbill characterize the Southeast Asian rain forest, as do the unmistakable calls of the gibbons. ■ In densely wooded environments, sound is the best means of communication over distance because in comparison with light, it travels with little impediment from trees and other vegetation. ■ In forests, visual signals can be seen only at short distances, where they are not obstructed by trees. ■ The male riflebird exploits both of these modes of signaling simultaneously in his courtship display. The sounds made as each wing is opened carry extremely well over distance and advertise his presence widely. The ritualized visual display communicates in close quarters when a female has approached. There is also the long, rather terrifying call of the male orangutan, which carries over considerable distances to advertise his presence. 10. At times, it is actually possible to watch the effects of natural selection in host-parasite relationships. For example, Australia during the 1940 s was overrun by hundreds of millions of European rabbits. ■ The rabbits destroyed huge expanses of Australia and threatened the sheep and cattle industries. ■ In 1950, myxoma virus, a parasite that affects rabbits, was deliberately introduced into Australia to control the rabbit population. ■ Spread rapidly by mosquitoes, the virus devastated the rabbit population. ■ The virus was less deadly to the offspring of surviving rabbits, however, and it caused less and less harm over the years. Apparently, genotypes (the genetic make-up of an organism) in the rabbit population were selected that were better able to resist the parasite. Meanwhile, the deadliest strains of the virus perished with their hosts as natural selection favored strains that could infect hosts but not kill them. Thus, natural selection stabilized this host-parasite relationship. This massive population began a century earlier as a mere twelve pairs of imported rabbits that reproduced quickly and developed into a major problem. 11. While some European countries, such as England and Germany, began to industrialize in the eighteenth century, the Netherlands and the Scandinavian countries of Denmark, Norway, and Sweden developed later. ■ All four of these countries lagged considerably behind in the early nineteenth century. ■ However, they industrialized rapidly in the second half of the century, especially in the last two or three decades. ■ In view of their later start and their lack of coal—undoubtedly the main reason they were not among the early industrializers—it is important to understand the sources of their success. ■ During this period, Sweden had the highest rate of growth of output per capita of any country in Europe, and Denmark was second. 12. Another flaw of the tiredness theory is that yawning does not raise alertness or physiological activity, as the theory would predict. When researchers measured the heart rate, muscle tension and skin conductance of people before, during and after yawning, they did detect some changes in skin conductance following yawning, indicating a slight increase in physiological activity. However, similar changes occurred when the subjects were asked simply to open their mouths or to breathe deeply. Yawning did nothing special to their state of physiological activity. Experiments have also cast serious doubt on the belief that yawning is triggered by a drop in blood oxygen or a rise in blood carbon dioxide. ■Volunteers were told to think about yawning while they breathed either normal air, pure oxygen, or an air mixture with an above-normal level of carbon dioxide. ■If the theory was correct, breathing air with extra carbon dioxide should have triggered yawning, while breathing pure oxygen should have suppressed yawning. ■In fact, neither condition made any difference to the frequency of yawning, which remained constant at about 24 yawns per hour. ■Another experiment demonstrated that physical exercise, which was sufficiently vigorous to double the rate of breathing, had no effect on the frequency of yawning Again the implication is that yawning has little or nothing to do with oxygen. This, however, was not the case 13. The formation of the channel is initiated when electrons surge from the cloud base toward the ground. When a stream of these negatively charged electrons comes within 100 meters of the ground it is met by a stream of positively charged particles that comes up from the ground. When the negatively and positively charged streams meet, a complete channel connecting the cloud and the ground is formed. The channel is only a few centimeters in diameter, but that is wide enough for electrons to follow the channel to the ground in the visible form of a flash of lightning. The stream of positive particles that meets the surge of electrons from the cloud often arises from a tall pointed structure such as a metal flagpole or a tower. That is why the subsequent lightning that follows the completed channel often strikes a tall structure. ■ Once a channel has been formed, it is usually used by several lightning discharges, each of them consisting of a stream of electrons from the cloud meeting a stream of positive particles along the established path. ■Sometimes, however, a stream of electrons following an established channel is met by a positive stream making a new path up from the ground. ■The result is a forked lightning that strikes the ground in two places. ■ The descending stream of electrons divides at the point where the new positive-stream channel intersects the established path. 14. Economic exchange was clearly very important as the Roman army brought with it very substantial spending power. Locally a fort had two kinds of impact. Its large population needed food and other supplies. ■ Some of these were certainly brought from long distances, but demands were inevitably placed on the local area. ■ Although goods could be requisitioned, they were usually paid for, and this probably stimulated changes in the local economy. ■ When not campaigning, soldiers needed to be occupied; otherwise they represented a potentially dangerous source of friction and disloyalty. ■ Hence a writing tablet dated 25 April tells of 343 men at one fort engaged on tasks like shoemaking, building a bathhouse, operating kilns, digging clay, and working lead. Such activities had a major effect on the local area, in particular with the construction of infrastructure such as roads, which improved access to remote areas. One solution was to keep them busy as sources of labor. 15. Although the ecosystem concept was very popular in the 1950s and 1960s, it is no longer the dominant paradigm. ■ Gleason's arguments against climax and biome are largely valid against ecosystems as well. ■ Furthermore, the number of interactions is so great that they are difficult to analyze, even with the help of large computers. Finally, younger ecologists have found ecological problems involving behavior and life-history adaptations more attractive than measuring physical constants. ■ Nevertheless, one still speaks of the ecosystem when referring to a local association of animals and plants, usually without paying much attention to the energy aspects. ■ They may be more interested in researching, for example, the adaptations that some aquatic animals undergo to survive in dry desert environments. 16. In the middle of the nineteenth century, Louis Agassiz, one of the first scientists to study glaciers, immigrated to the United States from Switzerland and became a professor at Harvard University, where he continued his studies in geology and other sciences. For his research, Agassiz visited many places in the northern parts of Europe and North America, from the mountains of Scandinavia and New England to the rolling hills of the American Midwest. ■ In all these diverse regions, Agassiz saw signs of glacial erosion and sedimentation. ■ In flat plains country, he saw moraines (accumulations of earth and loose rock that form at the edges of glaciers) that reminded him of the terminal moraines found at the end of valley glaciers in the Alps. ■ The heterogeneous material of the drift (sand, clay, and rocks deposited there) convinced him of its glacial origin. ■ In his view, there could be no other explanation for the composition of such drift. 17. Transportation was becoming less of a problem for those who wished to move west and for those who had farm surpluses to send to market. ■Prior to 1815, western farmers who did not live on navigable waterways were connected to them only by dirt roads and mountain trails. ■Livestock could be driven across the mountains, but the cost of transporting bulky grains in this fashion was several times greater than their value in eastern markets. ■The first step toward an improvement of western transportation was the construction of turnpikes. ■These roads made possible a reduction in transportation costs and thus stimulated the commercialization of agriculture along their routes. In fact, goods could be shipped more cheaply across the much greater distance of the Atlantic Ocean than they could from western New York to coastal cities. 18. The universal global warming at the end of the Ice Age had dramatic effects on temperate regions of Asia, Europe, and North America. Ice sheets retreated and sea levels rose. ■The climatic changes in southwestern Asia were more subtle, in that they involved shifts in mountain snow lines, rainfall patterns, and vegetation cover. ■However, these same cycles of change had momentous impacts on the sparse human populations of the region. ■At the end of the Ice Age, no more than a few thousand foragers lived along the eastern Mediterranean coast, in the Jordan and Euphrates valleys. Within 2,000 years, the human population of the region numbered in the tens of thousands, all as a result of village life and farming. ■Thanks to new environmental and archaeological discoveries, we now know something about this remarkable change in local life. One of the major effects was the rapid growth of the human population itself. 20. Earth's internal heat, fueled by radioactivity, provides the energy for plate tectonics and continental drift, mountain building, and earthquakes. It can also be harnessed to drive electric generators and heat homes. Geothermal energy becomes available in a practical form when underground heat is transferred by water that is heated as it passes through a subsurface region of hot rocks (a heat reservoir) that may be hundreds or thousands of feet deep. ■The water is usually naturally occurring groundwater that seeps down along fractures in the rock; less typically, the water is artificially introduced by being pumped down from the surface. ■The water is brought to the surface, as a liquid or steam, through holes drilled for the purpose.■ By far the most abundant form of geothermal energy occurs at the relatively low temperatures of 80° to 180° centigrade. ■Water circulated through heat reservoirs in this temperature range is able to extract enough heat to warm residential, commercial, and industrial spaces. More than 20,000 apartments in France are now heated by warm underground water drawn from a heat reservoir in a geologic structure near Paris called the Paris Basin. Iceland sits on a volcanic structure known as the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. Reykjavik, the capital of Iceland, is entirely heated by geothermal energy derived from volcanic heat. In either case, the heated water will usually be under considerable pressure, and so may have a temperature that is well above its sea-level boiling point of 100° centigrade. 21. How did it come about that farming developed independently in a number of world centers (the Southeast Asian mainland, Southwest Asia, Central America, lowland and highland South America, and equatorial Africa) at more or less the same time? Agriculture developed slowly among populations that had an extensive knowledge of plants and animals. ■Changing from hunting and gathering to agriculture had no immediate advantages. ■To start with, it forced the population to abandon the nomad's life and became sedentary, to develop methods of storage and, often, systems of irrigation. ■While hunter-gatherers always had the option of moving elsewhere when the resources were exhausted, this became more difficult with farming. ■Furthermore, as the archaeological record shows, the state of health of agriculturalists was worse than that of their contemporary hunter-gatherers. Because humans had built up this knowledge as hunter-gatherers, it is logical to conclude that over time they would have become extremely efficient. 23. Spartina is an exceedingly competitive plant. ■ It spreads primarily by underground stems; colonies form when pieces of the root system or whole plants float into an area and take root or when seeds float into a suitable area and germinate. ■ Spartina establishes itself on substrates ranging from sand and silt to gravel and cobble and is tolerant of salinities ranging from that of near freshwater (0.05 percent) to that of salt water (3.5 percent). ■ Because they lack oxygen, marsh sediments are high in sulfides that are toxic to most plants. ■ Spartina has the ability to take up sulfides and convert them to sulfate, a form of sulfur that the plant can use; this ability makes it easier for the grass to colonize marsh environments. Another adaptive advantage is Spartina’s ability to use carbon dioxide more efficiently than most other plants. Spartina is particularly able to tolerate high salinities because salt glands on the surface of the leaves remove the salt from the plant sap. 24. This was finally achieved by Louis Daguerre (1787-1851), who perfected a way of fixing them on a silvered copper plate. His discovery, the "daguerreotype," was announced in 1839.■ A second and very different process was patented by the British inventor William Henry Talbot (1800-1877) in 1841.■ Talbot's "calotype" was the first negative-to-positive process and the direct ancestor of the modern photograph. The calotype was revolutionary in its use of chemically treated paper in which areas hit by light became dark in tone, producing a negative image.■ This "negative," as Talbot called it, could then be used to print multiple positive images on another piece of treated paper.■ Although his process produced permanent images, each was unique and no reproduction of the picture was possible. 25. Equally perplexing constituents of Allende are the refractory inclusions: irregular white masses that tend to be larger than chondrules. ■ They are composed of minerals uncommon on Earth, all rich in calcium, aluminum, and titanium, the most refractory (resistant to melting) of the major elements in the nebula. ■ The same minerals that occur in refractory inclusions are believed to be the earliest-formed substances to have condensed out of the solar nebula. ■ However, studies of the textures of inclusions reveal that the order in which the minerals appeared in the inclusions varies from inclusion to inclusion, and often does not match the theoretical condensation sequence for those metals. ■ It is therefore still unclear if all inclusions were formed in the same way. 26. Cities, then, are warmer than the surrounding rural areas, and together they produce a phenomenon known as the urban heat island. Heat islands develop best under particular conditions associated with light winds, but they can form almost any time. ■The precise configuration of a heat island depends on several factors. ■For example, the wind can make a heat island stretch in the direction it blows. ■When a heat island is well developed, variations can be extreme; in winter, busy streets in cities can be 1.7 ℃ warmer than the side streets. ■Areas near traffic lights can be similarly warmer than the areas between them because of the effect of cars standing in traffic instead of moving. The maximum differences in temperature between neighboring urban and rural environments is called the heat-island intensity for that region. In general, the larger the city, the greater its heat-island intensity. The actual level of intensity depends on such factors as the physical layout, population density, and productive activities of a metropolis. Another possibility is for the heat island to be stretched along the course of major rivers, since large waterways typically have a warming effect on the air directly above them. 27. In addition to dairy farming and cultivating industrial crops, a third sector of the Dutch economy reflected the way in which agriculture was being modernized-horticulture. ■In the sixteenth century, fruit and vegetables were to be found only in gardens belonging to wealthy people. ■This changed in the early part of the seventeenth century when horticulture became accepted as an agricultural sector. ■Whole villages began to cultivate fruit and vegetables. ■The produce was then transported by water to markets in the cities, where the consumption of fruit and vegetables was no longer restricted to the wealthy. Some villages specialized in growing cabbages and carrots; others grew onions, mustard, and coriander; and still others produced fruit and cultivated trees in nurseries.
    • 【4】先概括后具体的插入句
      • 先【概括】后【具体】的对应关系：无法直接用排除法解决的题目类型 1. But this is fair-weather feeding. What keeps the black-tailed deer a lived in the harsher seasons of plant decay and dormancy? One compensation for not hibernating is the built-in urge to migrate. ■Deer may move from high-elevation browse areas in summer down to the lowland areas in late fall. ■Even with snow on the ground, the high bushy understory is exposed; also snow and wind bring down leafy branches of cedar, hemlock, red alder, and other arboreal fodder. ■The numbers of deer have fluctuated markedly since the entry of Europeans into Puget Sound country. ■The early explorers and settlers told of abundant deer in the early 1800s and yet almost in the same breath bemoaned the lack of this succulent game animal. There food is available and accessible throughout the winter. 答案：B ******************************************************************************** 2. In the Mesa Verde area of the ancient North American Southwest, living patterns changed in the thirteenth century, with large numbers of people moving into large communal dwellings called pueblos, often constructed at the edges of canyons, especially on the sides of cliffs. Abandoning small extended-family households to move into these large pueblos with dozens if not hundreds of other people was probably traumatic. Few of the cultural traditions and rules that today allow us to deal with dense populations existed for these people accustomed to household autonomy and the ability to move around the landscape almost at will. [■] And besides the awkwardness of having to share walls with neighbors, living in aggregated pueblos introduced other problems. [■] For people in cliff dwellings, hauling water, wood, and food to their homes was a major chore. [■] The stress on local resources, especially in the firewood needed for daily cooking and warmth, was particularly intense, and conditions in aggregated pueblos were not very hygienic. [■] Performing everyday household tasks required more effort. 答案：B ******************************************************************************** 3. At its height, between about A.D. 150 and 700, it probably had a population of more than 125,000 people and covered at least 20 square kilometers. ■It had over 2,000 apartment complexes, a great market, a large number of industrial workshops, an administrative center, a number of massive religious edifices, and a regular grid pattern of streets and buildings. ■Clearly, much planning and central control were involved in the expansion and ordering of this great metropolis. ■Moreover, the city had economic and perhaps religious contacts with most parts of Mesoamerica (modern Central America and Mexico).■ In fact, artifacts and pottery from Teotihuacán have been discovered in sites as far away as the Mayan lowlands, the Guatemalan highlands, northern Mexico, and the Gulf Coast of Mexico. 答案：D ******************************************************************************** 4. During Jackson's second term, his opponents had gradually come together to form the Whig party. ■Whigs and Democrats held different attitudes toward the changes brought about by the market, banks, and commerce. ■The Democrats tended to view society as a continuing conflict between "the people”-farmers, planters, and workers-and a set of greedy aristocrats. ■This "paper money aristocracy" of bankers and investors manipulated the banking system for their own profit, Democrats claimed, and sapped the nation's virtue by encouraging speculation and the desire for sudden, unearned wealth. ■The Democrats wanted the rewards of the market without sacrificing the features of a simple agrarian republic. They wanted the wealth that the market offered without the competitive, changing society; the complex dealing; the dominance of urban centers; and the loss of independence that came with it. This new party argued against the policies of Jackson and his party in a number of important areas, beginning with the economy. 答案：Agrarian ******************************************************************************** 5. ■Ecologists are especially interested to know what factors contribute to the resilience of communities because climax communities all over the world are being severely damaged or destroyed by human activities. ■The destruction caused by the volcanic explosion of Mount St. Helens, in the northwestern United States, for example, pales in comparison to the destruction caused by humans. ■We need to know what aspects of a community are most important to the community’s resistance to destruction, as well as its recovery.■ In fact, damage to the environment by humans is often much more severe than damage by natural events and processes. 答案：B ******************************************************************************** 6. Scientists have known for some time that certain plants, called hyper accumulators, can concentrate minerals at levels a hundredfold or greater than normal. ■A survey of known hyper accumulators identified that 75 percent of them amassed nickel, cobalt, copper, zinc, manganese, lead, and cadmium are other minerals of choice. ■Hyper accumulators run the entire range of the plant world. ■They may be herbs, shrubs, or trees. ■Many members of the mustard family, spurge family, legume family, and grass family are top hyper accumulators. Certain minerals are more likely to be accumulated in large quantities than others. 答案：A ******************************************************************************** 7. Impacts by meteorites represent one mechanism that could cause global catastrophes and seriously influence the evolution of life all over the planet. ■According to some estimates, the majority of all extinctions of species may be due to such impacts. ■Such a perspective fundamentally changes our view of biological evolution. ■The standard criterion for the survival of a species is its success in competing with other species and adapting to slowly changing environments. ■Yet an equally important criterion is the ability of a species to survive random global ecological catastrophes due to impacts. This is the criterion emphasized by Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection. 答案：C ******************************************************************************** 8. As her technological expertise grew more sophisticated, so did the other aspects of her dances. ■Although she gave little thought to music in her earliest dances, she later used scores by Gluck, Beethoven, Schubert, Chopin, and Wagner, eventually graduating to Stravinsky, Faure, Debussy, and Mussorgsky, composers who were then considered progressive. ■She began to address more ambitious themes in her dances such as The Sea, in which her dancers invisibly agitated a huge expanse of silk, played upon by colored lights. ■Always open to scientific and technological innovations, she befriended the scientists Marie and Pierre Curie upon their discovery of radium and created a Radium Dance, which simulated the phosphorescence of that element. ■She both appeared in films—then in an early stage of development—and made them herself; the hero of her fairy-tale film Le Lys de la Vie (1919) was played by René Clair, later a leading French film director. For all her originality in dance, her interests expanded beyond it into newly emerging artistic media. 答案：D ******************************************************************************** 9. They may change color with changing light conditions and cloud cover, glowing pink or gold in the morning or evening light, but this color change is generally related to the low angle of the Sun above the horizon. ■However, travelers to Antarctica have repeatedly reported seeing green icebergs in the Weddell Sea and, more commonly, close to the Amery Ice Shelf in East Antarctica. ■One explanation for green icebergs attributes their color to an optical illusion when blue ice is illuminated by a near-horizon red Sun, but green icebergs stand out among white and blue icebergs under a great variety of light conditions. ■Another suggestion is that the color might be related to ice with high levels of metallic compounds, including copper and iron. ■Recent expeditions have taken ice samples from green icebergs and ice cores—vertical, cylindrical ice samples reaching down to great depths—from the glacial ice shelves along the Antarctic continent. Scientists have differed as to whether icebergs appear green as a result of light conditions or because of something in the ice itself. 答案：B ******************************************************************************** 概括-》具体：插入句出现also/as well/too表示“也”的概念，那么看哪一句出现“也”后的名词即可。 无法直接用排除法解决的题目类型 1. These people probably originated in eastern Nigeria. ■Their migration may have been set in motion by an increase in population caused by a movement of peoples fleeing the desiccation, or drying up, of the Sahara. ■They spoke a language, prior-Bantu (“Bantu” means “the people”), which is the parent tongue of a language of a large number of Bantu languages still spoken throughout sub-Sahara Africa. Why and how these people spread out into central and southern Africa remains a mystery, but archaeologists believe that their iron weapons allowed them to conquer their hunting-gathering opponents, who still used stone implements. ■Still, the process is uncertain, and peaceful migration—or simply rapid demographic growth—may have also caused the Bantu explosion.■ These people had a significant linguistic impact on the continent as well. 答案：B ******************************************************************************** 2. One of the most far-reaching examples is the impact of the fine ninth-century AD. Chinese porcelain wares imported into the Arab world. ■So admired were these pieces that they encouraged the development of earthenware made in imitation of porcelain and instigated research into the method of their manufacture. ■From the Middle East the Chinese acquired a blue pigment—a purified form of cobalt oxide unobtainable at that time in China—that contained only a low level of manganese. Cobalt ores found in China have a high manganese content, which produces a more muted blue-gray color. ■In the seventeenth century, the trading activities of the Dutch East India Company resulted in vast quantities of decorated Chinese porcelain being brought to Europe, which stimulated and influenced the work of a wide variety of wares, notably Delft. ■The Chinese themselves adapted many specific vessel forms from the West, such as bottles with long spouts, and designed a range of decorative patterns especially for the European market. Foreign trade was also responsible for certain innovations in coloring. 答案：B ******************************************************************************** 3. Bills of exchange, which had their origins in medieval Italy, were promissory notes (written promises to pay a specified amount of money by a certain date) that could be sold to third parties. In this way, they provided credit. ■At mid-century, an Antwerp financier only slightly exaggerated when he claimed, “One can no more trade without bills of exchange than sail without water." ■Merchants no longer had to carry gold and silver over long, dangerous journeys. ■An Amsterdam merchant purchasing soap from a merchant in Marseille could go to an exchanger and pay the exchanger the equivalent sum in guilders, the Dutch currency. ■The exchanger would then send a bill of exchange to a colleague in Marseille, authorizing the colleague to pay the Marseille merchant in the merchant's own currency after the actual exchange of goods had taken place. They could also avoid having to identify and assess the value of a wide variety of coins issued in many different places. 答案：C ******************************************************************************** 4. Many signals that animals make seem to impose on the signalers costs that are overly damaging. ■A classic example is noisy begging by nestling songbirds when a parent returns to the nest with food. ■These loud cheeps and peeps might give the location of the nest away to a listening hawk or raccoon, resulting in the death of the defenseless nestlings. ■In fact, when tapes of begging tree swallows were played at an artificial swallow nest containing an egg, the egg in that “noisy” nest was taken or destroyed by predators before the egg in a nearby quiet nest in 29 of 37 trials.■ The cheeping provides important information to the parent, but it could also attract the attention of others. 答案：B ******************************************************************************** 4. Pacific islanders ere variously thought to have come from North America, South America, Egypt, Israel, and India, as well as Southeast Asia. ■Many older theories implicitly deprecated the navigational abilities and overall cultural creativity of the Pacific islanders. ■For example, British anthropologists G. Elliot Smith and W. J. Perry assumed that only Egyptians would have been skilled enough to navigate and colonize the Pacific. ■They inferred that the Egyptians even crossed the Pacific to found the great civilizations of the New World (North and South America). ■In 1947 Norwegian adventurer Thor Heyerdahl drifted on a balsa-log raft westward with the winds and currents across the Pacific from South America to prove his theory that Pacific islanders were Native Americans (also called American Indians). Later theories concentrate on journeys in the other direction. 答案：D ******************************************************************************** 6. Petrifaction may also involve a simultaneous exchange of the original substance of a dead plant or animal with mineral matter of a different composition. This process is termed " replacement" because solutions have dissolved the original material and replaced it with an equal volume of the new substance. Replacement can be a marvelously precise process, so that details of shell ornamentation, tree rings in wood, and delicate structures in bone are accurately preserved. ■ Another type of fossilization, known as carbonization, occurs when soft tissues are preserved as thin films of carbon. ■Leaves and tissue of soft-bodied organisms such as jellyfish or worms may accumulate, become buried and compressed, and lose their volatile constituents. ■The carbon often remains behind as a blackened silhouette.■ But the evidence of past organic life is not limited to petrifaction. 答案：A ******************************************************************************** 7. ■Fantasy is one of the more common techniques in advertising that could possibly mislead a young audience. ■Child-oriented advertisements are more likely to include magic and fantasy than advertisements aimed at adults. ■In a content analysis of Canadian television, the author Stephen Kline observed that nearly all commercials for character toys featured fantasy play. ■Children have strong imaginations and the use of fantasy brings their ideas to life, but children may not be adept enough to realize that what they are viewing is unreal. Fantasy situations and settings are frequently used to attract children's attention, particularly in food advertising. Advertisements for breakfast cereals have, for many years, been found to be especially fond of fantasy techniques, with almost nine out of ten including such content. Generally, there is uncertainty as to whether very young children can distinguish between fantasy and reality in advertising. Certainly, rational appeals in advertising aimed at children are limited, as most advertisements use emotional and indirect appeals to psychological states or associations. Another aspect of advertising that may especially influence children is fantasy. 答案：A ******************************************************************************** 问句：一般位于段末位置 Much of the water in a sample of water-saturated sediment or rock will drain from it if the sample is put in a suitable dry place. ■But some will remain, clinging to all solid surfaces. ■It is held there by the force of surface tension without which water would drain instantly from any wet surface, leaving it totally dry. ■The total volume of water in the saturated sample must therefore be thought of as consisting of water that can, and water that cannot, drain away.■ What, then, determines what proportion of the water stays and what proportion drains away? 答案：D ********************************************************************************
    • 【5】填入位置后一定要验证
  • 【3】课后备考作业
    • 【1】作业：插句题专题TPO1_14+OG_Questions_共55题
    • 【2】分析其他位置为什么不能拆分, 并标出关联内容
    • 【3】分析并标出：插入句与放入位置前/后句如何关联
• 5. 细节题
  • 【1】细节题解題思路
    • 【1】定义關係考核
      • ►Ever since European first explored Australia, people have been trying to understand the ancient rock drawings and carvings created by the Aborigines, the original inhabitants of the continent. Early in the nineteenth century, encounters with Aboriginal rock art tended to be infrequent and open to speculative interpretation, but since the late nineteenth century, awareness of the extent and variety of Australian rock art has been growing. In the latter decades of the twentieth century there were intensified efforts to understand and record the abundance of Australian rock art. ❤ 1. According to paragraph 1, the twentieth-century approach to studying Australian rock art was different from earlier approaches because the twentieth-century approach ○ recognized that many different groups of Aborigines created Australian rock art ○ concentrated on a limited range of Aboriginal rock art ○ examined Aboriginal art from an Aboriginal rather than from a European perspective ○ focused more intensely on understanding and documenting rock art 答案：D increased pressure = higher pressure ******************************************************************************************************* ►In the study of perceptual abilities of infants, a number of techniques are used to determine infants' responses to various stimuli. Because they cannot verbalize or fill out questionnaires, indirect techniques of naturalistic observation are used as the primary means of determining what infants can see, hear, feel, and so forth. Each of these methods compares an infant's state prior to the introduction of a stimulus with its state during or immediately following the stimulus. The difference between the two measures provides the researcher with an indication of the level and duration of the response to the stimulus. For example, if a uniformly moving pattern of some sort is passed across the visual field of a neonate (newborn), repetitive following movements of the eye occur. The occurrence of these eye movements provides evidence that the moving pattern is perceived at some level by the newborn. Similarly, changes in the infant's general level of motor activity — turning the head, blinking the eyes, crying, and so forth — have been used by researchers as visual indicators of the infant's perceptual abilities. ❤❤ 2. Paragraph 1 indicates that researchers use indirect methods primarily to observe the ○ range of motor activity of an infant ○ frequency and duration of various stimuli ○ change in an infant's state following the introduction of a stimulus ○ range of an infant's visual field 学家 = 人名 / 指代词 答案：A ******************************************************************************************************* ►Although the remarkable antiquity of Australia’s rock art is now established, the sequences and meanings of its images have been widely debated. Since the mid-1970s, a reasonably stable picture has formed of the organization of Australian rock art. In order to create a sense of structure to this picture, researchers have relied on a distinction that still underlies the forms of much indigenous visual culture—a distinction between geometric and figurative elements. Simple geometric repeated patterns—circles, concentric circles, and lines—constitute the iconography (characteristic images) of the earliest rock-art sites found across Australia. The frequency with which certain simple motifs appear in these oldest sites has led rock-art researchers to adopt a descriptive term—the Panaramitee style—a label which takes its name from the extensive rock pavements at Panaramitee North in desert South Australia, which are covered with motifs pecked into the surface. Certain features of these engravings lead to the conclusion that they are of great age—geological changes had clearly happened after the designs had been made and local Aboriginal informants, when first questioned about them, seemed to know nothing of their origins. Furthermore, the designs were covered with “desert varnish,” a glaze that develops on rock surfaces over thousands of years of exposure to the elements. The simple motifs found at Panaramitee are common to many rock-art sites across Australia. Indeed, sites with engravings of geometric shapes are also to be found on the island of Tasmania, which was separated from the mainland of the continent some 10,000 years ago. 3. Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave ways or leave out essential information ○ The oldest rock art sites have simpler motifs than the best known sites of Panaramitee North. ○ Because motifs primarily associated with the Panaramitee region are common in the oldest sites, the term Panaramitee style has become the general term for rock art of this type. ○ Because the Panaramitee style is so common in the older sites, researchers have described it most extensively. ○ The motifs carved in the rocky surface of the Panaramitee region make up the oldest form of rock art discovered in Australia. ❤ 4. According to paragraph 4, researchers have organized and structured Australian rock art by distinguishing between which of the following? ○ Images found at Panaramitee North and images found in other parts of Australia ○ Images found in a particular type of rock layer and images found in other types of rock layers ○ Images that have geometric elements and images that have figurative elements ○ Images that are typically found and image that are rarely found 5. According to paragraph 4, all of the following are signs of the great age of the Panaramitee engravings EXCEPT: ○ The engravings consisted of simple animal drawings. ○ The engravings were covered with a layer of a substance known as “desert varnish”. ○ Local Aborigines who were asked knew nothing about the origin of the engravings. ○ Geologic changes had occurred after the engravings were made. 6. Why does the author include information about Tasmania in paragraph 4? ○ To provide evidence that the Panaramitee style is widespread and of great age ○ To prove that Aboriginal Australians could not have made the carvings in Tasmania ○ To indicate how researchers have determined how long ago Tasmania separated from the mainland ○ To illustrate the importance of geometric rock art to tourism in Tasmania 答案： ******************************************************************************************************* ►In the 1970s when the study of Australian archaeology was in an exciting phase of development, with the great antiquity of rock art becoming clear, Lesley Maynard, the archaeologist who coined the phrase “Panaramitee style,” suggested that a sequence could be determined for Australian rock art, in which a geometric style gave way to a simple figurative style (outlines of figures and animals), followed by a range of complex figurative styles that, unlike the pan-Australian geometric tradition tended to be much greater regional diversity. While accepting that this sequence fits the archaeological profile of those sites, which were occupied continuously over many thousands of years, a number of writers have warned that the underlying assumption of such a sequence—a development from the simple and the geometric to the complex and naturalistic—obscures the cultural continuities in Aboriginal Australia, in which geometric symbolism remains fundamentally important. In this context the simplicity of a geometric motif may be more apparent than real. Motifs of seeming simplicity can encode complex meanings in Aboriginal Australia. And has not twentieth-century art shown that naturalism does not necessarily follow abstraction in some kind of predetermine sequence? 7. According to paragraph 5, the complex figurative style differs from the geometric style in that the complex figurative style ○ varies significantly from region to region ○ is more meaningful ○ appears on only a few types of rocks ○ has changed little overtime 8. According to paragraph 5, Lesley Maynard made which of the following suggestions about Australian rock art? ○ There were a pattern of human figures being represented in a more complex style than animal figures. ○ Australian archaeology should concentrate on determining the sequence of styles that led up to the Panaramitee style. ○ The great antiquity of Australian rock art would probably make it impossible to determine the ages of the various styles found in rock art. ○ The geometric style of Australian rock art was replaced by increasingly complex figurative styles. 9. In paragraph 5, the author indicates that twentieth century art has shown that naturalism does not necessarily follow abstraction in some kind of predetermined sequence in order to ○ emphasize that it may not be possible to determine what the figures in ancient rock art represent ○ suggest a reply to those who have questioned Maynard’s interpretation of the sequence of Australian rock art ○ provide a counterexample to Maynard’s interpretation of the sequence of Australian rock art ○ indicate that twentieth century art is more advanced than ancient rock art *************************************************************************************************** ►Long-distance trade in obsidian probably gave the elite residents of Teotihuacán access to a wide variety of exotic good, as well as a relatively prosperous life. Such success may have attracted immigrants to Teotihuacán. In addition, Teotihuacán’s elite may have consciously attempted to attract new inhabitants. It is also probable that as early as 200 B.C., Teotihuacán may have achieved some religious significance and its shrine (or shrines) may have served as an additional population magnet. Finally, the growing population was probably fed by increasing the number and size of irrigated fields. ❤ 10. Select the TWO answer choices that are mentioned in paragraph 5 as being features of Teotihuacán that may have attracted immigrants to the city. To receive credit, you must select TWO answers. ○ The prosperity of the elite ○ Plenty of available housing ○ Opportunities for well-paid agricultural employment ○ The presence of one or more religious shrines 答案：AD ******************************************************************************************************* ►As the demand for agricultural produce from both consumers and industry increased, agricultural land became more valuable and people tried to work the available land more intensively and to reclaim more land from wetlands and lakes. In order to increase production on existing land, the peasants made more use of crop rotation and, in particular, began to apply animal waste to the soil regularly, rather than leaving the fertilization process up to the grazing livestock. For the first time industrial waste, such as ash from the soap-boilers, was collected in the cities and sold in the country as artificial fertilizer. The increased yield and price of land justified reclaiming and draining even more land. ❤❤ 11. Select the TWO answer choices that, according to paragraph 4, indicate two methods people used to increase the productivity of their land. To receive credit you must select TWO answers ○ They planted different crops in different sections of the farm each year. ○ They used improved irrigation methods to increase the yield of crops. ○ They increased the use of fertilizers to supply more nutrients to plants. ○ They used new horticultural practices to produce different varieties of plants in the same section of the farm. 答案：AC ******************************************************************************************************* ►Statues were normally made of stone, wood, or metal. Stone statues were worked from single rectangular blocks of material and retained the compactness of the original shape. The stone between the arms and the body and between the legs in standing figures or the legs and the seat in seated ones was not normally cut away. From a practical aspect this protected the figures against breakage and psychologically gives the images a sense of strength and power, usually enhanced by a supporting back pillar. By contrast, wooden statues were carved from several pieces of wood that were pegged together to form the finished work, and metal statues were either made by wrapping sheet metal around a wooden core or cast by the lost wax process. The arms could be held away from the body and carry separate items in their hands; there is no back pillar. The effect is altogether lighter and freer than that achieved in stone, but because both perform the same function, formal wooden and metal statues still display frontality. ❤❤ 12. According to paragraph 3, why were certain areas of a stone statue left uncarved? ○ To prevent damage by providing physical stability ○ To emphasize that the material was as important as the figure itself ○ To emphasize that the figure was not meant to be a real human being ○ To provide another artist with the chance to finish the carving ❤❤❤ 13. According to paragraph 3, which of the following statements about wooden statues is true? ○ Wooden statues were usually larger than stone statues. ○ Wooden statues were made from a single piece of wood. ○ Wooden statues contained pieces of metal or stone attached to the front. ○ Wooden statues had a different effect on the viewer than stone statues. 答案：D ******************************************************************************************************* ►Even development in architecture has been the result of major technological changes, materials and methods of construction are integral parts of the design of architecture structures. In earlier times it was necessary to design structural systems suitable for the materials that were available, such as wood, stone, brick. Today technology has progressed to the point where it is possible to invent new building materials to suit the type of structure desired. Enormous changes in materials and techniques of construction within the last few generations have made it possible to enclose space with much greater ease and speed and with a minimum of material. Progress in this area can be measured by the difference in weight between buildings built now and those of comparable size built one hundred ago. ❤❤ 14. According to paragraph 4, which of the following is true about materials used in the construction of buildings? ○ Because new building materials are hard to find, construction techniques have changed very little from past generations. ○ The availability of suitable building materials no longer limits the types of structures that may be built. ○ The primary building materials that are available today are wood, stone, and brick. ○ Architects in earlier times did not have enough building materials to enclose large spaces. ******************************************************************************************************* ►Modern architectural forms generally have three separate components comparable to elements of the human body; a supporting skeleton or frame, an outer skin enclosing the interior spaces, equipment, similar to the body’s vital organs and systems. The equipment includes plumbing, electrical wiring, hot water, and air-conditioning. Of course in earlier architecture — such as igloos and adobe structures — there was no such equipment, and the skeleton and skin were often one. ❤❤❤ 15. Which of the following correctly characterizes the relationship between the human body and architecture that is described in paragraph 5? ○ Complex equipment inside buildings is the one element in modern architecture that resembles a component of the human body. ○ The components in early buildings were similar to three particular elements of the human body. ○ Modern buildings have components that are as likely to change as the human body is. ○ In general, modern buildings more closely resemble the human body than earlier buildings do. ******************************************************************************************************* ►Two species of deer have been prevalent in the Puget Sound area of Washington State in the Pacific Northwest of the United States. The black-tailed deer, a lowland, west-side cousin of the mule deer of eastern Washington, is now the most common. The other species, the Columbian white-tailed deer, in earlier times was common in the open prairie country, it is now restricted to the low, marshy islands and flood plains along the lower Columbia River. ❤ 16. According to paragraph 1, which of the following is true of the white-tailed deer of Puget Sound? ○ It is native to lowlands and marshes. ○ It is more closely related to the mule deer of eastern Washington than to other types of deer. ○ It has replaced the black-tailed deer in the open prairie. ○ It no longer lives in a particular type of habitat that it once occupied. 答案：D ******************************************************************************************************* ►Each soldier received his pay, but in regions without a developed economy there was initially little on which it could be spent. The pool of excess cash rapidly stimulated a thriving economy outside fort gates. Some of the demand for the services and goods was no doubt fulfilled by people drawn from far afield, but some local people certainly became entwined in this new economy. There was informal marriage with soldiers, who until AD 197 were not legally entitled to wed, and whole new communities grew up near the forts. These settlements acted like small towns, becoming centers for the artisan and trading populations. ❤❤ 17. According to paragraph 3, how did the soldiers meet their needs for goods and services? ○ Their needs were met by the army, and all of their economic transactions took place within the fort. ○ Most of their needs were met by traveling tradespeople who visit the forts. ○ During their days off, soldiers traveled to distant towns to make purchases. ○ They bought what they needed from the artisans and traders in nearby towns. 答案：D ************************************************************************************* ►Reliance on trade had several important consequences. Production was generally in the hands of skilled individual artisans doing piecework under the tutelage of a master who was also the shop owner. In these shops differences of rank were blurred as artisans and masters labored side by side in the same modest establishment, were usually members of the same guild and religious sect, lived in the same neighborhoods, and often had assumed (or real) kinship relationships. The worker was bound to the master by a mutual contract that either one could repudiate , and the relationship was conceptualized as one of partnership. 18. The word “repudiate ” in the passage is closest in meaning to ○ respect ○ reject ○ review ○ revise ❤❤ 19. According to paragraph 2, how did Middle Eastern shop owners treat their workers? ○ Workers were ranked according to their skill level, with the most-experienced artisans becoming partial owners of the shop. ○ Shop owners treated different workers differently depending on how much the workers had in common with their masters. ○ Workers were bound to their masters by unbreakable contracts that strictly defined the terms of their partnership. ○ The shop owner worked alongside the workers and often considered them partner and members of the family. 答案：D ************************************************************************************* ►During NREM (the phase of sleep in which there is no rapid eye movement) breathing becomes deeper and more regular, but there is also a decrease in the breathing rate, resulting in less air being exchanged overall. This occurs because during NREM sleep the automatic, metabolic system has exclusive control over breathing and the body uses less oxygen and produces less carbon dioxide. Also, during sleep the automatic metabolic system is less responsive to carbon dioxide levels and oxygen levels in the blood. Two things result from these changes in breathing control that occur during sleep. First, there may be a brief cessation or reduction of breathing when falling asleep as the sleeper waxes and wanes between sleep and wakefulness and their differing control mechanisms. Second, once sleep is fully obtained, there is an increase of carbon dioxide and a decrease of oxygen in the blood that persists during NREM. 20.The word exclusive in the passage is closest in meaning to ○ consistent ○ perfect ○ partial ○ sole ❤❤❤ 21. According to paragraph 3, which of the following may occur just before NREM sleep begins? ○ The automatic, metabolic system may increase its dependence on air exchanges. ○ Breathing can stop for a short time as a person falls asleep. ○ An increase in the oxygen level in the blood can occur as sleep becomes fully obtained. ○ The level of carbon dioxide in the blood may drop suddenly. ************************************************************************************* ►Two additional techniques of studying infant perception have come into vogue. The first is the habituation-dishabituation technique, in which a single stimulus is presented repeatedly to the infant until there is a measurable decline (habituation) in whatever attending behavior is being observed. At that point a new stimulus is presented, and any recovery (dishabituation) in responsiveness is recorded. If the infant fails to dishabituate and continues to show habituation with the new stimulus, it is assumed that the baby is unable to perceive the new stimulus as different. The habituation-dishabituation paradigm has been used most extensively with studies of auditory and olfactory perception in infants. The second technique relies on evoked potentials, which are electrical brain responses that may be related to a particular stimulus because of where they originate. Changes in the electrical pattern of the brain indicate that the stimulus is getting through to the infant's central nervous system and eliciting some form of response. ❤❤❤ 22. In paragraph 4, what does the author suggest about the way an infant's brain perceives stimuli? ○ An infant's potential to respond to a stimulus may be related to the size of its brain. ○ Changes in the electrical patterns of an infant's brain are difficult to detect. ○ Different areas of an infant's brain respond to different types of stimuli. ○ An infant is unable to perceive more than one stimulus at a time. 答案：C ************************************************************************************* ►In the middle of the nineteenth century, Louis Agassiz, one of the first scientists to study glaciers, immigrated to the United States from Switzerland and became a professor at Harvard University, where he continued his studies in geology and other sciences. For his research, Agassiz visited many places in the northern parts of Europe and North America, from the mountains of Scandinavia and New England to the rolling hills of the American Midwest. In all these diverse regions, Agassiz saw signs of glacial erosion and sedimentation. In flat plains country, he saw moraines (accumulations of earth and loose rock that form at the edges of glaciers) that reminded him of the terminal moraines found at the end of valley glaciers in the Alps. The heterogeneous material of the drift (sand, clay, and rocks deposited there) convinced him of its glacial origin. ❤❤ 23. According to paragraph 1, what persuaded Louis Agassiz that glaciation in the past had been widespread? ○ Geologic differences between mountain valleys and flat plains ○ The presence of similar glacial material in many different regions ○ Geologic research on mountain glaciers in the Alps ○ Evidence of regional differences in the drift caused by glacial erosion 答案：B ************************************************************************************* ►Speculation on the origin of these Pacific islanders began as soon as outsiders encountered them, in the absence of solid linguistic, archaeological, and biological data, many fanciful and mutually exclusive theories were devised. Pacific islanders were variously thought to have come from North America, South America, Egypt, Israel, and India, as well as Southeast Asia. Many older theories implicitly deprecated the navigational abilities and overall cultural creativity of the Pacific islanders. For example, British anthropologists G. Elliot Smith and W. J. Perry assumed that only Egyptians would have been skilled enough to navigate and colonize the Pacific. They inferred that the Egyptians even crossed the Pacific to found the great civilizations of the New World (North and South America). In1947 Norwegian adventurer Thor Heyerdahl drifted on a balsa-log raft westward with the winds and currents across the Pacific from South America to prove his theory that Pacific islanders were Native Americans (also called American Indians). ❤❤ 24. According to Paragraph2, which of the following led some early researchers to believe that the Pacific islanders originally came from Egypt? ○ Egyptians were known to have founded other great civilizations. ○ Sailors from other parts of the world were believed to lack the skills needed to travel across the ocean. ○ Linguistic, archaeological, and biological data connected the islands to Egypt. ○ Egyptian accounts claimed responsibility for colonizing the Pacific as well as the Americas. 答案：B ************************************************************************************* The Deer Population in Pudget Sound ► And when game moved out of the lowlands in early spring, the expedition decided to return east rather than face possible starvation. Later on in the early years of the nineteenth century, when Fort Vancouver became the headquarters of the Hudson's Bay Company, deer populations continued to fluctuate. David Douglas, Scottish botanical explorer of the 1830s, found a disturbing change in the animal life around the fort during the period between his first visit in 1825 and his final contact with the fort in 1832. A recent Douglas biographer states: "The deer which once picturesquely dotted the meadows around the fort were gone [in 1832], hunted to extermination in order to protect the crops." ❤25. According to paragraph 3, how had Fort Vancouver changed by the time David Douglas returned in 1832? ○ The fort had become the headquarters for the Hudson's Bay Company. ○ Deer had begun populating the meadows around the fort. ○ Deer populations near the fort had been destroyed. ○ Crop yields in the area around the fort had decreased. 答案：C ************************************************************************************* ►Thanks to extremely fine-grained excavation and extensive use of flotation methods (through which seeds are recovered from soil samples), we know a great deal about the foraging practices of the inhabitants of Abu Hureyra in Syria's Euphrates valley. Abu Hureyra was founded about 9500B.C, a small village settlement of cramped pit dwellings (houses dug partially in the soil) with reed roofs supported by wooden uprights. For the next 1,500 years, its inhabitants enjoyed a somewhat warmer and damper climate than today, living in a well-wooded steppe area where wild cereal grasses were abundant. They subsisted off spring migrations of Persian gazelles from the south. With such a favorable location, about 300 to 400 people lived in a sizable, permanent settlement. They were no longer a series of small bands but lived in a large community with more elaborate social organization, probably grouped into clans of people of common descent. ❤❤❤ 26. Paragraph 3 suggests which of the following about the settlement of Abu Hureyra? ○ The settlement was inhabited by small groups of people from nearby areas. ○ Small bands of people migrated in and out of the settlement. ○ The location of the settlement made permanent development difficult. ○ The easy availability of food led to the growth of the settlement. 答案：D ************************************************************************************* ►The detailed appearance of Martian impact craters provides 3n important piece of information about conditions just below the planed s surface. Martian craters are surrounded by ejecta (debris formed as a result of an impact) that looks quite different from its lunar counterparts. A comparison of the Copernicus crater on the Moon with the (fairly typical) crater Yuty on Mars demonstrates the differences. The ejecta surrounding the lunar crater is just what one would expect from an explosion ejecting a large volume of dust, soil, and boulders. However, the ejecta on Mars gives the distinct impression of a liquid that has splashed or flowed out of the crater. Geologists think that this fluidized ejecta crater indicates that a layer of permafrost, or water ice, lies just a few meters under the surface. Explosive impacts heated and liquefied the ice, resulting in the fluid appearance of the ejecta. ❤ 27. According to paragraph 6, the ejecta of Mars' s crater Yuty differs from the ejecta of the Moon's Copernicus crater in that the ejecta of the Yuty crater ○ has now become part of a permafrost layer ○ contains a large volume of dust, soil, and boulders ○ suggests that liquid once came out of the surface at the crater site ○ was thrown a comparatively long distance from the center of the crater 答案：C ************************************************************************************* ►Once all this information has been gathered, it becomes possible to judge whether a lake’s flow is mainly due to its surface inputs and outputs or to its underground inputs and outputs. If the former are greater, the lake is a surface-water-dominated lake; if the latter, it is a seepage-dominated lake. Occasionally, common sense tells you which of these two possibilities applies. For example, a pond in hilly country that maintains a steady water level all through a dry summer in spite of having no streams flowing into it must obviously be seepage dominated. Conversely, a pond with a stream flowing in one end and out the other, which dries up when the stream dries up, is clearly surface water dominated. ❤❤ 28. According to paragraph 3, which of the following best describes a seepage-dominated lake? ○ A lake that is fed by streams but still has fluctuating water levels ○ A lake with a constant water level that has no streams or rivers as input ○ A lake with a stream flowing into it and a stream flowing out of it ○ A lake that has surface and underground inputs but loses water during dry seasons 答案：B ************************************************************************************* ►Many signals that animals make seem to impose on the signalers costs that are overly damaging. A classic example is noisy begging by nestling songbirds when a parent returns to the nest with food. These loud cheeps and peeps might give the location of the nest away to a listening hawk or raccoon, resulting in the death of the defenseless nestlings. In fact, when tapes of begging tree swallows were played at an artificial swallow nest containing an egg, the egg in that “noisy” nest was taken or destroyed by predators before the egg in a nearby quiet nest in 29 of 37 trials. ❤ 29. According to paragraph 1, the experiment with tapes of begging tree swallows establishes which of the following? ○ Begging by nestling birds can attract the attention of predators to the nest. ○ Nest predators attack nests that contain nestlings more frequently than they attack nests that contain only eggs. ○ Tapes of begging nestlings attract predators to the nest less frequently than real begging calls do. ○ Nest predators have no other means of locating bird nests except the begging calls of nestling birds. 答案：A ************************************************************************************* ►Further evidence for the costs of begging comes from a study of differences in the begging calls of warbler species that nest on the ground versus those that nest in the relative safety of trees. The young of ground-nesting warblers produce begging cheeps of higher frequencies than do their tree-nesting relatives. These higher-frequency sounds do not travel as far, and so may better conceal the individuals producing them, who are especially vulnerable to predators in their ground nests. David Haskell created artificial nests with clay eggs and placed them on the ground beside a tape recorder that played the begging calls of either tree-nesting or of ground-nesting warblers. The eggs “advertised” by the tree-nesters' begging calls were found bitten significantly more often than the eggs associated with the ground-nesters' calls. ❤❤ 30. The experiment described in paragraph 2 supports which of the following conclusions? ○ Predators are unable to distinguish between the begging cheeps of ground-nesting and those of tree-nesting warblers except by the differing frequencies of the calls. ○ When they can find them, predators prefer the eggs of tree-nesting warblers to those of ground-nesting warblers. ○ The higher frequencies of the begging cheeps of ground-nesting warblers are an adaptation to the threat that ground-nesting birds face from predators. ○ The danger of begging depends more on the frequency of the begging cheep than on how loud it is. 答案：C ************************************************************************************* ►Much of the world’s great architecture has been constructed of stone because of its beauty, permanence, and availability. In the past, whole cities grew from the arduous task of cutting and piling stone upon. Some of the world’s finest stone architecture can be seen in the ruins of the ancient Inca city of Machu Picchu high in the eastern Andes Mountains of Peru. The doorways and windows are made possible by placing over the open spaces thick stone beams that support the weight from above. A structural invention had to be made before the physical limitations of stone could be overcome and new architectural forms could be created. That invention was the arch, a curved structure originally made of separate stone or brick segments. The arch was used by the early cultures of the Mediterranean area chiefly for underground drains, but it was the Romans who first developed and used the arch extensively in aboveground structures. Roman builders perfected the semicircular arch made of separate blocks of stone. As a method of spanning space, the arch can support greater weight than a horizontal beam. It works in compression to divert the weight above it out to the sides, where the weight is borne by the vertical elements on either side of the arch. The arch is among the many important structural breakthroughs that have characterized architecture throughout the centuries. ❤❤ 31. According to paragraph 6, which of the following statements is true of the arch? ○ The Romans were the first people to use the stone arch. ○ The invention of the arch allowed new architectural forms to be developed. ○ The arch worked by distributing the structural load of a building toward the center of the arch. ○ The Romans followed earlier practices in their use of arches. 答案：B ************************************************************************************* ►The water table is the underground boundary below which all the cracks and pores are filled with water. In some cases, the water table reaches Earth’s surface, where it is expressed as rivers, lakes, and marshes. Typically, though, the water table may be tens or hundreds of meters below the surface. The water table is not flat but usually follows the contours of the topography. Above the water table is the vadose zone, through which rainwater percolates. Water in the vadose zone drains down to the water table, leaving behind a thin coating of water on mineral grains. The vadose zone supplies plant roots near the surface with water. 32. Paragraph 4 implies which of the following about the roots of plants? ○ They prevent water from reaching the vadose zone ○ They mark the boundary between the vadose zone and the water table. ○ They no not typically get their water from the water table. ○ They help keep the water table from dropping farther. 答案：C ************************************************************************************* ►Nomadism also subjects pastoralist communities to strict rules of portability. If you are constantly on the move, you cannot afford to accumulate large material surpluses. Such rules limit variations in accumulated material goods between pastoralist households (though they may also encourage a taste for portable goods of high value such as silks or jewelry). So, by and large, nomadism implies a high degree of self-sufficiency and inhibits the appearance of an extensive division of labor. Inequalities of wealth and rank certainly exist, and have probably existed in most pastoralist societies, but except in periods of military conquest, they are normally too slight to generate the stable, hereditary hierarchies that are usually implied by the use of the term class. Inequalities of gender have also existed in pastoralist societies, but they seem to have been softened by the absence of steep hierarchies of wealth in most communities, and also by the requirement that women acquire most of the skills of men, including, often, their military skills. 33. According to paragraph 4, the fact that pastoralist communities are subject to “strict rules of portability” encourages such communities to ○ relocate less frequently than they would otherwise ○ have households that are more or less equal in wealth ○ become self-sufficient in the manufacture of silk and jewelry ○ share large material surpluses with neighboring communities 答案：B ************************************************************************************* ►Nomadism also subjects pastoralist communities to strict rules of portability. If you are constantly on the move, you cannot afford to accumulate large material surpluses. Such rules limit variations in accumulated material goods between pastoralist households (though they may also encourage a taste for portable goods of high value such as silks or jewelry). So, by and large, nomadism implies a high degree of self-sufficiency and inhibits the appearance of an extensive division of labor. Inequalities of wealth and rank certainly exist, and have probably existed in most pastoralist societies, but except in periods of military conquest, they are normally too slight to generate the stable, hereditary hierarchies that are usually implied by the use of the term class. Inequalities of gender have also existed in pastoralist societies, but they seem to have been softened by the absence of steep hierarchies of wealth in most communities, and also by the requirement that women acquire most of the skills of men, including, often, their military skills. 34. According to paragraph 4, all of the following are true of social inequality in pastoralist societies EXCEPT: ○ It exists and has existed to some degree in most pastoral societies. ○ It is most marked during periods of military conquest. ○ It is expressed in the form of a rigid hierarchy based largely on heredity. ○ It is usually too insignificant to be discussed in terms of class differences. 答案：BC ************************************************************************************* ►Nomadism also subjects pastoralist communities to strict rules of portability. If you are constantly on the move, you cannot afford to accumulate large material surpluses. Such rules limit variations in accumulated material goods between pastoralist households (though they may also encourage a taste for portable goods of high value such as silks or jewelry). So, by and large, nomadism implies a high degree of self-sufficiency and inhibits the appearance of an extensive division of labor. Inequalities of wealth and rank certainly exist, and have probably existed in most pastoralist societies, but except in periods of military conquest, they are normally too slight to generate the stable, hereditary hierarchies that are usually implied by the use of the term class. Inequalities of gender have also existed in pastoralist societies, but they seem to have been softened by the absence of steep hierarchies of wealth in most communities, and also by the requirement that women acquire most of the skills of men, including, often, their military skills. 35. Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information. ○ Despite the fact that wealth is relatively evenly distributed in pastoral societies, gender inequality still exists because only men can acquire military skills and social status. ○ Inequalities of gender existed in pastoralist societies until most communities began to require women to possess the same skills as men and take part in the military. ○ Inequalities of gender in pastoralist societies were caused by steep hierarchies of wealth and differences in military training between men and women. ○ In pastoral societies, gender inequality is comparatively mild because wealth is relatively evenly distributed and women have to learn most of the same skills that men do. 答案：D ************************************************************************************* ►A final suggestion is that children must begin to develop a "theory of mind"—an awareness of the concept of mental states (feelings, desires, beliefs, and thoughts), their own and those of others—before they can talk about their own past memories. Once children become capable of answering such questions as "What does it mean to remember?" and "What does it mean to know something?" improvements in memory seem to occur. 36. According to paragraph 5, what evidence is there that a "theory of mind" is a factor in the development of autobiographical memory? ○ Even children who are not aware of their mental states are still able to talk about past events. ○ Autobiographicat memory decreases when a chiId's feelings and mental state are upset. ○ Older children who are unable to achieve awareness of mental states lack autobiographical memory. ○ Children's memory of past events grows once children can answer questions about what it means to know and remember. 答案：D ************************************************************************************* ►Rome’s debt to Greece was enormous. The Romans adopted Greek religion and moral philosophy. In literature, Greek writers were consciously used as models by their Latin successors. It was absolutely accepted that an educated Roman should be fluent in Greek. In speculative philosophy and the sciences, the Romans made virtually no advance on early achievements. ►Yet it would be wrong to suggest that Rome was somehow a junior partner in Greco-Roman civilization. The Roman genius was projected into new spheres—especially into those of law, military organization, administration, and engineering. Moreover, the tensions that arose within the Roman state produced literary and artistic sensibilities of the highest order. It was no accident that many leading Roman soldiers and statesmen were writers of high caliber. 37. Which of the following statements about leading Roman soldiers and statesmen is supported by paragraphs 5 and 6? ○ They could read and write the Greek language. ○ They frequently wrote poetry and plays. ○ They focused their writing on military matters. ○ They wrote according to the philosophical laws of the Greeks. 答案：A ************************************************************************************* A variety of documentation indicates that certain goods, once made by a family member as one of many duties, were later made by skilled artisans. Certain images depict groups of people, most likely women, involved in weaving textiles, an activity we know from later third-millennium texts to have been vital in the economy and to have been centrally administered. Also, a specialized metal-producing workshop may have been excavated in a small area at Uruk. It contained a number of channels lined by a sequence of holes, about 50 centimeters deep, all showing burn marks and filled with ashes. This has been interpreted as the remains of a workshop where molten metal was scooped up from the channel and poured into molds in the holes. Some type of mass production by specialists was involved here. 38. According to paragraph 3, which of the following is true of textile production after the fourth millennium? ○ It had an important commercial value. ○ It existed but was not well organized. ○ It is not documented in the archaeological record. ○ It was carried on by individuals in their own homes. 答案：A ************************************************************************************* Predators are an essential factor in maintaining communities that are rich and diverse in species. Without predators, the species that is the best competitor for food, shelter, nesting sites, and other environmental resources tends to dominate and exclude the species with which it competes. This phenomenon is known as “competitor exclusion”. 39. According to paragraph 7, which of the following is true of the phenomenon of competitor exclusion? ○ It results in more diverse communities. ○ It requires the presence of predators. ○ It affects all competitions equally. ○ It happens only when there is a dominant competitor. 答案：D *************************************************************************************
      • 【1】题干形式
        • which is true about / of A?
        • what/where/which area/how soon/how long…./how…done?
      • 【2】答案位置
        • 【1】句内出现答案的情形
          • 词：be动词定义解释: am-is-are...there be =
          • 词：动词定义解释：tend to…/become…/known as/called.../indicate that…/regard/treat/consider/seem…as….
          • 从句：从句定义解释：which/that/when(whenever)/where(wherever)
          • 从句：特殊符号后为解释：破折号A—B；分号A;B；冒号A:B
        • 【2】句间出现答案的情形
          • 句间：【递进解释】和【转折对比】—句间：逻辑关系考察点：因果、转折、比较
          • 关系：A <=> B <=> C 句间指代-注意构成连续指代的情况
          • 句间构成举例解释：for example/for instant/i
    • 【2】因果關係考核
      • 提问原因 ►In winter the heat produced by a city can equal or surpass the amount of heat available from the Sun. All the heat that warms a building eventually transfers to the surrounding air, a process that is quickest where houses are poorly insulated. But an automobile produces enough heat to warm an average house in winter, and if a house were perfectly insulated, one adult could also produce more than enough heat to warm it. Therefore, even without any industrial production of heat, an urban area tends to be warmer than the countryside that surrounds it. ❤ 1. According to paragraph 2, how soon heat from a warmer house reaches the outside air is greatly affected by ○ how well the house is heated ○ how well the house is insulated ○ how many adults live in the house ○ how much sunshine the house receives 答案：B ***************************************************************************************** ►The burning of fuel, such as by cars, is not the only source of this increased heat. Two other factors contribute to the higher overall temperature in cities. The first is the heat capacity of the materials that constitute the city, which is typically dominated by concrete and asphalt. During the day, heat from the Sun can be conducted into these materials and stored —to be released at night. But in the countryside materials have a significantly lower heat capacity because a vegetative blanket prevents heat from easily flowing into and out of the ground. The second factor is that radiant heat coming into the city from the Sun is trapped in two ways: (1) by a continuing series of reflections among the numerous vertical surfaces that buildings present and (2) by the dust dome the cloud-like layer of polluted air that most cities produce. Shortwave radiation from the Sun passes through the pollution dome more easily than outgoing long-wave radiation does; the latter is absorbed by the gaseous pollutants of the dome and reradiated back to the urban surface. ❤ 2. According to paragraph 3, why do materials in the countryside have a lower heat capacity than materials in cities do? ○ In the countryside the Sun is the only important source of heat. ○ Construction materials in the city are not as good at keeping buildings warm as they are in the countryside. ○ In the countryside the solar heat that flows into the ground flows out again quickly. ○ Countryside vegetation prevents heat from being trapped in the ground. 答案：D ***************************************************************************************** ►Cities, then, are warmer than the surrounding rural areas, and together they produce a phenomenon known as the urban heat island. Heat islands develop best under particular conditions associated with light winds, but they can form almost any time. The precise configuration of a heat island depends on several factors. For example, the wind can make a heat island stretch in the direction it blows. When a heat island is well-developed, variations can be extreme; in winter, busy streets in cities can be 1.7 ℃ warmer than the side streets. Areas near traffic lights can be similarly warmer than the areas between them because of the effect of cars standing in traffic instead of moving. The maximum differences in temperature between neighboring urban and rural environments is called the heat-island intensity for that region. In general, the larger the city, the greater its heat-island intensity. The actual level of intensity depends on such factors as the physical layout, population density, and productive activities of a metropolis. ❤❤ 3. According to paragraph 4, what can explain the substantial differences in temperature between one area and another within a well-developed heat island? ○ The overall size of the heat island that includes the two areas ○ The intensity of the heat island that includes the two areas ○ Differences between the two areas in the general level of activity, including traffic ○ Differences between the two areas in the insulation materials used in construction 答案：C ❤❤ 4. Paragraph 4 supports the idea that a city’s heat-island intensity would increase if ○ the city went into an economic decline and lost population ○ the city’s economy shifted from heavy industry to health care and education ○ there was an upward trend in the average age of the city’s residents ○ repair work on the street slowed traffic throughout the city 答案：D ***************************************************************************************** ►The surface-atmosphere relationships inside metropolitan areas produce a number of climatic peculiarities. For one thing, the presence or absence of moisture is affected by the special qualities of the urban surface. With much of the built-up landscape impenetrable by water, even gentle rain runs off almost immediately from rooftops, streets, and parking lots. Thus, city surfaces, as well as the air above them, tend to be drier between episodes of rain; with little water available for the cooling process of evaporation, relative humidities are usually lower. Wind movements are also modified in cities because buildings increase the friction on air flowing around them. This friction tends to slow the speed of winds, making them far less efficient at dispersing on airflow. Rainfall is also increased in cities. The cause appears to be in part greater turbulence in the urban atmosphere as hot air rises from the built-up surface. ❤ 5. According to paragraph 5, surfaces in the city are generally drier than surfaces in the countryside between periods of rainfall because ○ in the city gentle rain is much more common than heavy rain ○ high temperatures in the city speed up the process of evaporation ○ in the city there are longer periods of dry weather between episodes of rain ○ rainwater in the city cannot soak into most surfaces and quickly runs off 答案：D ***************************************************************************************** ►The Dutch battle against the sea is legendary. Noorderkwariter in Holland, with its numerous lakes and stretches of water, was particularly suitable for land reclamation and one of the biggest projects undertaken there was the draining of the Beemster lake which began in 1608. The richest merchants in Amsterdam contributed money to reclaim a good 7,100 hectares of land. Forty-three windmills powered the drainage pumps so that they were able to lease the reclamation to farmers as early as 1612, with the investors receiving annual leasing payments at an interest rate of 17 percent. Land reclamation continued, and between 1590 and 1665 almost 100,000 hectares were reclaimed from the wetland areas of Holland, Zeeland, and Friesland. However, land reclamation decreased significantly after the middle of the seventeenth century because the price of agricultural products began to fall, making land reclamation far less profitable in the second part of the century. ❤❤ 6. According to paragraph 5, which of the following was an important reason why land-reclamation projects in the first half of the seventeenth century proceeded rapidly? ○ Windmills became powerful enough to run drainage pumps efficiently. ○ Merchants invested large amounts of money in reclamation. ○ High interest rates discouraged people from buying land already available. ○ Reclaimed land was much more suitable for agriculture than the existing land. 答案：B ***************************************************************************************** 提问结果 ►Apart from this, being able to give up labor-intensive grain production freed both the land and the workforce for more productive agricultural divisions. The peasants specialized in livestock husbandry and dairy farming as well as in cultivating industrial crops and fodder crops: flax, madder, and rape were grown, as were tobacco, hops, and turnips. These products were bought mostly by urban businesses. There was also a demand among urban consumers for dairy products such as butter and cheese, which, in the sixteenth century, had become more expensive than grain. The high prices encouraged the peasants to improve their animal husbandry techniques; for example, they began feeding their animals indoors in order to raise the milk yield of their cows. ❤❤ 7. According to paragraph 2, the increased demands on Dutch agriculture made by urban consumers had which of the following result? ○ Seasonal shortages of the products consumers most wanted ○ Increased production of high-quality grain products ○ Raised prices charged by peasants to urban consumers ○ Different ways of caring for dairy-producing animals 答案：D ***************************************************************************************** ►The majority of three-dimensional representations, whether standing, seated, or kneeling, exhibit what is called frontality: they face straight ahead, neither twisting nor turning （定义） . When such statues are viewed in isolation, out of their original context and without knowledge of their function, it is easy to criticize them for their rigid attitudes that remained unchanged for three thousand years （过渡） . Frontality is, however, directly related to the functions of Egyptian statuary and the contexts in which the statues were set up （引入解释） . Statues were created not for their decorative effect but to play a primary role in the cults=rite/ceremony of the gods, the king, and the dead （细节解释） . They were designed to be put in places where these beings could manifest themselves in order to be the recipients of ritual actions. （空间解释） Thus it made sense to show the statue looking ahead at what was happening in front of it, so that the living performer of the ritual could interact with the divine or deceased recipient. Very often such statues were enclosed in rectangular shrines or wall niches whose only opening was at the front, making it natural for the statue to display frontality. Other statues were designed to be placed within an architectural setting, for instance, in front of the monumental entrance gateways to temples known as pylons, or in pillared courts, where they would be placed against or between pillars: their frontality worked perfectly within the architectural context. （空间解释） ❤❤ 8. According to paragraph 2, why are Egyptian statues portrayed frontality? ○ To create a psychological effect of distance and isolation ○ To allow them to fulfill their important role in ceremonies of Egyptian life ○ To provide a contrast to statues with a decorative function ○ To suggest the rigid, unchanging Egyptian philosophical attitudes 答案：B ***************************************************************************************** ►In order to understand ancient Egyptian art, it is vital to know as much as possible of the elite Egyptians' view of the world and the functions and contexts of the art produced for them. Without this knowledge we can appreciate only the formal content of Egyptian art, and we will fail to understand why it was produced or the concepts that shaped it and caused it to adopt its distinctive forms. In fact, a lack of understanding concerning the purposes of Egyptian art has often led it to be compared unfavorably with the art of other cultures: Why did the Egyptians not develop sculpture in which the body turned and twisted through space like classical Greek statuary? Why do the artists seem to get left and right confused? And why did they not discover the geometric perspective as European artists did in the Renaissance? The answer to such questions has nothing to do with a lack of skill or imagination on the part of Egyptian artists and everything to do with the purposes for which they were producing their art. ❤ 9. Paragraph 1 suggests that one reason Egyptian art is viewed less favorably than other art is that Egyptian art lacks ○ a realistic sense of human body proportion ○ a focus on distinctive forms of varying sizes ○ the originality of European art ○ the capacity to show the human body in motion 答案：D ***************************************************************************************** ►Other dimensions along which the two groups differ markedly are density and composition. The densities of the terrestrial planets average about 5 times the density of water, whereas the Jovian planets have densities that average only 1.5 times the density of water. One of the outer planets, Saturn, has a density of only 0.7 that of water, which means that Saturn would float in water. Variations in the composition of the planets are largely responsible for the density differences. The substances that make up both groups of planets are divided into three groups—gases, rocks, and ices—based on their melting points. The terrestrial planets are mostly rocks: dense rocky and metallic material, with minor amounts of gases. The Jovian planets, on the other hand, contain a large percentage of the gases hydrogen and helium, with varying amounts of ices: mostly water, ammonia, and methane ices. ❤❤ 10. Paragraph 4 mentions which of the following as a reason why terrestrial planets are dense? ○ They are made up of three groups of substances. ○ They are composed mainly of rocky and metallic materials. ○ They contain more ice than Jovian planets. ○ They contain relatively small amounts of water. 答案：B ************************************************************************************* ►The flotation samples from the excavations allowed botanists to study shifts in plant-collecting habits as if they were looking through a telescope at a changing landscape. Hundreds of tiny plant remains show how the inhabitants exploited nut harvests in nearby pistachio and oak forests. However, as the climate dried up, the forests retreated from the vicinity of the settlement. The inhabitants turned to wild cereal grasses instead, collecting them by the thousands, while the percentage of nuts in the diet fell. By 8200B.C., drought conditions were so severe that the people abandoned their long-established settlement, perhaps dispersing into smaller camps. ❤❤ 11. Paragraph 4 suggests that the people of Abu Hureyra abandoned their long-established settlement because ○ the inhabitants had cleared all the trees from the forests ○ wild cereal grasses took over pistachio and oak forests ○ people wanted to explore new areas ○ lack of rain caused food shortages 答案：D ************************************************************************************* ►Transportation was becoming less of a problem for those who wished to move west and for those who hand farm surpluses to send to market. Prior to 1815, western farmers who did not live on navigable waterways were connected to them only by dirt roads and mountain trails. Livestock could be driven across the mountains, but the cost of transporting bulky grains in this fashion was several times greater than their value in eastern markets. The first step toward an improvement of western transportation was the construction of turnpikes. These roads made possible a reduction in transportation costs and thus stimulated the commercialization of agriculture along their routes. ❤ 12. Paragraph 4 suggests that turnpikes affected farmers by ○ making the price of grain uniform for both eastern and western farmers ○ making western farm products more profitable than eastern farm products ○ allowing farmers to drive their livestock across mountain trails ○ allowing a greater number of farmers to sell their farm products in a commercial market 答案：D ************************************************************************************* ►Climatic changes at the end of the glacial period 13,000 years ago have been proposed to account for the emergence of farming. The temperature increased dramatically in a short period of time (years rather than centuries), allowing for a growth of the hunting-gathering population due to the abundance of resources. There were, however, fluctuations in the climatic conditions, with the consequences that wet conditions were followed by dry ones, so that the availability of plants and animals oscillated brusquely. ❤ 13. According to paragraph 3, the abundance of resources fluctuated sharply after the end of the glacial period because ○ locally abundant resources were quickly exhausted by hunter-gatherers ○ the temperature became much higher in some areas over others ○ different types of plants and animals became available as the climate changed ○ the amount of rainfall varied radically from one period to the next 答案：D ************************************************************************************* ►When the German chemist Lothar Meyer and (independently) the Russian Dmitry Mendeleyev first introduced the periodic table in 1869-70, one-third of the naturally occurring chemical elements had not yet been discovered. Yet both chemists were sufficiently farsighted to leave gaps where their analyses of periodic physical and chemical properties indicated that new elements should be located. Mendeleyev was bolder than Meyer and even assumed that if a measured atomic mass put an element in the wrong place in the table, the atomic mass was wrong. In some cases this was true. Indium, for example, had previously been assigned an atomic mass between those of arsenic and selenium. Because there is no space in the periodic table between these two elements, Mendeleyev suggested that the atomic mass of indium be changed to a completely different value, where it would fill an empty space between cadmium and tin. In fact, subsequent work has shown that in a periodic table, elements should not be ordered strictly by atomic mass. For example, tellurium comes before iodine in the periodic table, even though its atomic mass is slightly greater. Such anomalies are due to the relative abundance of the "isotopes" or varieties of each element. All the isotopes of a given element have the same number of protons, but differ in their number of neutrons, and hence in their atomic mass. The isotopes of a given element have the same chemical properties but slightly different physical properties. We now know that atomic number (the number of protons in the nucleus), not atomic mass number (the number of protons and neutrons), determines chemical behavior. ❤❤❤ 14. What reason does the author provide for the claim that Mendeleyev was bolder than Meyer? ○ Mendeleyev corrected incorrect information Meyer had proposed. ○ Mendeleyev assumed that some information believed to be true about the elements was incorrect. ○ Mendeleyev argued that Meyer had not left enough gaps in the periodic table. ○ Mendeleyev realized that elements were not ordered by atomic mass in the periodic table. 答案：B ************************************************************************************* Paragraph 1: In seeking to describe the origins of theater, one must rely primarily on speculation, since there is little concrete evidence on which to draw. The most widely accepted theory, championed by anthropologists in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, envisions theater as emerging out of myth and ritual. The process perceived by these anthropologists may be summarized briefly. During the early stages of its development, a society becomes aware of forces that appear to influence or control its food supply and well-being. Having little understanding of natural causes, it attributes both desirable and undesirable occurrences to supernatural or magical forces, and it searches for means to win the favor of these forces. Perceiving an apparent connection between certain actions performed by the group and the result it desires, the group repeats, refines and formalizes those actions into fixed ceremonies, or rituals. ❤❤❤ 15. According to paragraph 1, why did some societies develop and repeat ceremonial actions? ○ To establish a positive connection between the members of the society ○ To help society members better understand the forces controlling their food supply ○ To distinguish their beliefs from those of other societies ○ To increase the society’s prosperity 答案：D ************************************************************************************* ►Stories (myths) may then grow up around a ritual. Frequently the myths include representatives of those supernatural forces that the rites celebrate or hope to influence. Performers may wear costumes and masks to represent the mythical characters or supernatural forces in the rituals or in accompanying celebrations. As a person becomes more sophisticated, its conceptions of supernatural forces and causal relationships may change. As a result, it may abandon or modify some rites. But the myths that have grown up around the rites may continue as part of the group’s oral tradition and may even come to be acted out under conditions divorced from these rites. When this occurs, the first step has been taken toward theater as an autonomous activity, and thereafter entertainment and aesthetic values may gradually replace the former mystical and socially efficacious concerns. ❤❤16. According to paragraph 2, what may cause societies to abandon certain rites? ○ Emphasizing theater as entertainment ○ Developing a new understanding of why events occur ○ Finding a more sophisticated way of representing mythical characters ○ Moving from a primarily oral tradition to a more written tradition 答案：B ************************************************************************************* ►Glaciers are open systems, with snow as the system’s input and meltwater as the system's main output. The glacial system is governed by two basic climatic variables: precipitation and temperature. For a glacier to grow or maintain its mass, there must be sufficient snowfall to match or exceed the annual loss through melting, evaporation, and calving, which occurs when the glacier loses solid chunks as icebergs to the sea or to large lakes. If summer temperatures are high for too long, then all the snowfall from the previous winter will melt. Surplus snowfall is essential for a glacier to develop. A surplus allows snow to accumulate and for the pressure of snow accumulated over the years to transform buried snow into glacial ice with a depth great enough for the ice to flow. Glaciers are sometimes classified by temperature as faster-flowing temperate glaciers or as slower-flowing polar glaciers. ❤❤ 17. Paragraph 2 implies that which of the following conditions produces the fastest moving glaciers? ○ A climate characteristic of the polar regions ○ A thick layer of ice in a temperate climate ○ Long, warm summers ○ Snow, firn, and ice that have been buried for several years 答案：B ************************************************************************************* ►These characteristics make Spartina a valuable component of the estuaries where it occurs naturally. The plant functions as a stabilizer and a sediment trap and as a nursery area for estuarine fish and shellfish. Once established, a stand of Spartina begins to trap sediment, changing the substrate elevation, and eventually the stand evolves into a high marsh system where Spartina is gradually displaced by higher-elevation, brackish-water species. As elevation increases, narrow, deep channels of water form throughout the marsh. Along the east coast Spartina is considered valuable for its ability to prevent erosion and marshland deterioration; it is also used for coastal restoration projects and the creation of new wetland sites. ❤❤ 18. Paragraph 4 suggests that where Spanina occurs naturally, an established stand of it will eventually ○ create conditions in which it can no longer survive ○ get washed away by water flowing through the deep channels that form around it ○ become adapted to brackish water ○ take over other grass species growing in the area 答案：A ************************************************************************************* Sumer and the First Cities of the Ancient Near East ► The earliest of the city states of the ancient Near East appeared at the southern end of the Mesopotamian plain, the area between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers in what is now Iraq. It was here that the civilization known as Sumer emerged in its earliest form in the fifth millennium. At first sight, the plain did not appear to be a likely home for a civilization. There were few natural resources, no timber, stone, or metals. Rainfall was limited, and what water there was rushed across the plain in the annual flood of melted snow. As the plain fell only 20 meters in 500 kilometers, the beds of the rivers shifted constantly. It was this that made the organization of irrigation, particularly the building of canals to channel and presence the water, essential. Once this was done and the silt carried down by the rivers was planted, the rewards were rich: four to five times what rain-fed earth would produce. It was these conditions that allowed an elite to emerge, probably as an organizing class, and to sustain itself through the control of surplus crops. ❤❤ 19. According to paragraph 1, which of the following made it possible for an elite to emerge? ○ New crops were developed that were better suited to conditions on the Mesopotamian plain. ○ The richest individuals managed to gain control of the most valuable cropland. ○ Control over the few available natural resources made some people four to five times richer than everyone else. ○ The building of canals to increase agricultural output required organization. 答案：D ************************************************************************************* ► The contribution of geothermal energy to the world's energy future is difficult to estimate. Geothermal energy is in a sense not renewable, because in most cases the heat would be drawn out of a reservoir much more rapidly than it would be replaced by the very slow geological processes by which heat flows through solid rock into a heat reservoir. However, in many places (for example, California, Hawaii, the Philippines, Japan, Mexico, the rift valleys of Africa)the resource is potentially so large that its future will depend on the economics of production. At present, we can make efficient use of only naturally occurring hot water or steam deposits. Although the potential is enormous, it is likely that in the near future geothermal energy can make important local contributions only where the resource is close to the user and the economics are favorable, as they are in California, New Zealand, and Iceland. Geothermal energy probably will not make large-scale contributions to the world energy budget until well into the twenty-first century, if ever. ❤❤❤ 20. In paragraph 6, the author implies that in California, Hawaii, the Philippines, Japan, Mexico, and the rift valleys of Africa the potential size of the geothermal resource is so large that ○ it might be economically worth developing these sites even though geothermal energy is not renewable ○ these sites will be the first geothermal energy sites to be developed with new technology ○ these sites are likely to make a large-scale contribution to the world energy budget in the twenty-first century ○ it does not matter whether they have naturally occurring deposits of hot water or steam 答案：C *************************************************************************************
      • 题干形式
        • - ?原因 => A 或 A => ? 结果
        • - A≠B (A＞B; A＜B) because (in that…) A/B?
        • - Which of the following was responsible for/contribute to A?/what explains….
        • - Paragraph # indicates that A..., because of….?
        • - According to the paragraph #, how soon .... is determined by?
      • 答案位置
        • 题干问原因
          • 【1】句内出现答案的情形
            • 同位语解释关系
            • 连词：A because/as a result of...B等
            • 从句：A that/which/when/where B
            • 特殊符号：破折号 A—B；分号A;B；冒号A:B
            • 动词：A cause=...lead to/encourage.../...give rise to/...make...possible/...permit/...enable/...allow B等。
          • 【2】句间出现答案的情形
            • 关系：A <=> B <=> C 句间指代-注意构成连续指代的情况
            • 句间构成举例解释：for example/for instant/if
            • 句子间【递进解释】关系：A <=> B <=> C 句间构成逻辑
        • 题干问结果
          • 【1】句内出现答案的情形
            • 连词：A because/as a result of...B等
            • 从句：A that/which/when/where B
            • 特殊符号：破折号 A—B；分号A;B；冒号A:B
            • 连词：A as a result…/consequently…/Thus….B
            • 动词：A cause=...lead to/encourage.../...give rise to/...make...possible/...permit/...enable/...allow B等。
          • 【2】句间出现答案的情形
            • 关系：A <=> B <=> C 句间指代-注意构成连续指代的情况
            • 句间构成举例解释：for example/for instant/if
            • 句子间【递进解释】关系：A <=> B <=> C 句间构成逻辑
    • 【3】关系關係考核
      • ► Sociologists have built on the distinction between expressive and instrumental ties to distinguish between two types of groups: primary and secondary. A primary group involves two or more people who enjoy a direct, intimate, cohesive relationship with one another. Expressive ties predominate in primary groups; we view the people as ends in themselves and valuable in their own right. A secondary group entails two or more people who are involved in an impersonal relationship and have come together for a specific, practical purpose. Instrumental ties predominate in secondary groups; we perceive people as means to ends rather than as ends in their own right. Sometimes primary group relationships evolve out of secondary group relationships. This happens in many work settings. People on the job often develop close relationships with coworkers as they come to share gripes, jokes, gossip, and satisfactions. ❤1. Accordingto paragraph 3, what do sociologists see as the main difference between primary and secondary groups? ○ Primary groups consist of people working together, while secondary groups exist outside of work settings. ○ In primary groups people are seen as means, while in secondary groups people are seen as ends. ○ Primary groups involve personal relationships, while secondary groups are mainly practical in purpose. ○ Primary groups are generally small, while secondary groups often contain more than two people. 答案：C *************************************************************************************************** ►Lichens helped to speed the decomposition of the hard rock surfaces, preparing a soft bed of soil that was abundantly supplied with minerals that had been carried in the molten rock from the bowels of Earth. Now, other forms of life could take hold/stand: ferns and mosses (two of the most ancient types of land plants) that flourish even in rock crevices. These plants propagate by producing spores-tiny fertilized cells that contain all the instructions for making a new plant-but the spores are unprotected by any…. ❤2. According to paragraph 3, what was the relationship between lichens and ferns in the development of plant life on Hawaii? ○ The decomposition of ferns produced minerals that were used by lichens. ○ Lichens and ferns competed to grow in the same rocky environments. ○ Lichens and ferns were typically found together in volcanic areas. ○ Ferns were able to grow because lichens created suitable soil. 答案：D *************************************************************************************************** ►The transition from forest to treeless tundra on a mountain slope is often a dramatic one. Within a vertical distance of just a few tens of meters, trees disappear as a life-form and are replaced by low shrubs, herbs, and grasses. This rapid zone of transition is called the upper timberline or tree line. In many semiarid areas there is also a lower timberline where the forest passes into steppe or desert at its lower edge, usually because of a lack of moisture. ❤3. Which of the following can be inferred from paragraph 1 about both the upper and lower timberlines? ○ Both are treeless zones. ○ Both mark forest boundaries. ○ Both are surrounded by desert areas. ○ Both suffer from a lack of moisture. 答案：B *************************************************************************************************** ►Modern architectural forms generally have three separate components comparable to elements of the human body; a supporting skeleton or frame, an outer skin enclosing the interior spaces, equipment, similar to the body’s vital organs and systems. The equipment includes plumbing, electrical wiring, hot water, and air-conditioning. Of course in early architecture — such as igloos and adobe structures — there was no such equipment, and the skeleton and skin were often one. ❤4. Which of the following correctly characterizes the relationship between the human body and architecture that is described in paragraph 5? ○ Complex equipment inside buildings is the one element in modern architecture that resembles a component of the human body. ○ The components in early buildings were similar to three particular elements of the human body. ○ Modern buildings have components that are as likely to change as the human body is. ○ In general, modern buildings more closely resemble the human body than earlier buildings do. 答案：D *************************************************************************************************** ►Another suggestion is that before children can talk about past events in their lives, they need to have a reasonable understanding of the self as a psychological entity. The development of an understanding of the self becomes evident between the first and second years of life and shows rapid elaboration in subsequent years. The realization that the physical self has continuity in time, according to this hypothesis, lays the foundation for the emergence of autobiographical memory. ❤❤5. According to paragraph 3, what is the relationship between autobiographical memory and the development of an understanding of the self? ○ Autobiographical memory aids in the development of an understanding of the self. ○ Children possess an understanding of the self when they can talk about past events in their lives. ○ The realization that the self continues through time may aid in the onset of autobiographical memory. ○ The development of autobiographical memory helps children gain an understanding of their roles in their social relationships. 答案：C *************************************************************************************************** ►Unlike most major inventions, photography had been long and impatiently awaited. The images produced by the camera obscura, a boxlike device that used a pinhole or lens to throw an image onto a ground-glass screen or a piece of white paper, were already familiar—the device had been much employed by topographical artists like the Italian painter Canaletto in his detailed views of the city of Venice. What was lacking was a way of giving such images a permanent form. This was finally achieved by Louis Daguerre (1787-1851), who perfected a way of fixing them on a silvered copper plate. His discovery, the "daguerreotype," was announced in 1839. ►A second and very different process was patented by the British inventor William Henry Talbot (1800-1877) in 1841. Talbot's "calotype" was the first negative-to-positive process and the direct ancestor of the modern photograph. The calotype was revolutionary in its use of chemically treated paper in which areas hit by light became dark in tone, producing a negative image. This "negative," as Talbot called it, could then be used to print multiple positive images on another piece of treated paper. ❤❤❤6. According to paragraphs 2 and 3 which of the following did the daguerreotype and the calotype have in common? ○ They were equally useful for artists. ○ They could be reproduced. ○ They produced a permanent image ○ They were produced on treated paper. 答案：C *************************************************************************************************** ►Like most other energy sources, geothermal energy presents some environmental problems. The surface of the ground can sink if hot groundwater is withdrawn without being replaced. In addition, water heated geothermally can contain salts and toxic materials dissolved from the hot rock. These waters present a disposal problem if they are not returned to the ground from which they were removed. ❤❤❤7. How is the problem that the surface may sink related to the problem that water heated geothermally may contain toxic materials? ○ Both problems could be solved by returning groundwater that is removed from an underground heat reservoir back to the reservoir after heat is extracted from it. ○ The problem of sinking is more difficult to solve than is the problem of toxic materials. ○ Land at the surface sinks because the rock beneath the surface is weakened when salts and toxic materials are removed from it in the process of extracting geothermal energy. ○ Both problems are caused by the fact that the hot groundwater in a heat reservoir dissolves the rock, which weakens the rock and makes the water toxic with salt. 答案：A *************************************************************************************************** ►Earth's internal heat, fueled by radioactivity, provides the energy for plate tectonics and continental drift, mountain building, and earthquakes. It can also be harnessed to drive electric generators and heat homes. Geothermal energy becomes available in a practical form when underground heat is transferred by water that is heated as it passes through a subsurface region of hot rocks (a heat reservoir) that may be hundreds or thousands of feet deep. The water is usually naturally occurring groundwater that seeps down along fractures in the rock; less typically, the water is artificially introduced by being pumped down from the surface. The water is brought to the surface, as a liquid or steam, through holes drilled for the purpose. R -?- S ❤❤❤8. According to the processes described in paragraph 1, what is the relationship between radioactivity and the steam produced by geothermal heat? ○ Geothermally heated steam is produced when water is exposed to radioactivity deep underground. ○ When water is introduced into holes drilled thousands of feet in the ground, it becomes radioactive and turns to steam. ○ Radioactivity heats Earth's interior rock, which in turn can heat water to the point it becomes steam. ○ When a reservoir of steam in subsurface rock is produced by radioactivity, it is said to be geothermally heated. 答案：C *************************************************************************************************** ►All these diverse constituents are aggregated together to form chondritic meteorites, like Allende, that have chemical compositions much like that of the Sun. To compare the compositions of a meteorite and the Sun, it is necessary that we use ratios of elements rather than simply the abundances of atoms. After all, the Sun has many more atoms of any element, say iron, than does a meteorite specimen, but the ratios of iron to silicon in the two kinds of matter might be comparable. The compositional similarity is striking. The major difference is that Allende is depleted in the most volatile elements, like hydrogen, carbon, oxygen, nitrogen, and the noble gases, relative to the Sun. These are the elements that tend to form gases even at very low temperatures. We might think of chondrites as samples of distilled Sun, a sort of solar sludge from which only gases have been removed. Since practically all the solar system's mass resides in the Sun, this similarity in chemistry means that chondrites have average solar system composition, except for the most volatile elements; they are truly lumps of nebular matter, probably similar in composition to the matter from which planets were assembled. ❤❤❤9. According to paragraph 6, what is the significance of the similarity in composition between chondrites and the Sun? ○ It indicates what the matter from which planets were formed was probably like. ○ It may explain how the Sun originally developed. ○ It helps scientists estimate the variations in the chemical composition of different meteors. ○ It suggests that most meteorites may contain large quantities of volatile elements. 答案：A *************************************************************************************************** ►The Jovian planets have very thick atmospheres consisting of varying amounts of hydrogen, helium, methane, and ammonia. By comparison, the terrestrial planets have meager atmospheres at best. A planet's ability to retain an atmosphere depends on its temperature and mass. Simply stated, a gas molecule can "evaporate" from a planet if it reaches a speed known as the escape velocity. For Earth, this velocity is 11 kilometers per second. Any material, including a rocket, must reach this speed before it can leave Earth and go into space. The Jovian planets, because of their greater masses and thus higher surface gravities, have higher escape velocities (21-60 kilometers per second) than the terrestrial planets. Consequently, it is more difficult for gases to "evaporate" from them. Also, because the molecular motion of a gas depends on temperature, at the low temperatures of the Jovian planets even the lightest gases are unlikely to acquire the speed needed to escape. On the other hand, a comparatively warm body with a small surface gravity, like Earth's moon, is unable to hold even the heaviest gas and thus lacks an atmosphere. The slightly larger terrestrial planets Earth, Venus, and Mars retain some heavy gases like carbon dioxide, but even their atmospheres make up only an infinitesimally small portion of their total mass. ❤10. According to paragraph 5, which of the following statements is true of both Jovian and terrestrial planets? ○ The thicker the atmosphere, the smaller the planet’s mass ○ The more varied the gases in the atmosphere, the higher the temperature ○ The higher the surface gravity, the higher the escape velocity ○ The less the atmosphere contributes to the total mass, the lower the temperature 答案：C *************************************************************************************************** ►Apart from statues representing deities, kings, and named members of the elite that can be called formal, there is another group of three-dimensional representations that depicts generic figures, frequently servants, from the nonelite population. The function of these is quite different. Many are made to be put in the tombs of the elite in order to serve the tomb owners in the afterlife. Unlike formal statues that are limited to static poses of standing, sitting, and kneeling, these figures depict a wide range of actions, such as grinding grain, baking bread, producing pots, and making music, and they are shown in appropriate poses, bending and squatting as they carry out their tasks. 11. According to paragraph 4, what is the difference between statues that represent the Egyptian elite and statues that represent the nonelite classes? ○ Statues of the elite are included in tombs, but statues of the nonelite are not. ○ Statues of the elite are in motionless poses, while statues of the nonelite are in active poses. ○ Statues of the elite are shown standing, while statues of the nonelite are shown sitting or kneeling. ○ Statues of the elite serve an important function, while statues of the nonelite are decorative. 答案：B *************************************************************************************************** ►Groundwater is stored in a variety of rock types. A groundwater reservoir from which water can be extracted is called an aquifer. We can effectively think of an aquifer as a deposit of water. Extraction of water depends on two properties of the aquifer: porosity and permeability. Between sediment grains are spaces that can be filled with water. This pore space is known as porosity and is expressed as a percentage of the total rock volume. Porosity is important for water-storage capacity, but for water to flow through rocks, the pore spaces must be connected. The ability of water, or other fluids, to flow through the interconnected pore spaces in rocks is termed permeability. Fractures and joint have very high permeability. In the intergranular spaces of rocks, however, fluid must flow around and between grains in a tortuous path; this winding path causes a resistance to flow. The rate at which the flowing water overcomes this resistance is related to the permeability of rock. 12. According to paragraph 2, what is the relationship between permeability and porosity? ○ The more pores a rock has, the higher its porosity but the lower its permeability ○ Rocks with many internal spaces that are not connected with each other will have high porosity but low permeability ○ If water flows through a rock easily, it has high permeability but low porosity ○ Rocks that have high permeability have high porosity and vice versa 答案：B ***************************************************************************************************
      • 题干形式
        • Which is true about A&B? (similarity/difference/both A and B)
        • What is the relationship/connection between A&B?
      • 答案位置
        • AB共性异性: Aα1 = Bα2；Aα ≠ Bβ
        • AB相辅相成: A help/aid/lay the foundation for/enable...B
        • AB相互削弱: A compete/reduce... B —— 较少考核
  • 【2】细节题解题步骤
    • 1. 选取定位词的基本原则
      • 【1】选取题干两个【核心词】定位 (题干询问对象/方面) -特殊疑问词
      • 【2】精确的限定内容：时间/地点/人物
      • 【3】文章标题所述内容不能作为定位词
        • Trade and the Ancient Middle East Paragraph 1: Trade was the mainstay of the urban economy in the Middle East, as caravans negotiated( 越过/ 绕过) the surrounding desert, restricted only by access to water and by mountain ranges. This has been so since ancient times , partly due to the geology of the area, which is mostly limestone and sandstone, with few deposits of metallic ore and other useful materials Ancient demands for obsidian (a black volcanic rock useful for making mirrors and tools) led to trade with Armenia to the north, while jade for cutting tools was brought from Turkistan, and the precious stone lapis lazuli was imported from Afghanistan. One can trace such expeditions back to ancient Sumeria, the earliest known Middle Eastern civilization. Records show merchant caravans and trading posts set up by the Sumerians in the surrounding mountains and deserts of Persia and Arabia, where they traded grain for raw materials, such as timber and stones, as well as for metals and gems. 1. According to paragraph 1, why has trade been so important throughout the history of the Middle East? ○ The rare and valuable metals and stones found in Middle Eastern deserts have always been in high demand in surrounding areas. ○ Growing conditions throughout the Middle East are generally poor, forcing Middle Eastern people to depend on imported grain. ○ Many useful and decorative raw materials cannot be found naturally in the Middle East but are available from neighboring regions. ○ Frequent travel, due to limited water supplies in the Middle East, created many opportunities for trade with neighboring societies. ******************************************************************************************** Deer Population in Puget Sound Two species of deer have been prevalent in the Puget Sound area of Washington State in the Pacific Northwest of the United States. The black-tailed deer, a lowland, west-side cousin of the mule deer of eastern Washington, is now the most common. The other species, the Columbian white-tailed deer, in earlier times was common in the open prairie country, it is now restricted to the low, marshy islands and flood plains along the lower Columbia River. According to paragraph 1, which of the following is true of the white-tailed deer of Puget Sound? A. It is native to lowlands and marshes. B. It is more closely related to the mule deer of eastern Washington than to other types of deer. C. It has replaced the black-tailed deer in the open prairie. D. It no longer lives in a particular type of habitat that it once occupied. ********************************************************************************************
      • 【4】题干中的人称指代原则: the researchers<=>Tom & Jerry <=> They
    • 2. 题干內容以及解题逻辑
      • 1. 题干存在【否定概念】，定位原文中的【否定概念】如：fail to do/discourage/difficulty of...
        • Wildman and Niles were particularly interested in investigating the conditions under which reflection might flourish-a subject on which there is little guidance in the literature. They designed an experimental strategy for a group of teachers in Virginia and worked with 40 practicing teachers over several years. They were concerned that many would be "drawn to these new, refreshing conceptions of teaching only to find that the void between the abstractions and the realities of teacher reflection is too great to bridge." Reflection on a complex task such as teaching is not easy. The teachers were taken through a program of talking about teaching events, moving on to reflecting about specific issues in a supported, and later an independent, manner. 1. According to paragraph 2, Wildman and Niles worried that the teachers they were working with might feel that ○ the number of teachers involved in their program was too large ○ the concepts of teacher reflection were so abstract that they could not be applied ○ the ideas involved in reflection were actually not new and refreshing ○ several years would be needed to acquire the habit of reflecting on their teaching 答案：B *************************************************************************************************** Wildman and Niles observed that systematic reflection on teaching required a sound ability to understand classroom events in an objective manner. They describe the initial understanding in the teachers with whom they were working as being "utilitarian...and not rich or detailed enough to drive systematic reflection." Teachers rarely have the time or opportunities to view their own or the teaching of others in an objective manner. Further observation revealed the tendency of teachers to evaluate events rather than review the contributory factors in a considered manner by, in effect, standing outside the situation. 2 . According to paragraph 3, what did the teachers working with Wildman and Niles often fail to do when they attempted to practice reflection? ○ Correctly calculate the amount of time needed for reflection ○ Provide sufficiently detailed descriptions of the methods they used to help them reflect ○ Examine thoughtfully the possible causes of events in their classrooms ○ Establish realistic goals for themselves in practicing reflection 答案：C *************************************************************************************************** The work of Wildman and Niles suggests the importance of recognizing some of the difficulties of instituting reflective practice. Others have noted this, making a similar point about the teaching profession's cultural inhibitions about reflective practice. Zeichner and Liston (1987) point out the inconsistency between the role of the teacher as a (reflective) professional decision maker and the more usual role of the teacher as a technician, putting into practice the ideas of others. More basic than the cultural issues is the matter of motivation. Becoming a reflective practitioner requires extra work (Jaworski, 1993) and has only vaguely defined goals with, perhaps, little initially perceivable reward and the threat of vulnerability. Few have directly questioned what might lead a teacher to want to become reflective. Apparently, the most obvious reason for teachers to work toward reflective practice is that teacher educators think it is a good thing. There appear to be many unexplored matters about the motivation to reflect-for example, the value of externally motivated reflection as opposed to that of teachers who might reflect by habit. 3. According to paragraph 6, teachers may be discouraged from reflecting because ○ it is not generally supported by teacher educators ○ the benefits of reflection may not be apparent immediately ○ it is impossible to teach and reflect on one's teaching at the same time ○ they have often failed in their attempts to become reflective practitioners 答案：B ********************************************************************************* Spartina was transported to Washington State in packing materials for oysters transplanted from the east coast in 1894. Leaving its insect predators behind, the cordgrass has been spreading slowly and steadily along Washington’s tidal estuaries on the west coast, crowding out the native plants and drastically altering the landscape by trapping sediment. Spartina modifies tidal mudflats, turning them into high marshes inhospitable to the many fish and waterfowl that depend on the mudflats. It is already hampering the oyster harvest and the Dungeness crab fishery, and it interferes with the recreational use of beaches and waterfronts. Spartina has been transplanted to England and to New Zealand for land reclamation and shoreline stabilization. In New Zealand the plant has spread rapidly, changing mudflats with marshy fringes to extensive salt meadows and reducing the number and kinds of birds and animals that use the marsh. 4. According to paragraph 5, Spartina negatively affects wildlife in estuaries by ○ trapping fish and waterfowl in sediment ○ preventing oysters from transplanting successfully ○ turning mudflats into high marshes and salt meadows ○ expanding the marshy fringes of salt meadows 答案：C 【 =grassland=prairie fodder=graze=browse 】 ********************************************************************************* In the wake of the Roman Empire's conquest of Britain in the first century A.D., a large number of troops stayed in the new province, and these troops had a considerable impact on Britain with their camps, fortifications, and participation in the local economy. Assessing the impact of the army on the civilian population starts from the realization that the soldiers were always unevenly distributed across the country. Areas rapidly incorporated into the empire were not long affected by the military. Where the army remained stationed, its presence was much more influential. The imposition of a military base involved the requisition of native lands for both the fort and the territory needed to feed and exercise the soldiers' animals. The imposition of military rule also robbed local leaders of opportunities to participate in local government, so social development was stunted and the seeds of disaffection sown. This then meant that the military had to remain to suppress rebellion and organize government. 5. According to paragraph 1, what effect did military occupation have on the local population? ○ It encouraged more even distribution of the population and the settlement of previously undeveloped territory. ○ It created discontent and made continuing military occupation necessary. ○ It required local labor to construct forts and feed and exercise the soldiers’ animals. ○ It provided local leaders with opportunities to participate in governance. 答案：B ********************************************************************************** In order to understand ancient Egyptian art, it is vital to know as much as possible of the elite Egyptians' view of the world and the functions and contexts of the art produced for them. Without this knowledge we can appreciate only the formal content of Egyptian art, and we will fail to understand why it was produced or the concepts that shaped it and caused it to adopt its distinctive forms. In fact, a lack of understanding concerning the purposes of Egyptian art has often led it to be compared unfavorably with the art of other cultures: Why did the Egyptians not develop sculpture in which the body turned and twisted through space like classical Greek statuary? Why do the artists seem to get left and right confused? And why did they not discover the geometric perspective as European artists did in the Renaissance? The answer to such questions has nothing to do with a lack of skill or imagination on the part of Egyptian artists and everything to do with the purposes for which they were producing their art. 6. Paragraph 1 suggests that one reason Egyptian art is viewed less favorably than other art is that Egyptian art lacks ○ a realistic sense of human body proportion ○ a focus on distinctive forms of varying sizes ○ the originality of European art ○ the capacity to show the human body in motion 答案：D ***************************************************************************************** Statues were normally made of stone, wood, or metal. Stone statues were worked from single rectangular blocks of material and retained the compactness of the original shape. The stone between the arms and the body and between the legs in standing figures or the legs and the seat in seated ones was not normally cut away. From a practical aspect this protected the figures against breakage and psychologically gives the images a sense of strength and power, usually enhanced by a supporting back pillar. By contrast, wooden statues were carved from several pieces of wood that were pegged together to form the finished work, and metal statues were either made by wrapping sheet metal around a wooden core or cast by the lost wax process. The arms could be held away from the body and carry separate items in their hands; there is no back pillar. The effect is altogether lighter and freer than that achieved in stone, but because both perform the same function, formal wooden and metal statues still display frontality. 7. According to paragraph 3, why were certain areas of a stone statue left uncarved? ○To prevent damage by providing physical stability ○To emphasize that the material was as important as the figure itself ○To emphasize that the figure was not meant to be a real human being ○To provide another artist with the chance to finish the carving 答案：A ***************************************************************************************** Groundwater is stored in the pore spaces and joints of rocks and unconsolidated (unsolidified) sediments or in the openings widened through fractures and weathering. The water-saturated rock or sediment is known as an "aquifer". Because they are porous, sedimentary rocks, such as sandstones and conglomerates, are important potential sources of groundwater. Large quantities of water may also be stored in limestones when joints and cracks have been enlarged to form cavities. Most limestone and sandstone aquifers are deep and extensive but may contain groundwaters that are not being recharged. Most shallow aquifers in sand and gravel deposits produce lower yields, but they can be rapidly recharged. Some deep aquifers are known as "fossil waters”. The term "fossil" describes water that has been present for several thousand years. These aquifers became saturated more than 10,000 years ago and are no longer being recharged. 8. According to paragraph 6, the aquifers called fossil waters ○ contain fossils that are thousands of years old ○ took more than 10,000 years to become saturated with water ○ have not gained or lost any water for thousands of years ○ have been collecting water for the past 10,000 years 答案：C ********************************************************************************* Paragraph 4: Two additional techniques of studying infant perception have come into vogue. The first is the habituation-dishabituation technique, in which a single stimulus is presented repeatedly to the infant until there is a measurable decline (habituation) in whatever attending behavior is being observed. At that point a new stimulus is presented, and any recovery (dishabituation) in responsiveness is recorded. If the infant fails to dishabituate and continues to show habituation with the new stimulus, it is assumed that the baby is unable to perceive the new stimulus as different. The habituation-dishabituation paradigm has been used most extensively with studies of auditory and olfactory perception in infants. The second technique relies on evoked potentials, which are electrical brain responses that may be related to a particular stimulus because of where they originate. Changes in the electrical pattern of the brain indicate that the stimulus is getting through to the infant's central nervous system and eliciting some form of response. 10. According to paragraph 4, which of the following leads to the conclusion that infants are able to differentiate between stimuli in a habituation-dishabituation study? ○ Dishabituation occurs with the introduction of a new stimulus. ○ Electrical responses in the infant's brain decline with each new stimulus. ○ Habituation is continued with the introduction of a new stimulus. ○ The infant displays little change in electrical brain responses. 答案：C ********************************************************************************* Role of Play in Development Play is easier to define with examples than with concepts. In any case, in animals it consists of leaping, running, climbing, throwing, wrestling, and other movements, either along, with objects, or with other animals. Depending on the species, play may be primarily for social interaction, exercise, or exploration. One of the problems in providing a clear definition of play is that it involves the same behaviors that take place in other circumstance dominance, predation, competition, and real fighting. Thus, whether play occurs or not depends on the intention of the animals, and the intentions are not always clear from behaviors alone. Play appears to be a developmental characteristic of animals with fairly sophisticated nervous systems, mainly birds and mammals. Play has been studied most extensively in primates and canids(dogs). Exactly why animals play is still a matter debated in the research literature, and the reasons may not be the same for every species that plays. Determining the functions of play is difficult because the functions may be long term,with beneficial effects not showing up until the animals adulthood. 11. According to paragraph 1, why is play difficult to define? ○ Play must be defined with concepts, not examples. ○ Play behavior often looks like nonplay behavior. ○ Play often occurs in the presence of animals that are not playing. ○ Play occurs independently of an animal's intentions. 答案：B ********************************************************************************* Play appears to be a developmental characteristic of animals with fairly sophisticated nervous systems, mainly birds and mammals. Play has been studied most extensively in primates and canids(dogs). Exactly why animals play is still a matter debated in the research literature, and the reasons may not be the same for every species that plays. Determining the functions of play is difficult because the functions may be long term,with beneficial effects not showing up until the animals adulthood. 12. According to paragraph 2, which of the following presents a particular challenge to researchers who study play behavior in animals? ○ The delay between activities and the benefits the animal derives from them. ○ The difficulty in determining which animal species play and which do not. ○ The fact that for most animals, there is no clear transition from youth to full adulthood. ○ The lack of research on the play behavior of animals other than canid and primates. 答案：A ********************************************************************************* Play is easier to define with examples than with concepts. In any case, in animals it consists of leaping, running, climbing, throwing, wrestling, and other movements, either along, with objects, or with other animals. Depending on the species, play may be primarily for social interaction, exercise, or exploration. One of the problems in providing a clear definition of play is that it involves the same behaviors that take place in other circumstance -- dominance, predation, competition, and real fighting. Thus, whether play occurs or not depends on the intention of the animals, and the intentions are not always clear from behaviors alone. 13. According to paragraph 1, why is play difficult to define? ○ Play must be defined with concepts, not examples. ○ Play behavior often looks like nonplay behavior. ○ Play often occurs in the presence of animals that are not playing. ○ Play occurs independently of an animal’s intentions. 答案：B ********************************************************************************* Paragraph 6: The fact that some societies domesticated animals and plants, discovered the use of metal tools, became literate, and developed a state should not make us forget that others developed pastoralism or horticulture (vegetable gardening) but remained illiterate and at low levels of productivity; a few entered the modern period as hunting and gathering societies. It is anthropologically important to inquire into the conditions that made some societies adopt agriculture while others remained hunter-gatherers or horticulturalists. However, it should be kept in mind that many societies that knew of agriculture more or less consciously avoided it. Whether Mithen's explanation is satisfactory is open to contention, and some authors have recently emphasized the importance of other factors. 14. According to paragraph 6, which of the following is a weakness of Mithen's explanation? ○ It does not clearly distinguish agriculture from pastoralism and horticulture. ○ It fails to explain why some societies adopted agriculture while others did not. ○ It explains the domestication of plants and animals but not the development of metal tools. ○ It overlooks the fact that illiteracy and low productivity remain problems even today 答案：B ********************************************************************************* Half a century of development was needed before Faraday’s discoveries in electricity were translated into full-scale power stations. In 1881 the Godalming power station in Surrey, England, on the banks of the Wey River, created the world’s first public electricity supply. The power source of this most modern technology was a traditional waterwheel. Unfortunately this early plant experienced the problem common to many forms of renewable energy: the flow in the Wey River was unreliable, and the waterwheel was soon replaced by a steam engine. 15. According to paragraph 7, what problem did early power station in the town of Godalming in Surrey, United Kingdom, face in providing electricity? ○ The traditional waterwheel it used was not large enough to meet the demand for energy. ○ The flow of the River Wey, on which the power station depended, was unreliable. ○ The operators of the Godalming power station had little experience with hydro technology. ○ The steam engine that turned the waterwheel was faulty and needed to be replaced. 答案：B *********************************************************************************
      • 2. 题干存在【积极概念】，定位原文中的【积极概念】如：benefit/ importance/ advantage
        • The rapid technical development of photography—the introduction of lighter and simpler equipment, and of new emulsions that coated photographic plates, film, and paper and enabled images to be made at much faster speeds—had some unanticipated consequences. Scientific experiments made by photographers such as Eadweard Muybridge (1830-1904) and Etienne-Jules Marey (1830-1904) demonstrated that the movements of both humans and animals differed widely from the way they had been traditionally represented in art. Artists, often reluctantly, were forced to accept the evidence provided by the camera. The new candid photography—unposed pictures that were made when the subjects were unaware that their pictures were being taken—confirmed these scientific results, and at the same time, thanks to the radical cropping (trimming) of images that the camera often imposed, suggested new compositional formats. The accidental effects obtained by candid photographers were soon being copied by artists such as the French painter Degas. 1. Which of the following is mentioned in paragraph 8 as a benefit that artists derived from photography? ○ It inspired artists to use technological themes in their painting. ○ It lent prestige to those artists who used photographs as models for paintings ○ It provided artists with new types of equipment to speed up the painting process. ○ It motivated artists to think about new ways to compose images in their paintings. 答案：D ************************************************************************************* The development of banking and other financial services contributed to the expansion of trade. By the middle of the sixteenth century, financiers and traders commonly accepted bills of exchange in place of gold or silver for other goods. Bills of exchange, which had their origins in medieval Italy, were promissory notes (written promises to pay a specified amount of money by a certain date) that could be sold to third parties. In this way, they provided credit. At mid-century, an Antwerp financier only slightly exaggerated when he claimed, “One can no more trade without bills of exchange than sail without water." Merchants no longer had to carry gold and silver over long, dangerous journeys. An Amsterdam merchant purchasing soap from a merchant in Marseille could go to an exchanger and pay the exchanger the equivalent sum in guilders, the Dutch currency. The exchanger would then send a bill of exchange to a colleague in Marseille, authorizing the colleague to pay the Marseille merchant in the merchant's own currency after the actual exchange of goods had taken place. 2. According to paragraph 6, merchants were able to avoid the risk of carrying large amounts of gold and silver by ○ using third parties in Marseille to buy goods for them ○ doing all their business by using Dutch currency ○ paying for their purchases through bills of exchange ○ waiting to pay for goods until the goods had been delivered 答案：C *************************************************************************************
      • 3. 题干存在【批判关系】，定位原文中的【转折关系】如：challenge/criticize/question/call into question/doubt...
        • There is evidence of agriculture in Africa prior to 3000 B.C. It may have developed independently, but many scholars believe that the spread of agriculture and iron throughout Africa linked it to the major centers of the Near East and Mediterranean world. The drying up of what is now the Sahara desert had pushed many peoples to the south into sub-Sahara Africa. These peoples settled at first in scattered hunting-and-gathering bands, although in some places near lakes and rivers, people who fished, with a more secure food supply, lived in larger population concentrations. 1. According to paragraph 1, why do researchers doubt that agriculture developed independently in Africa? ○ African lakes and rivers already provided enough food for people to survive without agriculture. ○ The earliest examples of cultivated plants discovered in Africa are native to Asia. ○ Africa’s native plants are very difficult to domesticate. ○ African communities were not large enough to support agriculture. 答案：B *************************************************************************************************** It has long been accepted that the Americas were colonized by a migration of peoples from Asia, slowly traveling across a land bridge called Beringia (now the Bering Strait between northeastern Asia and Alaska) during the last Ice Age. The first water craft theory about the migration was that around 11,000-12,000 years ago there was an ice-free corridor stretching from eastern Beringia to the areas of North America south of the great northern glaciers. It was the midcontinental corridor between two massive ice sheets-the Laurentide to the west-that enabled the southward migration. But belief in this ice-free corridor began to crumble when paleoecologist Glen MacDonald demonstrated that some of the most important radiocarbon dates used to support the existence of an ice-free corridor were incorrect. He persuasively argued that such an ice-free corridor did not exist until much later, when the continental ice began its final retreat. 2. According to paragraph 1, the theory that people first migrated to the Americans by way of an ice-free corridor was seriously called into question by ○ paleoecologist Glen MacDonald's argument that the original migration occurred much later than had previously been believed ○ the demonstration that certain previously accepted radiocarbon dates were incorrect ○ evidence that the continental ice began its final retreat much later than had previously been believed ○ research showing that the ice-free corridor was not as long lasting as had been widely assumed 答案：B ********************************************************************************* Paragraph 2: Clements and other early ecologists saw almost lawlike regularity in the order of succession, but that has not been substantiated. A general trend can be recognized, but the details are usually unpredictable. Succession is influenced by many factors: the nature of the soil, exposure to sun and wind, regularity of precipitation, chance colonizations, and many other random processes. 3. According to paragraph 2, which of the following is a criticism of Clements’ view of succession? ○ The principles of succession are more lawlike than Clements thought they are. ○ More evidence is needed to establish Clements’ predictions about succession. ○ The details of succession are affected by random processes. ○ Many of the factors that determine which plants will grow in an environment, such as the nature of the soil and the exposure to sun, do not change at all. 答案：C ********************************************************************************* Paragraph 5: Even less fortunate was the extension of this type of thinking to include animals as well as plants. This resulted in the "biome," a combination of coexisting flora and fauna. Though it is true that many animals are strictly associated with certain plants, it is misleading to speak of a "spruce-moose biome," for example, because there is no internal cohesion to their association as in an organism. The spruce community is not substantially affected by either the presence or absence of moose. Indeed, there are vast areas of spruce forest without moose. The opposition to the Clementsian concept of plant ecology was initiated by Herbert Gleason, soon joined by various other ecologists. Their major point was that the distribution of a given species was controlled by the habitat requirements of that species and that therefore the vegetation types were a simple consequence of the ecologies of individual plant species. 4. In paragraph 5, the author challenges the idea of a “biome” by noting that ○ there are usually no very strong connections among the plants and animals living in a place ○ plants and animals respond in the same way to the same circumstances ○ particular combinations of flora and fauna do not generally come about purely by chance ○ some animals are dependent on specific kinds of plants for food 答案：A *********************************************************************************
      • 4. 题干存在【比较关系】，定位原文中的【比较级/对比关系while/whereas...】如：compare/smaller...
        • In the wake of the Roman Empire's conquest of Britain in the first century A.D., a large number of troops stayed in the new province, and these troops had a considerable impact on Britain with their camps, fortifications, and participation in the local economy. Assessing the impact of the army on the civilian population starts from the realization that the soldiers were always unevenly distributed across the country. Areas rapidly incorporated into the empire were not long affected by the military. Where the army remained stationed, its presence was much more influential. The imposition of a military base involved the requisition of native lands for both the fort and the territory needed to feed and exercise the soldiers' animals. The imposition of military rule also robbed local leaders of opportunities to participate in local government, so social development was stunted and the seeds of disaffection sown. This then meant that the military had to remain to suppress rebellion and organize government. 1. According to paragraph 1, the Roman army had the most influence on those areas of Britain that were ○ conquered first ○ near population centers ○ used as military bases ○ rapidly incorporated into the empire 答案：C ***************************************************************************************************
      • 5. 原文存在【以上关系】，正确选项存在【以上关系】，但请注意原文到选项的反义同义替换和概括具体的同义替换
    • 3. 根据原文快速排除选项
      • 多出极端：如 only, always, all, until, unless, almost 最高级等
      • 多出比较：harder /faster /easier /more /larger /longer than....
        • ►The pottery of ancient Romans is remarkable in several ways. The high quality of Roman pottery is very easy to appreciate when handling actual pieces of table ware or indeed kitchenware and amphorae(the large jars used throughout the Mediterranean for the transport and storage of liquids, such as wine and oil). However, it is impossible to do justice to Roman wares on the page, even when words can be backed up by photographs and drawings. Most Roman pottery is light and smooth to the touch and very tough, although, like all pottery, it shatters if dropped on a hard surface. It is generall made with carefully selected and porified clay, worked to thin-walled and standardized shapes on a fast wheel and fired in a kiln(pottery oven) capable of ensuring a consistent finish. With handmade pottery, inevitably there are slight differences between individual vessels of the same desigh and occasional minor blemishe(flaws). But what strikes the eye and the touch most immediately and most powerfully with Roman pottery is its consistent high quality. Paragraph 1 indicates which of the following about Roman pottery? ○ Roman amphorae were of much higher quality overall than other Roman pottery. ○ Roman pottery can best be appreciated when actual pieces are handled. ○ Roman pottery declined slightly in quality when the use of fast wheels and kilns was introduced. ○ Roman practical tableware spread more rapidly across the Mediterranean than amphorae did. 答案：B *************************************************************************************
      • 多出否定：not/no/none/never/seldom/few/little/rarely/scarcely
        • 明显否定关系
          • no, not, none, neither, nor, never等
          • too…to/neither…nor/rather than/more...than.../than.../contrary to
          • fail to/unable to/reject/remove/refuse/decrease/reduce/disappear/lack of/ignore
          • little/few/small/incomplete/absent/missing/useless
        • 隐含否定关系
          • - 否定前缀a-, ab-, anti-, counter-, de-, dis-, il-, im-, in-, ir-, mal-, mis-, non-, un-
          • - 否定后缀-less, -free (ice-free, salt-free, useless)
      • 縮小或擴大概念：see, hear, feel => the range of visual field
    • 4. 细节题中跨段解题情况
  • 【3】作业及复习要点
    • 1. 紧抓题点快速主从主谓宾跳读
    • 2. 题干定位点及解题点位置关系
    • 3. 题干定位点与解题点逻辑关系
    • 4. 分析题干原文之间的同义替换
    • 5. 分析原文到正确答案同义替换
• 6. 目的题
  • 【1】目的题出题思路
    • 【1】题干形式
      • The author mentions/quotes/cites/uses/describes/discusses sty to/provide the information/ in order to...
    • 【2】题目类型
      • 【1】举例
        • 结构上： - TS.=> eg. - eg. => conclusion ►But neither the human imitative instinct nor a penchant for fantasy by itself leads to an autonomous theater. Therefore, additional explanations are needed. One necessary condition seems to be a somewhat detached view of human problems. For example, one sign of this condition is the appearance of the comic vision, since comedy requires sufficient detachment to view some deviations from social norms as ridiculous rather than as serious threats to the welfare of the entire group. Another condition that contributes to the development of autonomous theater is the emergence of the aesthetic sense. For example, some early societies ceased to consider certain rites essential to their well-being and abandoned them, nevertheless, they retained as parts of their oral tradition the myths that had grown up around the rites and admired them for their artistic qualities rather than for their religious usefulness. 1. Why does the author mention “comedy”? ○ To give an example of early types of theater ○ To explain how theater helps a society respond to threats to its welfare ○ To help explain why detachment is needed for the development of theater ○ To show how theatrical performers become detached from other members of society. 答案：C ***************************************************************************************** ►In the study of perceptual abilities of infants, a number of techniques are used to determine infants' responses to various stimuli. Because they cannot verbalize or fill out questionnaires, indirect techniques of naturalistic observation are used as the primary means of determining what infants can see, hear, feel, and so forth. Each of these methods compares an infant's state prior to the introduction of a stimulus with its state during or immediately following the stimulus. The difference between the two measures provides the researcher with an indication of the level and duration of the response to the stimulus. For example, if a uniformly moving pattern of some sort is passed across the visual field of a neonate (newborn), repetitive following movements of the eye occur. The occurrence of these eye movements provides evidence that the moving pattern is perceived at some level by the newborn. Similarly, changes in the infant's general level of motor activity —turning the head, blinking the eyes, crying, and so forth — have been used by researchers as visual indicators of the infant's perceptual abilities. 2. Why does the author mention repetitive following movements of the eye? ○ To identify a response that indicates a neonate's perception of a stimulus ○ To explain why a neonate is capable of responding to stimuli only through repetitive movements ○ To argue that motor activity in a neonate may be random and unrelated to stimuli ○ To emphasize that responses to stimuli vary in infants according to age 答案：A *****************************************************************************************
        • 题量20%——例子本身不重要，例子所论证的对象才重要：for examle/instance——瞻前顾后，外加自恋
      • 【2】类比
        • ►Even the kind of stability defined as simple lack of change is not always associated with maximum diversity. At least in temperate zones, maximum diversity is often found in mid-successional stages, not in the climax community. Once a redwood forest matures, for example, the kinds of species and the number of individuals growing on the forest floor are reduced. In general, diversity, by itself, does not ensure stability. Mathematical models of ecosystems likewise suggest that diversity does not guarantee ecosystem stability—just the opposite, in fact. A more complicated system is, in general, more likely than a simple system to break down. (A fifteen-speed racing bicycle is more likely to break down than a child’s tricycle.) 1. In paragraph 5, why does the author provide the information that (A fifteen-speed racing bicycle is more likely to break down than a child’s tricycle)? ○ To illustrate a general principle about the stability of systems by using an everyday example ○ To demonstrate that an understanding of stability in ecosystems can be applied to help understand stability in other situations ○ To make a comparison that supports the claim that, in general, stability increases with diversity ○ To provide an example that contradicts mathematical models of ecosystems 答案：A ***************************************************************************************** ►Growth, reproduction, and daily metabolism all require an organism to expend energy. The expenditure of energy is essentially a process of budgeting, just as finances are budgeted. If all of one’s money is spent on clothes, there may be none left to buy food or go to the movies. Similarly, a plant or animal cannot squander all its energy on growing a big body if none would be left over for reproduction, for this is the surest way to extinction. 2. In paragraph 1, the author explains the concept of energy expenditure by ○ Identifying types of organisms that became extinct ○ Comparing the scientific concept to a familiar human experience ○ Arguing that most organisms conserve rather than expend energy ○ Describing the processes of growth, reproduction, and metabolism 答案：B ***************************************************************************************** ►In a countercurrent exchange system, the blood vessels carrying cooled blood from the flippers run close enough to the blood vessels carrying warm blood from the body to pick up some heat from the warmer blood vessels; thus, the heat is transferred from the outgoing to the ingoing vessels before it reaches the flipper itself. This is the same arrangement found in an old-fashioned steam radiator, in which the coiled pipes pass heat back and forth as water courses through them. The leatherback is certainly not the only animal with such an arrangement; gulls have a countercurrent exchange in their legs. That is why a gull can stand on an ice floe without freezing. 3. Why does the author mention old-fashioned steam radiator in the discussion of countercurrent exchange systems? ○To argue that a turtle's central heating system is not as highly evolved as that of other warmblooded animals ○To provide a useful comparison with which to illustrate how a countercurrent exchange system works ○To suggest that steam radiators were modeled after the sophisticated heating system of turtles ○To establish the importance of the movement of water in countercurrent exchange systems 答案：B ***************************************************************************************** ►How are we to understand their different feeding preferences? The answer lies in two associated differences among the species, in their digestive systems and body sizes. According to their digestive systems, these herbivores can be divided into two categories: the nonruminants (such as the zebra, which has a digestive system like a horse) and the ruminants (such as the wildebeest, topi, and gazelle, which are like the cow). Nonruminants cannot extract much energy from the hard parts of a plant; however, this is more than made up for by the fast speed at which food passes through their guts. Thus, when there is only a short supply of poor-quality food, the wildebeest, topi, and gazelle enjoy an advantage. They are ruminants and have a special structure (the rumen) in their stomachs, which contains microorganisms that can break down the hard parts of plants. Food passes only slowly through the ruminant’s gut because ruminating — digesting the hard parts—takes time. The ruminant continually regurgitates food from its stomach back to its mouth to chew it up further (that is what a cow is doing when “chewing cud”). Only when it has been chewed up and digested almost to a liquid can the food pass through the rumen and on through the gut. Larger particles cannot pass through until they have been chewed down to size. Therefore, when food is in short supply, a ruminant can last longer than a nonruminant because it can derive more energy out of the same food. The difference can partially explain the eating habits of the Serengeti herbivores. The zebra chooses areas where there is more low-quality food. It migrates first to unexploited areas and chomps the abundant low-quality stems before moving on. The author mentions the cow and the horse in paragraph 2 in order to ○ distinguish the functioning of their digestive systems from those of East African animals ○ emphasize that their relatively large body size leads them to have feeding practices similar to those of East African mammals ○ illustrate differences between ruminants and nonruminants through the use of animals likely to be familiar to most readers ○ emphasize similarities between the diets of cows and horses and the diets of East African mammals 答案：C *****************************************************************************************
        • 题量10%——不同种类的AB相比较，用于对抽象学科概念【生动形象解释】，超喜歡兩個詞：illustrate/compare - 從未知到已知
      • 【3】比较
        • ►The mobility of pastoralist societies reflects their dependence on animal-based foods. While agriculturalists rely on domesticated plants, pastoralists rely on domesticated animals. As a result, pastoralists, like carnivores in general, occupy a higher position on the food chain. All else being equal, this means they must exploit larger areas of land than do agriculturalists to secure the same amount of food, clothing, and other necessities. So pastoralism is a more extensive lifeway than farming is. However, the larger the terrain used to support a group, the harder it is to exploit that terrain while remaining in one place. So, basic ecological principles imply a strong tendency within pastoralist lifeways toward nomadism (a mobile lifestyle). As the archaeologist Roger Cribb puts it, The greater the degree of pastoralism, the stronger the tendency toward nomadism. A modern Turkic nomad interviewed by Cribb commented: "The more animals you have, the farther you have to move." 1. In paragraph 2, why does the author contrast pastoralists with agriculturalists? ○ To explain why pastoralism requires more land than agriculturalism to support basic needs ○ To identify some advantages that mobile societies have over immobile societies ○ To demonstrate that ecological principles that apply to pastoralism do not apply to agriculturalism ○ To argue that agriculturalism eventually developed out of pastoralism 答案：A ***************************************************************************************** ►The great height of Martian volcanoes is a direct consequence of the planet’s low surface gravity. As lava flows and spreads to form a shield volcano, the volcano’s eventual height depends on the new mountain’s ability to support its own weight. The lower the gravity, the lesser the weight and the greater the height of the mountain. It is no accident that Maxwell Mons on Venus and the Hawaiian shield volcanoes on Earth rise to about the same height (about 10 kilometers) above their respective bases-Earth and Venus have similar surface gravity. Mars’s surface gravity is only 40 percent that of Earth, so volcanoes rise roughly 2.5 times as high. Are the Martian shield volcanoes still active? Scientists have no direct evidence for recent or ongoing eruptions, but if these volcanoes were active as recently as 100 million years ago (an estimate of the time of last eruption based on the extent of impact cratering on their slopes), some of them may still be at least intermittently active. Millions of years, though, may pass between eruptions. 2. In paragraph 3, why does the author compare Maxwell Mons on Venus to the Hawaiian shield volcanoes on Earth? ○ To help explain the relationship between surface gravity and volcano height ○ To explain why Mars’s surface gravity is only 40 percent of Earth’s ○ To point out differences between the surface gravity of Earth and the surface gravity of Venus ○ To argue that there are more similarities than differences between volcanoes on different planets 答案：A *****************************************************************************************
        • 题量10%——同种类A和B相比较或对比；对比之前的原因，或对比之后的总结为答案
      • 【4】陈述
        • ►There is still no universally agreed on explanation for why there should be such a dramatic cessation of tree growth at the upper timberline. Various environmental factors may play a role.Too much snow, for example, can smother trees, and avalanches and snow creep can damage or destroy them. Late-lying snow reduces the effective growing season to the point where cannot establish themselves. Wind velocity also increases with altitude and may cause serious stress for trees, as is made evident by the deformed shapes at high altitudes. Some scientists have proposed that the presence of increasing levels of ultraviolet light with elevation may play a role, while browsing and grazing animals like the ibex may be another contributing factor. Probably the most important environmental factor is temperature, for if the growing season is too short and temperatures are too low, tree shoots and buds cannot mature sufficiently to survive the winter months. 1. In paragraph 4, what is the author’s main purpose in the discussion of the dramatic cessation of tree growth at the upper timberline? ○ To argue that none of several environment factors that are believed to contribute to that phenomenon do in fact play a role in causing it. ○ To argue in support of one particular explanation of that phenomenon against several competing explanations. ○ To explain why the primary environmental factor responsible for that phenomenon has not yet been identified. ○ To present several environmental factors that may contribute to a satisfactory explanation of that phenomenon. 答案：D ***************************************************************************************** ►Much of the world’s great architecture has been constructed of stone because of its beauty, permanence, and availability. In the past, whole cities grew from the arduous task of cutting and piling stone upon. Some of the world’s finest stone architecture can be seen in the ruins of the ancient Inca city of Machu Picchu high in the eastern Andes Mountains of Peru. The doorways and windows are made possible by placing over the open spaces thick stone beams that support the weight from above. A structural invention had to be made before the physical limitations of stone could be overcome and new architectural forms could be created. That invention was the arch, a curved structure originally made of separate stone or brick segments. The arch was used by the early cultures of the Mediterranean area chiefly for underground drains, but it was the Romans who first developed and used the arch extensively in aboveground structures. Roman builders perfected the semicircular arch made of separate blocks of stone. As a method of spanning space, the arch can support greater weight than a horizontal beam. It works in compression to divert the weight above it out to the sides, where the weight is borne by the vertical elements on either side of the arch. 2. Why does the author include a description of how the “doorways and windows” of Machu Picchu were constructed? ○ To indicate that the combined skeletons and skins of the stone buildings of Machu Picchu were similar to igloos and adobe structures ○ To indicate the different kinds of stones that had to be cut to build Machu Picchu ○ To provide an illustration of the kind of construction that was required before arches were invented ○ To explain how ancient builders reduced the amount of time necessary to construct buildings from stone. 答案：C ***************************************************************************************** ►Tools themselves can be revealing. Long-handed Neolithic spoons of yew wood preserved in Alpine villages dating to 3000 B.C. have survived; the signs of rubbing on their left side indicate that their users were right-handed. The late Ice Age rope found in the French cave of Lascaux consists of fibers spiraling to the right, and was therefore tressed by a righthander. 3. In paragraph 5, why does the author mention the Ice Age rope found in the French cave of Lascaux? ○ As an example of an item on which the marks of wear imply that it was used by a right-handed person ○ Because tressing is an activity that is easier for a right-handed person than for a left-handed person ○ Because the cave of Lascaux is the site where researchers have found several prehistoric tools made for right-handed people ○ As an example of an item whose construction shows that it was right handed made by a right-person 答案：D *****************************************************************************************
        • 题量60%——不是举例、类比和比较；答案位置【可前/可后/可句中】; 段落大意(段首/次句/段中總結), 可作为验证选项参考
  • 【2】目的题解题思路
    • 【1】正确答案的常见位置
      • 1. 前后句关系紧密——题点前后为答案
        • 题点前句+段落中心 ►But neither the human imitative instinct nor a penchant for fantasy by itself leads to an autonomous theater. Therefore, additional explanations are needed. One necessary condition seems to be a somewhat detached view of human problems. For example, one sign of this condition is the appearance of the comic vision, since comedy requires sufficient detachment to view some deviations from social norms as ridiculous rather than as serious threats to the welfare of the entire group. Another condition that contributes to the development of autonomous theater is the emergence of the aesthetic sense. For example, some early societies ceased to consider certain rites essential to their well-being and abandoned them, nevertheless, they retained as parts of their oral tradition the myths that had grown up around the rites and admired them for their artistic qualities rather than for their religious usefulness. ❤ 1. Why does the author mention “comedy”? ○ To give an example of early types of theater ○ To explain how theater helps a society respond to threats to its welfare ○ To help explain why detachment is needed for the development of theater ○ To show how theatrical performers become detached from other members of society. 答案：C ***************************************************************************************************** ►The first wells were drilled into the Ogallala during the drought years of the early 1930’s. The ensuing rapid expansion of irrigation agriculture, especially from the 1950’s onward, transformed the economy of the region. More than 100,000 wells now tap the Ogallala. Modern irrigation devices, each capable of spraying 4.5 million liters of water a day, have produced a landscape dominated by geometric patterns of circular green islands of crops. Ogallala water has enabled the High Plains region to supply significant amounts of the cotton, sorghum, wheat, and corn grown in the United States. In addition, 40 percent of American grain-fed beef cattle are fattened here. ❤ 2. In paragraph 3, why does the author provide the information that 40 percent of American cattle are fattened in the High Plains? ○ To suggest that crop cultivation is not the most important part of the economy of the High Plains ○ To indicate that not all economic activity in the High Plains is dependent on irrigation ○ To provide another example of how water from the Ogallala has transformed the economy of the High Plains ○ To contrast cattle - fattening practices in the High Plains with those used in other region of the United States 答案：C ************************************************************************************************************ ►Only recently have investigators considered using these plants to clean up soil and waste sites that have been contaminated by toxic levels of heavy metals – an environmentally friendly approach known as phytoremediation. This scenario begins with the planting of hyper accumulating species in the target area, such as an abandoned mine or an irrigation pond contaminated by runoff. Toxic minerals would first be absorbed by roots but later relocated to the stem and leaves. A harvest of the shoots would remove the toxic compounds off site to be burned or composted to recover the metal for industrial uses. After several years of cultivation and harvest, the site would be restored at a cost much lower than the price of excavation and reburial, the standard practice for remediation of contaminated soils. For examples, in field trials, the plant alpine pennycress removed zinc and cadmium from soils near a zinc smelter, and Indian mustard, native to Pakistan and India, has been effective in reducing levels of selenium salts by 50 percent in contaminated soils. ❤❤ 3. Why does the author mention Indian mustard? ○ To warn about possible risks involved in phytoremediation ○ To help illustrate the potential of phytoremediation ○ To show that hyper accumulating plants grow in many regions of the world ○ To explain how zinc contamination can be reduced. 答案：B ************************************************************************************************************ ►The picture of Teotihuacán that emerges is a classic picture of positive feedback among obsidian mining and working, trade, population growth, irrigation, and religious tourism. The thriving obsidian operation, for example, would necessitate more miners, additional manufacturers of obsidian tools, and additional traders to carry the goods to new markets. All this led to increased wealth, which in turn would attract more immigrants to Teotihuacán. The growing power of the elite, who controlled the economy, would give them the means to physically coerce people to move to Teotihuacán and serve as additions to the labor force. More irrigation works would have to be built to feed the growing population, and this resulted in more power and wealth for the elite. ❤❤ 4. In paragraph 6, the author discusses the “The thriving obsidian operation” in order to ○ explain why manufacturing was the main industry of Teotihuacán ○ give an example of an industry that took very little time to develop in Teotihuacán ○ Illustrate how several factors influenced each other to make Teotihuacán a powerful and wealthy city ○ explain how a successful industry can be a source of wealth and a source of conflict at the same time 答案：C ************************************************************************************************************ ►The subjects of the paintings are mostly animals. The paintings rest on bare walls, with no backdrops or environmental trappings. Perhaps, like many contemporary peoples, Upper Paleolithic men and women believed that the drawing of a human image could cause death or injury, and if that were indeed their belief, it might explain why human figures are rarely depicted in cave art. Another explanation for the focus on animals might be that these people sought to improve their luck at hunting. This theory is suggested by evidence of chips in the painted figures, perhaps made by spears thrown at the drawings. But if improving their hunting luck was the chief motivation for the paintings, it is difficult to explain why only a few show signs of having been speared. Perhaps the paintings were inspired by the need to increase the supply of animals. Cave art seems to have reached a peak toward the end of the Upper Paleolithic period, when the herds of game were decreasing. ❤ 5. Why does the author mention that Upper Paleolithic cave art seemed to have “reached a peak toward the end of the Upper Paleolithic period, when the herds of game were decreasing”? ○ To argue that Upper Paleolithic art creased to include animals when herds of game became scarce ○ To provide support for the idea that the aim of the paintings was to increase the supply of animals for hunting ○ To emphasize the continued improvement in the quality of cave art throughout the Upper Paleolithic period ○ To show the direct connection between the decrease in herds of game and the end of the Upper Paleolithic period 答案：B ************************************************************************************************************ ►Reduction in numbers of game should have boded ill for their survival in later times. A worsening of the plight of deer was to be expected as settlers encroached on the land, logging, burning, and clearing, eventually replacing a wilderness landscape with roads, cities, towns, and factories. No doubt the numbers of deer declined still further. Recall the fate of the Columbian white-tailed deer, now in a protected status. But for the black-tailed deer, human pressure has had just the opposite effect. Wild life zoologist Hulmut Buechner (1953), in reviewing the nature of biotic changes in Washington through recorded time, Says that "since the early 1940s, the state has had more deer than at any other time in its history, the winter population fluctuating around approximately 320,000 deer (mule and black-tailed deer), which will yield about 65,000 of either sex and any age annually for an indefinite period." ❤ 6. Why does the author ask readers to recall “the fate of the Columbian white-tailed deer” in the discussion of changes in the wilderness landscape? ○ To provide support for the idea that habitat destruction would lead to population decline ○ To compare how two species of deer caused biotic changes in the wilderness environment ○ To provide an example of a species of deer that has successfully adapted to human settlement ○ To argue that some deer species must be given a protected status. 答案：A ************************************************************************************************************ ►The great height of Martian volcanoes is a direct consequence of the planet’s low surface gravity. As lava flows and spreads to form a shield volcano, the volcano’s eventual height depends on the new mountain’s ability to support its own weight. The lower the gravity, the lesser the weight and the greater the height of the mountain. It is no accident that Maxwell Mons on Venus and the Hawaiian shield volcanoes on Earth rise to about the same height (about 10 kilometers) above their respective bases-Earth and Venus have similar surface gravity. Mars’s surface gravity is only 40 percent that of Earth, so volcanoes rise roughly 2.5 times as high. Are the Martian shield volcanoes still active? Millions of years, though, may pass between eruptions. ❤ 7. In paragraph 3, why does the author compare Maxwell Mons on Venus to the Hawaiian shield volcanoes on Earth? ○ To help explain the relationship between surface gravity and volcano height ○ To explain why Mars’s surface gravity is only 40 percent of Earth’s ○ To point out differences between the surface gravity of Earth and the surface gravity of Venus ○ To argue that there are more similarities than differences between volcanoes on different planets 答案：A ********************************************************************************************************** ► In seeking to describe the origins of theater, one must rely primarily on speculation, since there is little concrete evidence on which to draw. The most widely accepted theory, championed by anthropologists in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, envisions theater as emerging out of myth and ritual. The process perceived by these anthropologists may be summarized briefly. During the early stages of its development, a society becomes aware of forces that appear to influence or control its food supply and well-being. Having little understanding of natural causes, it attributes both desirable and undesirable occurrences to supernatural or magical forces, and it searches for means to win the favor of these forces. Perceiving an apparent connection between certain actions performed by the group and the result it desires, the group repeats, refines and formalizes those actions into fixed ceremonies, or rituals. 细节题8. According to paragraph 1, why did some societies develop and repeat ceremonial actions? ○ To establish a positive connection between the members of the society ○ To help society members better understand the forces controlling their food supply ○ To distinguish their beliefs from those of other societies ○ To increase the society’s prosperity 答案：D ************************************************************************************************************ ►In the study of perceptual abilities of infants, a number of techniques are used to determine infants' responses to various stimuli. Because they cannot verbalize or fill out questionnaires, indirect techniques of naturalistic observation are used as the primary means of determining what infants can see, hear, feel, and so forth. Each of these methods compares an infant's state prior to the introduction of a stimulus with its state during or immediately following the stimulus. The difference between the two measures provides the researcher with an indication of the level and duration of the response to the stimulus. For example, if a uniformly moving pattern of some sort is passed across the visual field of a neonate (newborn), repetitive following movements of the eye occur. The occurrence of these eye movements provides evidence that the moving pattern is perceived at some level by the newborn. Similarly, changes in the infant's general level of motor activity —turning the head, blinking the eyes, crying, and so forth — have been used by researchers as visual indicators of the infant's perceptual abilities. ❤9. Why does the author mention repetitive following movements of the eye? ○ To identify a response that indicates a neonate's perception of a stimulus ○ To explain why a neonate is capable of responding to stimuli only through repetitive movements ○ To argue that motor activity in a neonate may be random and unrelated to stimuli ○ To emphasize that responses to stimuli vary in infants according to age 答案：A ***************************************************************************************** ►A third fossil formation containing both soft-bodied and hard-bodied animals provides evidence of the result of the Cambrian explosion. This fossil formation, called the Burgess Shale, is in Yoho National Park in the Canadian Rocky Mountains of British Columbia. Shortly after the Cambrian explosion, mud slides rapidly buried thousands of marine animals under conditions that favored fossilization. These fossil beds provide evidence of about 32 modern animal groups, plus about 20 other animal body forms that are so different from any modern animals that they cannot be assigned to any one of the modern groups. These unassignable animals include a large swimming predator called Anomalocaris and a soft-bodied animal called Wiwaxia, which ate detritus or algae. The Burgess Shale formation also has fossils of many extinct representatives of modern animal groups. For example, a well-known Burgess Shale animal called Sidneyia is a representative of a previously unknown group of arthropods (a category of animals that includes insects, spiders, mites, and crabs). ❤ 10. Why does the author mention Anomalocans and Wiwaxia? ○ To contrast predators with animals that eat plants such as algae ○ To question the effects of rapid mud slides on fossilization ○ To suggest that much is still unknown about animals found in the Burgess Shale ○ To provide examples of fossils that cannot be assigned to a modern animal group 答案：D ********************************************************************************************************** ►Even less fortunate was the extension of this type of thinking to include animals as well as plants. This resulted in the "biome," a combination of coexisting flora and fauna. Though it is true that many animals are strictly associated with certain plants, it is misleading to speak of a "spruce-moose biome," for example, because there is no internal cohesion to their association as in an organism. The spruce community is not substantially affected by either the presence or absence of moose. Indeed, there are vast areas of spruce forest without moose . The opposition to the Clementsian concept of plant ecology was initiated by Herbert Gleason, soon joined by various other ecologists. Their major point was that the distribution of a given species was controlled by the habitat requirements of that species and that therefore the vegetation types were a simple consequence of the ecologies of individual plant species. ❤❤❤ 11. Why does the author make the statement, “Indeed, there are vast areas of spruce forest without moose” ? ○ To highlight a fact whose significance the ecologist Herbert Gleason had missed ○ To propose the idea that a spruce forest is by itself a superorganism ○ To emphasize that moose are not limited to a single kind of environment ○ To criticize the idea of a spruce-moose biome 答案：D ********************************************************************************************************** ►The story of the westward movement of population in the United States is, in the main, the story of the expansion of American agriculture—of the development of new areas for the raising of livestock and the cultivation of wheat, corn, tobacco, and cotton. After 1815 improved transportation enabled more and more western farmers to escape a self-sufficient way of life and enter a national market economy. During periods when commodity prices were high, the rate of westward migration increased spectacularly. "Old America seemed to be breaking up and moving westward," observed an English visitor in 1817,during the first great wave of migration. Emigration to the West reached a peak in the 1830's. Whereas in 1810 only a seventh of the American people lived west of the Appalachian Mountains, by 1840 more than a third lived there. ❤❤ 12. What is the purpose of the statement, “Whereas in 1810 only a seventh of the American people lived west of the Appalachian Mountains, by 1840 more than a third lived there”? ○ To illustrate that generally population shifts occur rapidly ○ To correct a mistaken impression of American agriculture from 1810 to 1840 ○ To emphasize the range and speed with which the westward migration occurred ○ To demonstrated how attractive the Appalachian Mountains were to Americans 答案：C ********************************************************************************************************** ►The term "fossil" often implies petrifaction, literally a transformation into stone. After the death of an organism, the soft tissue is ordinarily consumed by scavengers and bacteria. The empty shell of a snail or clam may be left behind, and if it is sufficiently durable and resistant to dissolution, it may remain basically unchanged for a long period of time. Indeed, unaltered shells of marine invertebrates are known from deposits over 100 million years old. In many marine creatures, however, the skeleton is composed of a mineral variety of calcium carbonate called aragonite. Although aragonite has the same composition as the more familiar mineral known as calcite, it has a different crystal form, is relatively unstable, and in time changes to the more stable calcite. ❤❤❤ 13.Why does the author mention "aragonite" in the passage? ○ To emphasize that some fossils remain unaltered for millions of years ○ To contrast fossil formation in organisms with soft tissue and in organisms with hard shells ○ To explain that some marine organisms must undergo chemical changes in order to fossilize ○ To explain why fossil shells are more likely to survive than are fossil skeletons 答案：C ********************************************************************************************************** ►When the German chemist Lothar Meyer and (independently) the Russian Dmitry Mendeleyev first introduced the periodic table in 1869-70, one-third of the naturally occurring chemical elements had not yet been discovered. Yet both chemists were sufficiently farsighted to leave gaps where their analyses of periodic physical and chemical properties indicated that new elements should be located. Mendeleyev was bolder than Meyer and even assumed that if a measured atomic mass put an element in the wrong place in the table, the atomic mass was wrong. In some cases this was true. Indium, for example, had previously been assigned an atomic mass between those of arsenic and selenium. Because there is no space in the periodic table between these two elements, Mendeleyev suggested that the atomic mass of indium be changed to a completely different value, where it would fill an empty space between cadmium and tin. In fact, subsequent work has shown that in a periodic table, elements should not be ordered strictly by atomic mass. For example, tellurium comes before iodine in the periodic table, even though its atomic mass is slightly greater. Such anomalies are due to the relative abundance of the "isotopes" or varieties of each element. All the isotopes of a given element have the same number of protons, but differ in their number of neutrons, and hence in their atomic mass. The isotopes of a given element have the same chemical properties but slightly different physical properties. We now know that atomic number (the number of protons in the nucleus), not atomic mass number (the number of protons and neutrons), determines chemical behavior. ❤❤ 14. In paragraph 2, what is the author's purpose in presenting the information about the decision by Meyer and Mendeleyev to leave gaps in the periodic table? ○ To illustrate their confidence that the organizing principles of the periodic table would govern the occurrence of all chemical elements ○ To indicate that some of their analyses of periodic physical and chemical properties were later found to be wrong ○ To support the idea that they were unwilling to place new elements in the periodic table ○ To indicate how they handled their disagreement about where to place new elements 答案：A ********************************************************************************************************** 题点后句+段落中心 ►There is still no universally agreed on explanation for why there should be such a dramatic cessation of tree growth at the upper timberline. Various environmental factors may play a role. Too much snow, for example, can smother trees, and avalanches and snow creep can damage or destroy them. Late-lying snow reduces the effective growing season to the point where cannot establish themselves. Wind velocity also increases with altitude and may cause serious stress for trees, as is made evident by the deformed shapes at high altitudes. Some scientists have proposed that the presence of increasing levels of ultraviolet light with elevation may play a role, while browsing and grazing animals like the ibex may be another contributing factor. ❤ 1. In paragraph 4, what is the author’s main purpose in the discussion of the dramatic cessation of tree growth at the upper timberline? ○ To argue that none of several environment factors that are believed to contribute to that phenomenon do in fact play a role in causing it. ○ To argue in support of one particular explanation of that phenomenon against several competing explanations. ○ To explain why the primary environmental factor responsible for that phenomenon has not yet been identified. ○ To present several environmental factors that may contribute to a satisfactory explanation of that phenomenon. 答案：D ******************************************************************************************************** ►Much of the world’s great architecture has been constructed of stone because of its beauty, permanence, and availability. In the past, whole cities grew from the arduous task of cutting and piling stone upon. Some of the world’s finest stone architecture can be seen in the ruins of the ancient Inca city of Machu Picchu high in the eastern Andes Mountains of Peru. The doorways and windows are made possible by placing over the open spaces thick stone beams that support the weight from above. A structural invention had to be made before the physical limitations of stone could be overcome and new architectural forms could be created. That invention was the arch, a curved structure originally made of separate stone or brick segments. The arch was used by the early cultures of the Mediterranean area chiefly for underground drains, but…. ❤❤ 2. Why does the author include a description of how the “doorways and windows” of Machu Picchu were constructed? ○ To indicate that the combined skeletons and skins of the stone buildings of Machu Picchu were similar to igloos and adobe structures ○ To indicate the different kinds of stones that had to be cut to build Machu Picchu ○ To provide an illustration of the kind of construction that was required before arches were invented ○ To explain how ancient builders reduced the amount of time necessary to construct buildings from stone. 答案：C ******************************************************************************************************** ►Modern attitudes to Roman civilization range from the infinitely impressed to the thorough disgusted. As always, there are the power worshippers, especially among historians, who are predisposed to admire whatever is strong, who feel more attracted to the might of Rome than to the subtlety of Greece. At the same time, there is a solid body of opinion that dislikes Rome. For many, Rome is at best the imitator and the continuator of Greece on a larger scale. Greek civilization had quality; Rome, mere quantity. Greece was the inventor; Rome, the research and development division. Such indeed was the opinion of some of the more intellectual Romans.” had the Greeks held novelty in such disdain as we,” asked Horace in his Epistle, “what work of ancient date would now exist?” ❤❤ 3. In paragraph 4, the author develops a description of Roman civilization by ○ comparing the opinions of Roman intellectuals to Greek intellectuals ○ identifying which characteristics of roman civilization were copied from Greece ○ explaining how the differences between Roman and Greece developed as time passed ○ contrasting characteristics of Roman civilization with characteristics of Greek civilization 答案：D ************************************************************************************************************ ►In the 1970s when the study of Australian archaeology was in an exciting phase of development, with the great antiquity of rock art becoming clear, Lesley Maynard, the archaeologist who coined the phrase “Panaramitee style,” suggested that a sequence could be determined for Australian rock art, in which a geometric style gave way to a simple figurative style (outlines of figures and animals), followed by a range of complex figurative styles that, unlike the pan-Australian geometric tradition tended to much greater regional diversity. While accepting that this sequence fits the archaeological profile of those sites, which were occupied continuously over many thousands of years, a number of writers have warned that the underlying assumption of such a sequence—a development from the simple and the geometric to the complex and naturalistic—obscures the cultural continuities in Aboriginal Australia, in which geometric symbolism remains fundamentally important. In this context the simplicity of a geometric motif may be more apparent than real. Motifs of seeming simplicity can encode complex meanings in Aboriginal Australia. And has not twentieth-century art shown that naturalism does not necessarily follow abstraction in some kind of predetermine sequence? ❤❤❤ 4. In paragraph 5, the author indicates that twentieth century art has shown that naturalism does not necessarily follow abstraction in some kind of predetermined sequence in order to ○ emphasize that it may not be possible to determine what the figures in ancient rock art represent ○ suggest a reply to those who have questioned Maynard’s interpretation of the sequence of Australian rock art ○ provide a counterexample to Maynard’s interpretation of the sequence of Australian rock art ○ indicate that twentieth century art is more advanced than ancient rock art 答案：C ******************************************************************************************************** ►The mobility of pastoralist societies reflects their dependence on animal-based foods. While agriculturalists rely on domesticated plants, pastoralists rely on domesticated animals. As a result, pastoralists, like carnivores in general, occupy a higher position on the food chain. All else being equal, this means they must exploit larger areas of land than do agriculturalists to secure the same amount of food, clothing, and other necessities. So pastoralism is a more extensive lifeway than farming is. However, the larger the terrain used to support a group, the harder it is to exploit that terrain while remaining in one place. So, basic ecological principles imply a strong tendency within pastoralist lifeways toward nomadism (a mobile lifestyle). As the archaeologist Roger Cribb puts it, The greater the degree of pastoralism, the stronger the tendency toward nomadism. A modern Turkic nomad interviewed by Cribb commented: "The more animals you have, the farther you have to move." ❤ 5. In paragraph 2, why does the author contrast pastoralists with agriculturalists? ○ To explain why pastoralism requires more land than agriculturalism to support basic needs ○ To identify some advantages that mobile societies have over immobile societies ○ To demonstrate that ecological principles that apply to pastoralism do not apply to agriculturalism ○ To argue that agriculturalism eventually developed out of pastoralism 答案：A ******************************************************************************************************** ►Another prominent feature of Mars’s surface is cratering. The Mariner spacecraft found that the surface of Mars, as well as that of its two moons, is pitted with impact craters formed by meteoroids falling in from space. As on our Moon, the smaller craters are often filled with surface matter-mostly dust-confirming that Mars is a dry desert world. However, Martian craters get filled in considerably faster than their lunar counterparts. On the Moon, ancient craters less than 100 meters across (corresponding to depths of about 20 meters) have been obliterated, primarily by meteoritic erosion. On Mars, there are relatively few craters less than 5 kilometers in diameter. The Martian atmosphere is an efficient erosive agent, with Martian winds transporting dust from place to place and erasing surface features much faster than meteoritic impacts alone can obliterate them. ❤ 6. In paragraph 4, why does the author point out that Mars has few ancient craters that are less than 5 kilometers in diameter? ○ To explain why scientists believe that the surface matter filling Martian craters is mostly dust ○ To explain why scientists believe that the impact craters on Mars were created by meteoroids ○ To support the claim that the Martian atmosphere is an efficient erosive agent ○ To argue that Mars experienced fewer ancient impacts than the Moon did 答案：C ******************************************************************************************************** ►Most of the world’s potable water-freshwater suitable for drinking-is accounted for by groundwater, which is stored in the pores and fractures in rocks. There is more than 50 times as much freshwater stored underground than in all the freshwater rivers and lakes at the surface. Nearly 50 percent of all groundwater is stored in the upper 1,000 meters of Earth. At greater depths within Earth, the pressure of the overlying rock causes pores and cracks to close, reducing the space that pore water can occupy, and almost complete closure occurs at a depth of about 10 kilometers. The greatest water storage, therefore, lies near the surface. 7. In paragraph 1, why does the author mention “the pressure of the overlying rock”? ○ To show how water can be forced deep under Earth’s surface ○ To show why groundwater is more plentiful than surface freshwater ○ To correct a commonly made error about the location of groundwater ○ To explain why most groundwater lies near Earth’s surface 答案：D ******************************************************************************************************** ►Roman pottery was transported not only in large quantities but also over substantial distances. Many Roman pots, in particular amphorae and the fine wares designed for use at tables, could travel hundreds of miles—all over the Mediterranean and also further afield. But maps that show the various spots where Roman pottery of a particular type has been found tell only part of the story. What is more significant than any geographical spread is the access that different levels of society had to good-quality products. In all but remotest regions of the empire, Roman pottery of a high standard is common at the sites of humble villages and isolated farmsteads. 8. The statement that maps “show the various spots where Roman pottery of a particular type has been found tell only part of the story” makes the point that ○ Maps indicate where specific pottery styles have been found, but they do not indicate where these styles originated ○ Maps show the geographical spread of Roman pottery but not the people who had access to it ○ Maps do not usually include pottery styles found in the remotest regions of the Roman Empire ○ Archaeologists studying Roman pottery need to use a range of techniques in their investigations 答案：B ********************************************************************************************************
        • 【1】题点句和前后句构成【指代解释】
        • 【2】題點句明显举例：For example/instance等
        • 【3】题点句和前后句直接构成逻辑关系: 前后因果/转折/比较
      • 2. 句内逻辑或标点——题点句中出答案
        • 對於句中目的的考核： 1. X A, 可能B ►Scholars offer three related but different opinions about the mysterious origin and significance of these paintings. One opinion is that the paintings were a record of seasonal migrations made by herds. Because some paintings were made directly over others, obliterating them, it is probable that a painting’s value ended with the migration it pictured. Unfortunately, this explanation fails to explain the hidden locations, unless the migrations were celebrated with secret ceremonies. ❤ 1. Why does the author mention secret ceremonies? ○ To present a common opinion held by many scholars ○ To suggest a similarity between two opinions held by scholars ○ To suggest a possible explanation for a weakness in an opinion expressed in the passage ○ To give evidence that contradicts a major opinion expressed in the passage 答案：C [1] To point out a weakness in an opinion expressed in the passage [2] To suggest a possible explanation for a weakness in an opinion expressed in the passage [3] To suggest a alternative explanation ********************************************************************************************************** ►The undisputed pre-Columbian presence in Oceania of the sweet potato, which is a New World domesticate, has sometimes been used to support Heyerdahl’s “American Indians in the Pacific” theories. However, this is one plant out of a long list of Southeast Asian domesticates. As Patrick Kirch, an American anthropologist, points out, rather than being brought by rafting South Americans, sweet potatoes might just have easily been brought back by returning Polynesian navigators who could have reached the west coast of South America. ❤ 2. Why does the author mention the views of “Patrick Kirch”? ○ To present evidence in favor of Heyerdahl’s idea about American Indians reaching Oceania ○ To emphasize the familiarity of Pacific islanders with crops from many different regions of the world ○ To indicate that supposed proof for Heyerdahl’s theory has an alternative explanation ○ To demonstrate that some of the same crops were cultivated in both South America and Oceania. 答案：C ***************************************************************************************************** ►As these experiments show, begging apparently provides a signal of need that parents use to make judgments about which offspring can benefit most from a feeding. But the question arises, why don't nestlings beg loudly when they aren't all that hungry? By doing so, they could possibly secure more food, which should result in more rapid growth or larger size, either of which is advantageous. The answer lies apparently not in the increased energy costs of exaggerated begging—such energy costs are small relative to the potential gain in calories—but rather in the damage that any successful cheater would do to its siblings, which share genes with one another. An individual's success in propagating his or her genes can be affected by more than just his or her own personal reproductive success. ❤❤ 3. In paragraph 6, the author compares the energy costs of vigorous begging with the potential gain in calories from such begging in order to ○ explain why begging for food vigorously can lead to faster growth and increased size ○ explain how begging vigorously can increase an individual’s chance of propagating its own genes ○ point out a weakness in a possible explanation for why nestlings do not always beg vigorously ○ argue that the benefits of vigorous begging outweigh any possible disadvantages 答案：C ********************************************************************************************************** 本句 + 前句 ►In 1831 when Smith was finally recognized by the Geological Society of London as the “father of English geology”, was not only for his maps but also for something even more important. Ever since people had begun to catalog the strata in particular outcrops, there had been the hope that these could somehow be used to calculate geological time. But as more and more accumulations of strata were cataloged in more and more places, it became clear that the sequences of rocks sometimes differed from region to region and that no rock type was ever going to become a reliable time marker throughout the world. Even without the problem of regional differences, rocks present a difficulty as unique time markers. Quartz is quartz - a silicon ion surrounded by four oxygen ions - there’s no difference at all between two-million-year-old Pleistocene quartz and Cambrian quartz created over 500 million years ago. ❤❤ 4. Why does the author use the phrase “Quartz is quartz"? ○ To describe how the differences between Pleistocene and Cambrian quartz reveal information about dating rocks ○ To point out that the chemical composition of quartz makes it more difficult to date than other rocks ○ To provide an example of how regional differences in rock sequences can make a particular rock difficult to date ○ To explain that rocks are difficult to use for dating because their chemical compositions always remain the same over time 答案：D *********************************************************************************************************** Although A, B./..., despite..../ ..., though... ►They were reasonably well governed, without notable corruption or grandiose state projects, although in all of them the government gave some aid to railways, and in Sweden the state built the main lines. As small countries dependent on foreign markets, they followed a liberal trade policy in the main, though a protectionist movement developed in Sweden. In Denmark and Sweden agricultural reforms took place gradually from the late eighteenth century through the first half of the nineteenth, resulting in a new class of peasant landowners with a definite market orientation. ❤ 5. The author includes the information that “a protectionist movement developed in Sweden” in order to ○ support the claim that the political institutions of the four countries posed no significant barriers to industrialization or economic growth ○ identify an exception to the general trend favoring liberal trade policy ○ explain why Sweden industrialized less quickly than the other Scandinavian countries and Netherlands ○ provide evidence that agricultural reforms take place more quickly in countries that have a liberal trade policy than in those that do not 答案：B ********************************************************************************************************** ►Most lightning takes place within a cloud when the charge separation within the cloud collapses. However, as the storm cloud develops, the ground beneath the cloud becomes positively charged and lightning can take place in the form of an electrical discharge between the negative charge of the cloud and the positively charged ground. Lightning that strikes the ground is the most likely to be destructive, so even though it represents only 20 percent of all lightning, it has received a lot of scientific attention. ❤ 6. The author remarks that “Lightning that strikes the ground is the most likely to be destructive” in order to explain why ○ this form of lightning has been investigated so much ○ this form of lightning is not as common as lightning within a cloud ○ scientific understanding of this form of lightning is important ○ the buildup of positive charge on the ground beneath a storm cloud can have serious consequences 答案：A ********************************************************************************************************** 出現標點符號：- ； ►This mode of craft production favored the growth of self-governing and ideologically egalitarian craft guilds everywhere in the Middle Eastern city. These were essentially professional associations that provided for the mutual aid and protection of their members, and allowed for the maintenance of professional standards. The growth of independent guilds was furthered by the fact that surplus was not a result of domestic craft production but resulted primarily from international trading; the government left working people to govern themselves, much as shepherds of tribal confederacies were left alone by their leaders. In the multiplicity of small-scale local egalitarian or quasi-egalitarian organizations for fellowship, worship, and production that flourished in this laissez-faire environment, individuals could interact with one another within a community of harmony and ideological equality, following their own popularly elected leaders and governing themselves by shared consensus while minimizing distinctions of wealth and power. ❤ 7. The author includes the information that surplus was not a result of domestic craft production but resulted primarily from international trading in order to ○ support the claim that the mode of production made possible by the craft guilds very good for trade ○ contrast the economic base of the city government with that of the tribal confederacies ○ provide a reason why the government allowed the guilds to be self-controlled ○ suggest that the government was missing out on a valuable opportunity to tax the guilds 答案：C ********************************************************************************************************** ►The questions become more complicated when actual volumes of water are considered: how much water enters and leaves by each route? Discovering the inputs and outputs of rivers is a matter of measuring the discharges of every inflowing and outflowing stream and river. Then exchanges with the atmosphere are calculated by finding the difference between the gains from rain, as measured (rather roughly) by rain gauges, and the losses by evaporation, measured with models that correct for the other sources of water loss. For the majority of lakes, certainly those surrounded by forests, input from overland flow is too small to have a noticeable effect. Changes in lake level not explained by river flows plus exchanges with the atmosphere must be due to the net difference between what seeps into the lake from the groundwater and what leaks into the groundwater. Note the word "net": measuring the actual amounts of groundwater seepage into the lake and out of the lake is a much more complicated matter than merely inferring their difference. ❤ 8. Why does the author use the phrase Note the word "net" in the passage? ○ To emphasize the impact of seepage on water levels ○ To point out that seepage is calculated differently from river flows and atmospheric exchanges ○ To compare the different methods of calculating seepage ○ To emphasize the difficulty of obtaining specific values for seepage inputs and outputs 答案：D ********************************************************************************************************** Perhaps the explanation goes back to some ideas raised by influential Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget—namely, that children under age two years represent events in a qualitatively different form than older children do. According to this line of thought, the verbal abilities that blossom in the two year old allow events to be coded in a form radically different from the action-based codes of the infant. Verbal abilities of one year olds are, in fact, related to their memories for events one year later. When researchers had one year olds imitate an action sequence one year after they first saw it, there was correlation between the children's verbal skills at the time they first saw the event and their success on the later memory task. However, even children with low verbal skills showed evidence of remembering the event; thus, memories may be facilitated by but are not dependent on those verbal skills. 9. In paragraph 2, why does the author provide the information that children with low verbal skills showed evidence of remembering a past event? ○ To provide evidence that memories do not depend only upon verbal skills ○ To challenge the idea that one year olds are too young to form memories ○ To argue that the memory of one year olds depends only on action-based codes ○ To suggest that Piaget later revised his findings on the correlation between memory and verbal ability 答案：A **********************************************************************************************************
        • 定位句中出现明显逻辑关系: 让步转折although等/假设可能性unless-until/对比rather than - not A but B
        • 1.分号后 A ; B | 2.破折号后 A — B |3.冒号A : B
      • 3. 生动解释学术性——类比的固定答案
        • ►Even the kind of stability defined as simple lack of change is not always associated with maximum diversity. At least in temperate zones, maximum diversity is often found in mid-successional stages, not in the climax community. Once a redwood forest matures, for example, the kinds of species and the number of individuals growing on the forest floor are reduced. In general, diversity, by itself, does not ensure stability. Mathematical models of ecosystems likewise suggest that diversity does not guarantee ecosystem stability—just the opposite, in fact. A more complicated system is, in general, more likely than a simple system to break down. (A fifteen-speed racing bicycle is more likely to break down than a child’s tricycle.) 1. In paragraph 5, why does the author provide the information that “(A fifteen-speed racing bicycle is more likely to break down than a child’s tricycle)”? ○ To illustrate a general principle about the stability of systems by using an everyday example ○ To demonstrate that an understanding of stability in ecosystems can be applied to help understand stability in other situations ○ To make a comparison that supports the claim that, in general, stability increases with diversity ○ To provide an example that contradicts mathematical models of ecosystems 答案：A *********************************************************************************************************************** ►Growth, reproduction, and daily metabolism all require an organism to expend energy. The expenditure of energy is essentially a process of budgeting, just as finances are budgeted. If all of one’s money is spent on clothes, there may be none left to buy food or go to the movies. Similarly, a plant or animal cannot squander all its energy on growing a big body if none would be left over for reproduction, for this is the surest way to extinction. 2. In paragraph 1, the author explains the concept of energy expenditure by ○ Identifying types of organisms that became extinct ○ Comparing the scientific concept to a familiar human experience ○ Arguing that most organisms conserve rather than expend energy ○ Describing the processes of growth, reproduction, and metabolism 答案：B ************************************************************************************************************ ►In a countercurrent exchange system, the blood vessels carrying cooled blood from the flippers run close enough to the blood vessels carrying warm blood from the body to pick up some heat from the warmer blood vessels; thus, the heat is transferred from the outgoing to the ingoing vessels before it reaches the flipper itself. This is the same arrangement found in an old-fashioned steam radiator, in which the coiled pipes pass heat back and forth as water courses through them. The leatherback is certainly not the only animal with such an arrangement; gulls have a countercurrent exchange in their legs. That is why a gull can stand on an ice floe without freezing. 3. Why does the author mention old-fashioned steam radiator in the discussion of countercurrent exchange systems? ○ To argue that a turtle's central heating system is not as highly evolved as that of other warmblooded animals ○ To provide a useful comparison with which to illustrate how a countercurrent exchange system works ○ To suggest that steam radiators were modeled after the sophisticated heating system of turtles ○ To establish the importance of the movement of water in countercurrent exchange systems 答案：B ************************************************************************************************************ ►How are we to understand their different feeding preferences? The answer lies in two associated differences among the species, in their digestive systems and body sizes. According to their digestive systems, these herbivores can be divided into two categories: the nonruminants (such as the zebra, which has a digestive system like a horse) and the ruminants (such as the wildebeest, topi, and gazelle, which are like the cow). Nonruminants cannot extract much energy from the hard parts of a plant; however, this is more than made up for by the fast speed at which food passes through their guts. Thus, when there is only a short supply of poor-quality food, the wildebeest, topi, and gazelle enjoy an advantage. 4. The author mentions the cow and the horse in paragraph 2 in order to ○ distinguish the functioning of their digestive systems from those of East African animals ○ emphasize that their relatively large body size leads them to have feeding practices similar to those of East African mammals ○ illustrate differences between ruminants and nonruminants through the use of animals likely to be familiar to most readers ○ emphasize similarities between the diets of cows and horses and the diets of East African mammals 答案：C ************************************************************************************************************ ►But that is not all that changes. During all phases of sleep, several changes in the air passages have been observed. It takes twice as much effort to breathe during sleep because of greater resistance to airflow in the airways and changes in the efficiency of the muscles used for breathing. Some of the muscles that help keep the upper airway open when breathing tend to become more relaxed during sleep, especially during REM (the phase of sleep in which there is rapid eye movement). Without this muscular action, inhaling is like sucking air out of a balloon—the narrow passages tend to collapse. Also there is a regular cycle of change in resistance between the two sides of the nose. If something blocks the "good" side, such as congestion from allergies or a cold, then resistance increases dramatically. Coupled with these factors is the loss of the complex interactions among the muscles that can change the route of airflow from nose to mouth. ❤❤❤ 5. What is the author's purpose in stating that inhaling is like sucking air out of a balloon? ○ To refute the argument that additional effort is necessary for breathing during sleep ○ To argue that REM sleep is more important than NREM sleep ○ To illustrate the difficulty of breathing during sleep ○ To illustrate how blockage of narrow passages can be prevented during sleep 答案：C ************************************************************************************************************
        • To illustrate the principle/theory/concept about/of (学科概念) by using a useful comparison/daily example/human experience.
        • To illustrate how (学科概念) works by using a useful comparison/daily example/human experience.
        • Comparing the scientific concept to a familiar human experience.
      • 4. 参考段落中心句——瞻前顾后选最佳
        • ►The numbers of deer have fluctuated markedly since the entry of Europeans into Puget Sound country. The early explorers and settlers told of deer in the early 1800s and yet almost in the same breath bemoaned the lack of this succulent game animal. Famous explorers of the North American frontier, Lewis and Clark had experienced great difficulty finding game west of the Rockies and not until the second of December did they kill their first elk. To keep 40 people alive that winter, they consumed approximately 150 elk and 20 deer. And when game moved out of the lowlands in early spring, the expedition decided to return east rather than face possible starvation. Later on in the early years of the nineteenth century, when Fort Vancouver became the headquarters of the Hudson's Bay Company, deer populations continued to fluctuate. David Douglas, Scottish botanical explorer of the 1830s, found a disturbing change in the animal life around the fort during the period between his first visit in 1825 and his final contact with the fort in 1832. A recent Douglas biographer states:" The deer which once picturesquely dotted the meadows around the fort were gone [in 1832], hunted to extermination in order to protect the crops." 1. The author tells the story of the explorers Lewis and Clark in paragraph 3 in order to illustrate which of the following points? ○ The number of deer within the Puget Sound region has varied over time. ○ Most of the explorers who came to the Puget sound area were primarily interested in the West. ○ There was more game for hunting in the East of the United States than in the West. ○ Individual explorers were not as successful at locating games as were the trading companies. 答案：A *************************************************************************************** ►Not only could Smith identify rock strata by the fossils they contained, he could also see a pattern emerging: certain fossils always appear in more ancient sediments while others begin to be seen as the strata become more recent. By following the fossils, Smith was able to put all the strata of England's earth into relative temporal sequence. About the same time, Georges Cuvier made the same discovery while studying the rocks around Paris. Soon it was realized that this principle of faunal (animal) succession was valid not only in England or France but virtually everywhere. It was actually a principle of floral succession as well, because plants showed the same transformation through time as did fauna. Limestone may be found in the Cambrian or-300 million years later-in the Jurassic strata but a trilobite—the ubiquitous marine arthropod that had its birth in the Cambrian—will never be found in Jurassic strata, nor a dinosaur in the Cambrian. 2. In mentioning "trilobite”, the author is making which of the following points? ○ Fossils cannot be found in more than one rock stratum. ○ Faunal succession can help put rock layers in relative temporal sequence. ○ Faunal succession cannot be applied to different strata composed of the same kind of rock. ○ The presence of trilobite fossils makes it difficult to date a rock. 答案：B *************************************************************************************** 例证题专题 : 8 10 15 18 21 22 24 27 33 36 42 ►Even less fortunate was the extension of this type of thinking to include animals as well as plants. This resulted in the "biome," a combination of coexisting flora and fauna. Though it is true that many animals are strictly associated with certain plants, it is misleading to speak of a "spruce-moose biome," for example, because there is no internal cohesion to their association as in an organism. The spruce community is not substantially affected by either the presence or absence of moose. Indeed, there are vast areas of spruce forest without moose. The opposition to the Clementsian concept of plant ecology was initiated by Herbert Gleason, soon joined by various other ecologists. Their major point was that the distribution of a given species was controlled by the habitat requirements of that species and that therefore the vegetation types were a simple consequence of the ecologies of individual plant species. 3. Why does the author make the statement, “Indeed, there are vast areas of spruce forest without moose” ? ○ To highlight a fact whose significance the ecologist Herbert Gleason had missed ○ To propose the idea that a spruce forest is by itself a superorganism ○ To emphasize that moose are not limited to a single kind of environment ○ To criticize the idea of a spruce-moose biome 答案：D ****************************************************************************** ►When crayfish are kept continuously in the dark, even for four to five months, their compound eyes continue to adjust on a daily schedule for daytime and nighttime vision. Horseshoe crabs kept in the dark continuously for a year were found to maintain a persistent rhythm of brain activity that similarly adapts their eyes on a daily schedule for bright or for weak light. Like almost all daily cycles of animals deprived of environmental cues, those measured for the horseshoe crabs in these conditions were not exactly 24 hours. Such a rhythm whose period is approximately—but not exactly—a day is called circadian. For different individual horseshoe crabs, the circadian period ranged from 22.2 to 25.5 hours. A particular animal typically maintains its own characteristic cycle duration with great precision for many days. Indeed, stability of the biological clock's period is one of its major features, even when the organism's environment is subjected to considerable changes in factors, such as temperature, that would be expected to affect biological activity strongly. Further evidence for persistent internal rhythms appears when the usual external cycles are shifted—either experimentally or by rapid east-west travel over great distances. Typically, the animal's daily internally generated cycle of activity continues without change. As a result, its activities are shifted relative to the external cycle of the new environment. The disorienting effects of this mismatch between external time cues and internal schedules may persist, like our jet lag, for several days or weeks until certain cues such as the daylight/darkness cycle reset the organism's clock to synchronize with the daily rhythm of the new environment. 4. In paragraph 2, the author provides evidence for the role of biological clocks by ○ listing the daily activities of an animal's cycle: sleeping, feeding, moving, reproducing, metabolizing, and producing enzymes and hormones ○ describing the process of establishing the period of a biological clock ○ presenting cases in which an animal's daily schedule remained stable despite lack of environmental cues ○ contrasting animals whose daily schedules fluctuate with those of animals whose schedules are constant 答案：D ****************************************************************************** ►A third opinion takes psychological motivation much further into the realm of tribal ceremonies and mystery: the belief that certain animals assumed mythical significance as ancient ancestors or protectors of a given tribe or clan. Two types of images substantiate this theory: the strange, indecipherable geometric shapes that appear near some animals, and the few drawings of men. Wherever men appear they are crudely drawn and their bodies are elongated and rigid. Some men are in a prone position and some have bird or animal heads. Advocates for this opinion point to reports from people who have experienced a trance state, a highly suggestive state of low consciousness between waking and sleeping. Uniformly, these people experienced weightlessness and the sensation that their bodies were being stretched lengthwise. Advocates also point to people who believe that the forces of nature are inhabited by spirits, particularly shamans* who believe that an animal’s spirit and energy is transferred to them while in a trance. One Lascaux narrative picture, which shows a man with a birdlike head and a wounded animal, would seem to lend credence to this third opinion, but there is still much that remains unexplained. For example, where is the proof that the man in the picture is a shaman? He could as easily be a hunter wearing a headmask. 5. According to paragraph 5, why do some scholars refer to a trance state to help understand the cave paintings? ○ To explain the state of consciousness the artists were in when they painted their pictures ○ To demonstrate the mythical significance of the strange geometric shapes ○ To indicate that trance states were often associated with activities that took place inside caves ○ To give a possible reason for the strange appearance of the men painted on the cave walls 答案：D ****************************************************************************** ►Although the remarkable antiquity of Australia’s rock art is now established, the sequences and meanings of its images have been widely debated. Since the mid-1970s, a reasonably stable picture has formed of the organization of Australian rock art. In order to create a sense of structure to this picture, researchers have relied on a distinction that still underlies the forms of much indigenous visual culture—a distinction between geometric and figurative elements. Simple geometric repeated patterns—circles, concentric circles, and lines—constitute the iconography (characteristic images) of the earliest rock-art sites found across Australia. The frequency with which certain simple motifs appear in these oldest sites has led rock-art researchers to adopt a descriptive term—the Panaramitee style—a label which takes its name from the extensive rock pavements at Panaramitee North in desert South Australia, which are covered with motifs pecked into the surface. Certain features of these engravings lead to the conclusion that they are of great age—geological changes had clearly happened after the designs had been made and local Aboriginal informants, when first questioned about them, seemed to know nothing of their origins. Furthermore, the designs were covered with “desert varnish,” a glaze that develops on rock surfaces over thousands of years of exposure to the elements. The simple motifs found at Panaramitee are common to many rock-art sites across Australia. Indeed, sites with engravings of geometric shapes are also to be found on the island of Tasmania, which was separated from the mainland of the continent some 10,000 years ago. 6. Why does the author include information about Tasmania in paragraph 4? ○ To provide evidence that the Panaramitee style is widespread and of great age ○ To prove that Aboriginal Australians could not have made the carvings in Tasmania ○ To indicate how researchers have determined how long ago Tasmania separated from the mainland ○ To illustrate the importance of geometric rock art to tourism in Tasmania 答案： ******************************************************************************************************* ►In the 1970s when the study of Australian archaeology was in an exciting phase of development, with the great antiquity of rock art becoming clear, Lesley Maynard, the archaeologist who coined the phrase “Panaramitee style,” suggested that a sequence could be determined for Australian rock art, in which a geometric style gave way to a simple figurative style (outlines of figures and animals), followed by a range of complex figurative styles that, unlike the pan-Australian geometric tradition tended to be much greater regional diversity. While accepting that this sequence fits the archaeological profile of those sites, which were occupied continuously over many thousands of years, a number of writers have warned that the underlying assumption of such a sequence—a development from the simple and the geometric to the complex and naturalistic—obscures the cultural continuities in Aboriginal Australia, in which geometric symbolism remains fundamentally important. In this context the simplicity of a geometric motif may be more apparent than real. Motifs of seeming simplicity can encode complex meanings in Aboriginal Australia. And has not twentieth-century art shown that naturalism does not necessarily follow abstraction in some kind of predetermine sequence? 7. In paragraph 5, the author indicates that twentieth century art has shown that naturalism does not necessarily follow abstraction in some kind of predetermined sequence in order to ○ emphasize that it may not be possible to determine what the figures in ancient rock art represent ○ suggest a reply to those who have questioned Maynard’s interpretation of the sequence of Australian rock art ○ provide a counterexample to Maynard’s interpretation of the sequence of Australian rock art ○ indicate that twentieth century art is more advanced than ancient rock art 答案： ******************************************************************************************************* ►How do predetors affect populations of the prey animals? The answer is not as simple as might be thought. Moose reached Isle Royale in Lake Superior by crossing over winter ice and multiplied freely there in isolation without predators. When wolves later reached the island, naturalists widely assumed that the wolves would play a key role in controlling the moose population. Careful studies have demonstrated, however, that this is not the case. The wolves eat mostly old or diseased animals that would not survive long anyway. In general, the moose population is controlled by food availability, disease, and other factors rather than by wolves. 8. In paragraph 1, why does the author discuss the moose and wolves on Isle Royale? ○ To provide an example of predators moving to new habitats by following migrating prey ○ To show that the interactions between predator populations and prey populations are not always what might be expected ○ To suggest that prey populations are more influenced by predation than food availability and disease ○ To argue that studies of geographically isolated populations tend not to be useful to naturalists 答案：B *******************************************************************************************************
    • 【2】选项修辞动词的价值
      • 【1】句内(前后句)转折/對比 do/to do/doing
        • ►One of the most puzzling aspects of the paintings is their location. Other rock paintings—for example, those of Bushmen in South Africa—are either located near cave entrances or completely in the open. Cave paintings in France and Spain, however, are in recesses and caverns far removed from original cave entrances. This means that artists were forced to work in cramped spaces and without sources of natural light. It also implies that whoever made them did not want them to be easily found. Since cave dwellers normally lived close to entrances, there must have been some reason why so many generations of Lascaux cave dwellers hid their art. 1. Why does the author mention Bushmen in South Africa in paragraph 2? ○ To suggest that ancient artists from all over the world painted animals on rocks ○ To contrast the location of their rock paintings to those found at Lascaux ○ To support the claim that early artists worked in cramped spaces ○ To give an example of other artists who painted in hidden locations 答案：B ******************************************************************************************************** ►Modern attitudes to Roman civilization range from the infinitely impressed to the thorough disgusted. As always, there are the power worshippers, especially among historians, who are predisposed to admire whatever is strong, who feel more attracted to the might of Rome than to the subtlety of Greece. At the same time, there is a solid body of opinion that dislikes Rome. For many, Rome is at best the imitator and the continuator of Greece on a larger scale. Greek civilization had quality; Rome, mere quantity. Greece was the inventor; Rome, the research and development division. Such indeed was the opinion of some of the more intellectual Romans.” had the Greeks held novelty in such disdain as we,” asked Horace in his Epistle, “what work of ancient date would now exist?” 2. In paragraph 4, the author develops a description of Roman civilization by ○ comparing the opinions of Roman intellectuals to Greek intellectuals ○ identifying which characteristics of roman civilization were copied from Greece ○ explaining how the differences between Roman and Greece developed as time passed ○ contrasting characteristics of Roman civilization with characteristics of Greek civilization 答案：D ******************************************************************************************************** ►At the end of the Cretaceous, the geological record shows that these seaways retreated from the continents back into the major ocean basins. No one knows why. Over a period of about 100,000 years, while the seas pulled back, climates around the world became dramatically more extreme: warmer days, cooler nights; hotter summers, colder winters. Perhaps dinosaurs could not tolerate these extreme temperature changes and became extinct. ►If true, though, why did cold-blooded animals such as snakes, lizard , turtles, and crocodiles survive the freezing winters and torrid summers? These animals are at the mercy of the climate to maintain a livable body temperature. It’s hard to understand why they would not be affected, whereas dinosaurs were left too crippled to cope, especially if, as some scientists believe, dinosaurs were warm-blooded. Critics also point out that the shallow seaways had retreated from and advanced on the continents numerous times during the Mesozoic, so why did the dinosaurs survive the climatic changes associated with the earlier fluctuations but not with this one? Although initially appealing, the hypothesis of a simple climatic change related to sea levels is insufficient to explain all the data. 3. Why does the author mention the survival of “snakes, lizards, turtles, and crocodiles” in paragraph 3? ○ To argue that dinosaurs may have become extinct because they were not cold-blooded animals ○ To question the adequacy of the hypothesis that climatic change related to sea levels caused the extinction of the dinosaurs ○ To present examples of animals that could maintain a livable body temperature more easily than dinosaurs ○ To support a hypothesis that these animals were not as sensitive to climate changes in the Cretaceous period as they are today 答案：B ******************************************************************************************************** ►Perhaps the explanation goes back to some ideas raised by influential Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget—namely, that children under age two years represent events in a qualitatively different form than older children do. According to this line of thought, the verbal abilities that blossom in the two year old allow events to be coded in a form radically different from the action-based codes of the infant. Verbal abilities of one year olds are, in fact, related to their memories for events one year later. When researchers had one year olds imitate an action sequence one year after they first saw it, there was correlation between the children's verbal skills at the time they first saw the event and their success on the later memory task. However, even children with low verbal skills showed evidence of remembering the event; thus, memories may be facilitated by but are not dependent on those verbal skills. 4. In paragraph 2, why does the author provide the information that children with low verbal skills showed evidence of remembering a past event? ○ To provide evidence that memories do not depend only upon verbal skills ○ To challenge the idea that one year olds are too young to form memories ○ To argue that the memory of one year olds depends only on action-based codes ○ To suggest that Piaget later revised his findings on the correlation between memory and verbal ability 答案：A ********************************************************************************************************
        • argue
          • 原文批驳前面所述观点 but等转折
        • question/challenge
          • 作者质疑某个观点, 指出理论的不足/缺陷
        • point out problems/a weakness with
          • 作者批判某观点/解释, 指出理论不足/缺陷
        • contrast
          • 作者讨论两个事物, 目的找出两个事物不同之处
        • differentiate
          • 作者讨论两不同事物, 目的找出两事物间的差别, 以区分此两事物
      • 【2】句内(前后句)递进/解释 do/to do/doing
        • ►The first wells were drilled into the Ogallala during the drought years of the early 1930’s. The ensuing rapid expansion of irrigation agriculture, especially from the 1950’s onward, transformed the economy of the region. More than 100,000 wells now tap the Ogallala. Modern irrigation devices, each capable of spraying 4.5 million liters of water a day, have produced a landscape dominated by geometric patterns of circular green islands of crops. Ogallala water has enabled the High Plains region to supply significant amounts of the cotton, sorghum, wheat, and corn grown in the United States. In addition, 40 percent of American grain-fed beef cattle are fattened here. 1. In paragraph 3, why does the author provide the information that 40 percent of American cattle are fattened in the High Plains? ○ To suggest that crop cultivation is not the most important part of the economy of the High Plains ○ To indicate that not all economic activity in the High Plains is dependent on irrigation ○ To provide another example of how water from the Ogallala has transformed the economy of the High Plains ○ To contrast cattle - fattening practices in the High Plains with those used in other region of the United States 答案：C another/further ****************************************************************************** ►There is still no universally agreed on explanation for why there should be such a dramatic cessation of tree growth at the upper timberline. Various environmental factors may play a role. Too much snow, for example, can smother trees, and avalanches and snow creep can damage or destroy them. Late-lying snow reduces the effective growing season to the point where cannot establish themselves. Wind velocity also increases with altitude and may cause serious stress for trees, as is made evident by the deformed shapes at high altitudes. Some scientists have proposed that the presence of increasing levels of ultraviolet light with elevation may play a role, while browsing and grazing animals like the ibex may be another contributing factor. Probably the most important environmental factor is temperature, for if the growing season is too short and temperatures are too low, tree shoots and buds cannot mature sufficiently to survive the winter months. 2. In paragraph 4, what is the author’s main purpose in the discussion of the dramatic cessation of tree growth at the upper timberline? ○ To argue that none of several environment factors that are believed to contribute to that phenomenon do in fact play a role in causing it. ○ To argue in support of one particular explanation of that phenomenon against several competing explanations. ○ To explain why the primary environmental factor responsible for that phenomenon has not yet been identified. ○ To present several environmental factors that may contribute to a satisfactory explanation of that phenomenon. 答案：D ****************************************************************************** ►A third fossil formation containing both soft-bodied and hard-bodied animals provides evidence of the result of the Cambrian explosion. This fossil formation, called the Burgess Shale, is in Yoho National Park in the Canadian Rocky Mountains of British Columbia. Shortly after the Cambrian explosion, mud slides rapidly buried thousands of marine animals under conditions that favored fossilization. These fossil beds provide evidence of about 32 modern animal groups, plus about 20 other animal body forms that are so different from any modern animals that they cannot be assigned to any one of the modern groups. These unassignable animals include a large swimming predator called Anomalocaris and a soft-bodied animal called Wiwaxia, which ate detritus or algae. The Burgess Shale formation also has fossils of many extinct representatives of modern animal groups. For example, a well-known Burgess Shale animal called Sidneyia is a representative of a previously unknown group of arthropods (a category of animals that includes insects, spiders, mites, and crabs). 3. Why does the author mention Anomalocans and Wiwaxia? ○ To contrast predators with animals that eat plants such as algae ○ To question the effects of rapid mud slides on fossilization ○ To suggest that much is still unknown about animals found in the Burgess Shale ○ To provide examples of fossils that cannot be assigned to a modern animal group 答案：D ******************************************************************************
        • compare/make a comparison 类比
          • 作者讨论两个事物, 目的是找出这两个事物之间的共同点
        • illustrate
          • 作者在原文生动解释某个概念
        • provide an example of another example/offer further explanation
          • 原文中有具体例子来说明作者的某个观点 - 常见for example/such as/like - 或in addition/other等关键词, 表达进一步解释穴ꄱߐĀܠ⏂
        • define
          • 作者对某个概念进行限定，给出了这个概念的范围和定义，原文中常见定义性句子
        • emphasize
          • 作者在讨论一个重要观点，原文中不断重复该重要观点，给出must/should/every等限定词
    • 【3】快速锁定并验证选项
      • 正确选项和原文应该能对应两个或以上的主要信息
      • 选项中对应不上的信息参考段落首句/次句主旨
  • 【3】目的题训练手法
    • 1. 标出分析定位点及答案位置关系
    • 2. 分析划出定位点及答案逻辑关系
    • 3. 分析选项修辞动词帮助快速解题
    • 4. 详细分析原文及答案的同义改写
• 7. 选错题
  • 【1】列举一般模式
    • 【1】连词列举：one; another; also; and; or; thus; as well as; other; furthermore; the first/the second等
      • ►The burning of fuel, such as by cars, is not the only source of this increased heat. Two other factors contribute to the higher overall temperature in cities. The first is the heat capacity of the materials that constitute the city, which is typically dominated by concrete and asphalt. During the day, heat from the Sun can be conducted into these materials have a significantly lower heat capacity because a vegetative blanket prevents heat from easily flowing into and out of the ground. The second factor is that radiant heat coming into the city from the Sun is trapped in two ways: (1) by a continuing series of reflection among the numerous vertical surfaces that buildings present and (2) by the dust dome, the cloud like layer of polluted air that most cities produce. Shortwave radiation from the Sun passes through the pollution dome more easily than outgoing long wave radiation does; the latter is absorbed by the gaseous pollutants of the dome and reradiated back to the urban surface. 1. According to paragraph 3, each of the following contributes to making urban areas warmer than the surrounding countryside EXCEPT ○ the fuel burned by motor vehicles ○ the capacity to store heat of the materials used in building a city ○ the easy flow of heat into the ground in city areas covered by vegetation ○ the repeated reflection of solar radiation back and forth among buildings 答案：C ****************************************************************************** ►In addition to exploring the possible antecedents of theater, scholars have also theorized about the motives that led people to develop theater. Why did theater develop, and why was it valued after it ceased to fulfill the function of ritual? Most answers fall back on the theories about the human mind and basic human needs. One , set forth by Aristotle in the fourth century B.C., sees humans as naturally imitative —as taking pleasure in imitating persons, things, and actions and in seeing such imitations. Another , advanced in the twentieth century, suggests that humans have a gift for fantasy, through which they seek to reshape reality into more satisfying forms than those encountered in daily life. Thus , fantasy or fiction (of which drama is one form) permits people to objectify their anxieties and fears, confront them, and fulfill their hopes in fiction if not fact. The theater, then, is one tool whereby people define and understand their world or escape from unpleasant realities. 2. All of following are mentioned in paragraph 5 as possible reasons that led societies to develop theater EXCEPT: ○ Theater allows people to face that they are afraid of. ○ Theater gives an opportunity to imagine a better reality. ○ Theater is a way to enjoy imitating other people. ○ Theater provides people the opportunity to better understand the human mind. 答案：D ******************************************************************************
    • 【2】动词列举：A permit B, A cause B, A enable/make B, A necessitate B, A encourage B….
    • 【3】副词列举：equally, firstly, secondly, accordingly 等
    • 【4】定义式列舉的句型多样性：主從句
      • ****************************************************************************** ►Architecture is the art and science of designing structures that organize and enclose space for practical and symbolic purposes. Because architecture grows out of human needs and aspirations, it clearly communicates cultural values . Of all the visual arts , architecture affects our lives most directly for it determines the character of the human environment in major ways. 1. According to paragraph 1, all of the following statements about architecture are true EXCEPT: ○ Architecture is visual art. ○ Architecture reflects the cultural values of its creators. ○ Architecture has both artistic and scientific dimensions. ○ Architecture has an indirect effect on life. 答案：D ****************************************************************************** ►The greater Pacific region, traditionally called Oceania, consists of three cultural areas: Melanesia, Micronesia, and Polynesia. Melanesia, in the southwest Pacific, contains the large islands of New Guinea, the Solomon, Vanuatu, and New Caledonia. Micronesia, the area north of Melanesia, consists primarily of small scattered islands. Polynesia is the central Pacific area in the great triangle defined by Hawaii, Easter Island, and New Zealand. Before the arrival of Europeans, the islands in the two largest cultural areas, Polynesia and Micronesia, together contained a population estimated at 700,000. 2. According to Paragraph1, all of the following are true statements about Melanesia, Micronesia, and Polynesia EXCEPT ○ Collectively, these regions are traditionally known as Oceania. ○ These islands of Micronesia are small and spread out ○ Hawaii, Easter Island, and New Zealand mark the boundaries of Polynesia. ○ Melanesia is situated to the north of Micronesia. 答案：D ******************************************************************************
  • 【2】选非解题思路
    • 【1】句内句间跨段列举
      • 【1】邏輯考點
        • 1. 因果列举: ? =>A 或 A=>?
          • ****************************************************************************** ► Why did theater develop, and why was it valued after it ceased to fulfill the function of ritual? Most answers fall back on the theories about the human mind and basic human needs. One , set forth by Aristotle in the fourth century B.C., sees humans as naturally imitative —as taking pleasure in imitating persons, things, and actions and in seeing such imitations. Another , advanced in the twentieth century, suggests that humans have a gift for fantasy , through which they seek to reshape reality into more satisfying forms than those encountered in daily life. Thus , fantasy or fiction (of which drama is one form) permits people to objectify their anxieties and fears, confront them, and fulfill their hopes in fiction if not fact. The theater, then, is one tool whereby people define and understand their world or escape from unpleasant realities. 1. All of following are mentioned in paragraph 5 as possible reasons that led societies to develop theater EXCEPT: ○Theater allows people to face that they are afraid of. ○Theater gives an opportunity to imagine a better reality. ○Theater is a way to enjoy imitating other people. ○Theater provides people the opportunity to better understand the human mind. 答案：D ****************************************************************************** ► This unprecedented development of a finite groundwater resource with an almost negligible natural recharge rate—that is, virtually no natural water source to replenish the water supply—has caused water tables in the region to fall drastically. In the 1930’s, wells encountered plentiful water at a depth of about 15 meters; currently, they must be dug to depths of 45 to 60 meters or more. In places, the water table is declining at a rate of a meter a year, necessitating the periodic deepening of wells and the use of ever-more-powerful pumps. It is estimated that at current withdrawal rates, much of the aquifer will run dry within 40 years. 2. According to paragraph 4, all of following are consequences of the heavy use of the Ogallala aquifer for irrigation EXCEPT: ○Water tables in the region are becoming increasingly lower. ○Wells now have to be dug to much greater depths than before. ○Increasingly powerful pumps are needed to draw water from the aquifer. ○The recharge rate of the aquifer is decreasing. 答案：D ****************************************************************************** ► The burning of fuel, such as by cars, is not the only source of this increased heat. Two other factors contribute to the higher overall temperature in cities. The first is the heat capacity of the materials that constitute the city, which is typically dominated by concrete and asphalt. During the day, heat from the Sun can be conducted into these materials have a significantly lower heat capacity because a vegetative blanket prevents heat from easily flowing into and out of the ground. The second factor is that radiant heat coming into the city from the Sun is trapped in two ways: (1) by a continuing series of reflection among the numerous vertical surfaces that buildings present and (2) by the dust dome, the cloud like layer of polluted air that most cities produce. Shortwave radiation from the Sun passes through the pollution dome more easily than outgoing long wave radiation does; the latter is absorbed by the gaseous pollutants of the dome and reradiated back to the urban surface. 3. According to paragraph 3, each of the following contributes to making urban areas warmer than the surrounding countryside EXCEPT ○ the fuel burned by motor vehicles ○ the capacity to store heat of the materials used in building a city ○ the easy flow of heat into the ground in city areas covered by vegetation ○ the repeated reflection of solar radiation back and forth among buildings 答案：C ****************************************************************************** The causes of this population rebound are consequences of other human actions. First, the major predators of deer---wolves, cougar, and lynx--have been greatly reduced in numbers. Second, conservation has been insured by limiting times for and types of hunting. But the most profound reason for the restoration of high population numbers has been the fate of the forests. Great tracts of lowland country deforested by logging, fire, or both have become ideal feeding grounds of deer. In addition to finding an increase of suitable browse, like huckleberry and vine maple, Arthur Einarsen, longtime game biologist in the Pacific Northwest, found quality of browse in the open areas to be substantially more nutritive. 4. Which of the following is NOT mentioned in paragraph 5 as a factor that has increased deer populations? ○ A reduction in the number of predators ○ Restrictions on hunting ○ The effects of logging and fire ○ Laws that protected feeding grounds of deer 答案：D ******************************************************************************
        • 2. 定义列举: ...is true about/of A EXCEPT？
          • ►In order to understand ancient Egyptian art, it is vital to know as much as possible of the elite Egyptians' view of the world and the functions and contexts of the art produced for them. Without this knowledge we can appreciate only the formal content of Egyptian art, and we will fail to understand why it was produced or the concepts that shaped it and caused it to adopt its distinctive forms. In fact, a lack of understanding concerning the purposes of Egyptian art has often led it to be compared unfavorably with the art of other cultures: Why did the Egyptians not develop sculpture in which the body turned and twisted through space like classical Greek statuary? 1. In paragraph 1, the author mentions all of the following as necessary in appreciating Egyptian art EXCEPT an understanding of ○ the reasons why the art was made ○ the nature of aristocratic Egyptian beliefs ○ the influences of Egyptian art on later art such as classical Greek art ○ how the art was used 答案：C ****************************************************************************** ►The most striking characteristic of the plants of the alpine zone is their low growth form. This enables them to avoid the worst rigors of high winds and permits them to make use of the higher temperatures immediately adjacent to the ground surface. In an area where low temperatures are limiting to life, the importance of the additional heat near the surface is crucial. The low growth form can also permit the plants to take advantage of the insulation provided by a winter snow cover. In the equatorial mountains the low growth form is less prevalent. 2. According to paragraph 6, all of the following statements are true of plants in the alpine zone EXCEPT: ○ Because they are low, they are less exposed to strong winds. ○ Because they are low, the winter snow cover gives them more protection from the extreme cold. ○ In the equatorial mountains, they tend to be lower than in mountains elsewhere. ○ Their low growth form keeps them closer to the ground, where there is more heat than further up. 答案：C ****************************************************************************** ►Architecture is the art and science of designing structures that organize and enclose space for practical and symbolic purposes. Because architecture grows out of human needs and aspirations, it clearly communicates cultural values. Of all the visual arts, architecture affects our lives most directly for it determines the character of the human environment in major ways. 3. According to paragraph 1, all of the following statements about architecture are true EXCEPT: ○ Architecture is visual art. ○ Architecture reflects the cultural values of its creators. ○ Architecture has both artistic and scientific dimensions. ○ Architecture has an indirect effect on life. 答案：D ****************************************************************************** ►The Ogallala aquifer is a sandstone formation that underlies some 583,000 square kilometers of land extending from northwestern Texas to southern South Dakota. Water from rains and melting snows has been accumulating in the Ogallala for the past 30,000 years. Estimates indicate that the aquifer contains enough water to fill Lake Huron, but unfortunately, under the semiarid climatic conditions that presently exist in the region, rates of addition to the aquifer are minimal, amounting to about half a centimeter a year. 4. According to paragraph 2, all of the following statements about the Ogallala aquifer are true EXCEPT: ○ The aquifer stretches from South Dakota to Texas. ○ The aquifer’s water comes from underground springs. ○ Water has been gathering in the aquifer for 30,000 years. ○ The aquifer’s water is stored in a layer of sandstone. 答案：B ****************************************************************************** ►Beyond that, the triumph of recorded sound has overshadowed the rich diversity of technological and aesthetic experiments with the visual image that were going forward simultaneously in the 1920s. New color processes, larger or differently shaped screen sizes, multiple-screen projections, even television, were among the developments invented or tried out during the period, sometimes with startling success. The high costs of converting to sound and the early limitations of sound technology were among the factors that suppressed innovations or retarded advancement in these other areas. The introduction of new screen formats was put off for a quarter century, and color, though utilized over the next two decades for special productions, also did not become a norm until the 1950s. 5. According to paragraph 3, which of the following is NOT true of the technological and aesthetic experiments of the 1920's? ○ Because the costs of introducing recorded sound were low, it was the only innovation that was put to use in the 1920's. ○ The introduction of recorded sound prevented the development of other technological innovations in the 1920's. ○ The new technological and aesthetic developments of the 1920s included the use of color, new screen formats, and television. ○ Many of the innovations developed in the 1920s were not widely introduced until as late as the 1950's. 答案：A ****************************************************************************** ►Deserts contain large amounts of groundwater when compared to the amounts they hold in surface stores such as lakes and rivers. But only a small fraction of groundwater enters the hydrological cycle-feeding the flows of streams, maintaining lake levels, and being recharged (or refilled) through surface flows and rainwater. In recent years, groundwater has become an increasingly important source of freshwater for desert dwellers. The United Nations Environment Programme and the World Bank have funded attempts to survey the groundwater resources of arid lands and to develop appropriate extraction techniques. Such programs are much needed because in many arid lands there is only a vague idea of the extent of groundwater resources. It is known, however, that the distribution of groundwater is uneven, and that much of it lies at great depths. 6. Paragraph 5 supports all of the following statements about the groundwater in deserts EXCEPT: ○ The groundwater is consistently found just below the surface ○ A small part of the groundwater helps maintain lake levels ○ Most of the groundwater is not recharged through surface water ○ The groundwater is increasingly used as a source of freshwater 答案：A ****************************************************************************** ►The earliest ceramics were fired to earthenware temperatures, but as early as the fifteenth century B.C., high-temperature stonewares were being made with glazed surfaces. During the Six Dynasties period (AD 265-589), kilns in north China were producing high-fired ceramics of good quality. Whitewares produced in Hebei and Henan provinces from the seventh to the tenth centuries evolved into the highly prized porcelains of the Song dynasty (AD. 960-1279), long regarded as one of the high points in the history of China's ceramic industry. The tradition of religious sculpture extends over most historical periods but is less clearly delineated than that of stonewares or porcelains, for it embraces the old custom of earthenware burial ceramics with later religious images and architectural ornament. Ceramic products also include lead-glazed tomb models of the Han dynasty, three-color lead-glazed vessels and figures of the Tang dynasty, and Ming three-color temple ornaments, in which the motifs were outlined in a raised trail of slip—as well as the many burial ceramics produced in imitation of vessels made in materials of higher intrinsic value. 7. Paragraph 4 supports all of the following concerning the history of the ceramic industry in China EXCEPT: ○ The earliest high-fired ceramics were of poor quality. ○ Ceramics produced during the Tang and Ming dynasties sometimes incorporated multiple colors. ○ Earthenware ceramics were produced in China before stonewares were. ○ The Song dynasty period was notable for the production of high quality porcelain ceramics. 答案：A ****************************************************************************** ►The same thing happens to this day, though on a smaller scale, wherever a sediment-laden river or stream emerges from a mountain valley onto relatively flat land, dropping its load as the current slows: the water usually spreads out fanwise, depositing the sediment in the form of a smooth, fan-shaped slope. Sediments are also dropped where a river slows on entering a lake or the sea, the deposited sediments are on a lake floor or the seafloor at first, but will be located inland at some future date, when the sea level falls or the land rises; such beds are sometimes thousands of meters thick. All of the following are mentioned in paragraph 3 as places that sediment-laden rivers can deposit their sediments EXCEPT ○ A mountain valley ○ Flat land ○ A lake floor ○ The seafloor 答案：A ******************************************************************************
        • 3. 递进列举: ...is a progress of…. EXCEPT？
          • ►Glaciers are slowly moving masses of ice that have accumulated on land in areas where more snowfalls during a year than melts. Snow falls as hexagonal crystals, but once on the ground, snow is soon transformed into a compacted mass of smaller, rounded grains. As the air space around them is lessened by compaction and melting, the grains become denser. With further melting, refreezing, and increased weight from newer snowfall above, the snow reaches a granular recrystallized stage intermediate between flakes and ice known as firn. With additional time, pressure, and refrozen meltwater from above, the small firn granules become larger, interlocked crystals of blue glacial ice. When the ice is thick enough, usually over 30 meters, the weight of the snow and firn will cause the ice crystals toward the bottom to become plastic and to flow outward or downward from the area of snow accumulation. 1. According to paragraph 1, which of the following does NOT describe a stage in the development of firn? ○ Hexagonal crystals become larger and interlock to form a thick layer. ○ Snow crystals become compacted into grains. ○ Granules recrystallize after melting, refreezing, and further compaction. ○ Grains become denser owing to reduced air space around them. ************************************************************************************************* ►The same thing happens to this day, though on a smaller scale, wherever a sediment-laden river or stream emerges from a mountain valley onto relatively flat land, dropping its load as the current slows: the water usually spreads out fanwise, depositing the sediment in the form of a smooth, fan-shaped slope. Sediments are also dropped where a river slows on entering a lake or the sea, the deposited sediments are on a lake floor or the seafloor at first, but will be located inland at some future date, when the sea level falls or the land rises; such beds are sometimes thousands of meters thick. 2. All of the following are mentioned in paragraph 3 as places that sediment-laden rivers can deposit their sediments EXCEPT ○ A mountain valley ○ Flat land ○ A lake floor ○ The seafloor 答案：C ****************************************************************************** ►In 1769 in a little town in Oxfordshire, England, a child with the very ordinary name of William Smith was born into the poor family of a village blacksmith. He received rudimentary village schooling, but mostly he roamed his uncle's farm collecting the fossils that were so abundant in the rocks of the Cotswold hills. When he grew older, William Smith taught himself surveying from books he bought with his small savings, and at the age of eighteen he was apprenticed to a surveyor of the local parish. He then proceeded to teach himself geology, and when he was twenty-four, he went to work for the company that was excavating the Somerset Coal Canal in the south of England. 3. According to paragraph 1, which of the following statements about William Smith is NOT true? ○ Smith learned surveying by reading and by apprenticing for a local surveyor. ○ Smith’s family lived in a small English town and possessed little wealth. ○ Smith learned about fossils from books he borrowed from his uncle. ○ Smith eventually left his village to work on the excavation of an English canal. 答案：C ******************************************************************************
      • 【2】列舉考點
        • 1. 句内：A and B, or/and C.
          • ►In order to understand ancient Egyptian art, it is vital to know as much as possible of the elite Egyptians' view of the world and the functions and contexts of the art produced for them. Without this knowledge we can appreciate only the formal content of Egyptian art, and we will fail to understand why it was produced or the concepts that shaped it and caused it to adopt its distinctive forms. ❤1. In paragraph 1, the author mentions all of the following as necessary in appreciating Egyptian art EXCEPT an understanding of ○ the reasons why the art was made ○ the nature of aristocratic Egyptian beliefs ○ the influences of Egyptian art on later art such as classical Greek art ○ how the art was used 答案：C ************************************************************************************** ►The principal seagoing ship used throughout the Middle Ages was the galley, a long, low ship fitted with sails but driven primarily by oars. The largest galleys had as many as 50 oarsmen. Since they had relatively shallow hulls, they were unstable when driven by sail or when on rough water: hence they were unsuitable for the voyage to the East. Even if they hugged the African coastline, they had little chance of surviving a crossing of the Indian Ocean. Shortly after 1400, shipbuilders began developing a new type of vessel properly designed to operate in rough, open water: the caravel. It had a wider and deeper hull than the galley and hence could carry more cargo: increased stability made it possible to add multiple masts and sails. In the largest caravels, two main masts held large square sails that provided the bulk of the thrust driving the ship forward, while a smaller forward mast held a triangular-shaped sail, called a lateen sail, which could be moved into a variety of positions to maneuver the ship. ❤2. According to paragraph 3, all of the following statements comparing the caravel with the galley are true EXCEPT: ○The caravel had fewer masts than the galley. ○The caravel had a wider hull than the galley. ○The caravel could carry more cargo than the galley. ○The caravel was more stable in rough water than the galley. 答案：A ************************************************************************************** ►Contrary to the arguments of some that much of the pacific was settled by Polynesians accidentally marooned after being lost and adrift, it seems reasonable that this feat was accomplished by deliberate colonization expeditions that set out fully stocked with food and domesticated plants and animals. Detailed studies of the winds and currents using computer simulations suggest that drifting canoes would have been a most unlikely means of colonizing the Pacific. These expeditions were likely driven by population growth and political dynamics on the home islands, as well as the challenge and excitement of exploring unknown waters. Because all Polynesians, Micronesians, and many Melanesians speak Austronesian languages and grow crops derived from Southeast Asia, all these peoples most certainly derived from that region and not the New World or elsewhere. The undisputed pre-Columbian presence in Oceania of the sweet potato, which is a New World domesticate, has sometimes been used to support Heyerdahl’s “American Indians in the Pacific” theories. 3. According to Paragraph4, which of the following is NOT an explanation for why a group of people might have wanted to colonize the Pacific islands? ○ As their numbers increased, they needed additional territory. ○ The winds and currents made the islands easy to reach. ○ The political situation at home made emigration desirable. ○ They found exploration challenging and exciting. 答案：B **************************************************************************************
        • 2. 句间：A and B. Also/Furthermore... C
          • ►Simple geometric repeated patterns—circles, concentric circles, and lines—constitute the iconography (characteristic images) of the earliest rock-art sites found across Australia. The frequency with which certain simple motifs appear in these oldest sites has led rock-art researchers to adopt a descriptive term—the Panaramitee style—a label which takes its name from the extensive rock pavements at Panaramitee North in desert South Australia, which are covered with motifs pecked into the surface. Certain features of these engravings lead to the conclusion that they are of great age—geological changes had clearly happened after the designs had been made and local Aboriginal informants, when first questioned about them, seemed to know nothing of their origins. Furthermore, the designs were covered with “desert varnish,” a glaze that develops on rock surfaces over thousands of years of exposure to the elements. The simple motifs found at Panaramitee are common to many rock-art sites across Australia. Indeed, sites with engravings of geometric shapes are also to be found on the island of Tasmania, which was separated from the mainland of the continent some 10,000 years ago. ❤ 1. According to paragraph 4, all of the following are signs of the great age of the Panaramitee engravings EXCEPT: ○ The engravings consisted of simple animal drawings. ○ The engravings were covered with a layer of a substance known as “desert varnish”. ○ Local Aborigines who were asked knew nothing about the origin of the engravings. ○ Geologic changes had occurred after the engravings were made. 答案：A ************************************************************************************** ►The political institutions of the four countries posed no significant barriers to industrialization or economic growth. The nineteenth century passed relatively peacefully for these countries, with progressive democratization taking place in all of them. They were reasonably well governed, without notable corruption or grandiose state projects, although in all of them the government gave some aid to railways, and in Sweden the state built the main lines. As small countries dependent on foreign markets, they followed a liberal trade policy in the main, though a protectionist movement developed in Sweden. In Denmark and Sweden agricultural reforms took place gradually from the late eighteenth century through the first half of the nineteenth, resulting in a new class of peasant landowners with a definite market orientation. ❤ 2. According to paragraph 5, each of the following contributed positively to the industrialization of the Netherlands and Scandinavia EXCEPT ○ generally liberal trade policies ○ huge projects undertaken by the state ○ relatively uncorrupt governments ○ relatively little social or political disruption 答案：B ************************************************************************************** Play is not without considerable costs to the individual animal. Play is usually very active, involving movement in space and, at times, noisemaking. Therefore, it results in the loss of fuel or energy that might better be used for growth or for building up fat stores in a young animal. Another potential cost of this activity is greater exposure to predators since play is attention-getting behavior. Great activities also increase the risk of injury in slipping or falling. ❤❤ 3. According to paragraph 3, each of the following is a cost to animals that engage in play EXCEPT ○ exposure to predators ○ a buildup of fat stores ○ a loss of fuel that could be used for growth ○ risk of injury from slipping or falling 答案：B ************************************************************************************** ►The particular symbolic significance of the cave paintings in southwestern France is more explicitly revealed, perhaps, by the results of a study conducted by researchers Patricia Rice and Ann Paterson. The data they present suggest that the animals portrayed in the cave paintings were mostly the ones that the painters preferred for meat and for materials such as hides. For example, wild cattle (bovines) and horses are portrayed more often than we would expect by chance, probably because they were larger and heavier (meatier) than other animals in the environment. In addition, the paintings mostly portray animals that the painters may have feared the most because of their size, speed, natural weapons such as tusks and horns, and the unpredictability of their behavior. That is, mammoths, bovines, and horses are portrayed more often than deer and reindeer. Thus, the paintings are consistent with the idea that the art is related to the importance of hunting in the economy of Upper Paleolithic people. ❤ 4. According to paragraph 4, scholars believe that wild cattle, horses, and mammoths are the animals most frequently portrayed in cave paintings for all of the following reasons EXCEPT: ○ These animals were difficult to hunt because their unpredictable behavior. ○ People preferred these animals for their meat and for their skins. ○ The painters admired the beauty of these large animals. ○ People feared these animals because of their size and speed. 答案：C ************************************************************************************** ►How did it come about that farming developed independently in a number of world centers (the Southeast Asian mainland, Southwest Asia, Central America, lowland and highland South America, and equatorial Africa) at more or less the same time? Agriculture developed slowly among populations that had an extensive knowledge of plants and animals. Changing from hunting and gathering to agriculture had no immediate advantages. To start with, it forced the population to abandon the nomad's life and become sedentary, to develop methods of storage and, often, systems of irrigation. While hunter-gatherers always had the option of moving elsewhere when the resources were exhausted, this became more difficult with farming. Furthermore, as the archaeological record shows, the state of health of agriculturalists was worse than that of their contemporary hunter-gatherers. ❤❤❤ 5. According to paragraph 1, all of the following are advantages of hunting and gathering over agriculture EXCEPT: ○ It is a healthier lifestyle. ○ It requires less knowledge of plants and animals. ○ It does not need storage capabilities. ○ It is not tied to any specific location. 答案：B ************************************************************************************** ►Equally perplexing constituents of Allende are the refractory inclusions: irregular white masses that tend to be larger than chondrules. They are composed of minerals uncommon on Earth, all rich in calcium, aluminum, and titanium, the most refractory (resistant to melting) of the major elements in the nebula. The same minerals that occur in refractory inclusions are believed to be the earliest-formed substances to have condensed out of the solar nebula. However, studies of the textures of inclusions reveal that the order in which the minerals appeared in the inclusions varies from inclusion to inclusion, and often does not match the theoretical condensation sequence for those metals. ❤❤ 6. According to paragraph 4, all of the following are true about the minerals found in the refractory inclusions EXCEPT: ○ These minerals are among the most resistant to melting of all the major elements in the solar nebula. ○ These minerals are believed to be some of the first elements to have condensed out of the solar nebula. ○ These minerals are among the least commonly found elements on Earth. ○ These elements occur in the order that scientists would have predicted. 答案：D ************************************************************************************** ►Plant communities assemble themselves flexibly, and their particular structure depends on the specific history of the area. Ecologists use the term “succession” to refer to the changes that happen in plant communities and ecosystems over time. The first community in a succession is called a pioneer community, while the long-lived community at the end of succession is called a climax community. Pioneer and successional plant communities are said to change over periods from 1 to 500 years. These changes — in plant numbers and the mix of species — are cumulative. Climax communities themselves change but over periods of time greater than about 500 years. 7. According to paragraph 1, which of the following is NOT true of climax communities? ○ They occur at the end of a succession. ○ They last longer than any other type of community. ○ The numbers of plants in them and the mix of species do not change. ○ They remain stable for at least 500 years at a time. 答案：C ************************************************************************************** ►Of course, there is far more oil underground than can be recovered. It may be in a pool too small or too far from a potential market to justify the expense of drilling. Some oil lies under regions where drilling is forbidden, such as national parks or other public lands. Even given the best extraction techniques, only about 30 to 40 percent of the oil in a given pool can be brought to the surface. The rest is far too difficult to extract and has to remain underground. 8. According to paragraph 5, the decision to drill for oil depends on all of the following factors EXCEPT ○ permission to access the area where oil has been found ○ the availability of sufficient quantities of oil in a pool ○ the location of the market in relation to the drilling site ○ the political situation in the region where drilling would occur 答案：D ************************************************************************************** ►The greater Pacific region, traditionally called Oceania, consists of three cultural areas: Melanesia, Micronesia, and Polynesia. Melanesia, in the southwest Pacific, contains the large islands of New Guinea, the Solomon, Vanuatu, and New Caledonia. Micronesia, the area north of Melanesia, consists primarily of small scattered islands. Polynesia is the central Pacific area in the great triangle defined by Hawaii, Easter Island, and New Zealand. Before the arrival of Europeans, the islands in the two largest cultural areas, Polynesia and Micronesia, together contained a population estimated at 700,000. 9. According to Paragraph1, all of the following are true statements about Melanesia, Micronesia, and Polynesia EXCEPT ○ Collectively, these regions are traditionally known as Oceania. ○ These islands of Micronesia are small and spread out. ○ Hawaii, Easter Island, and New Zealand mark the boundaries of Polynesia. ○ Melanesia is situated to the north of Micronesia. 答案：D ************************************************************************************** ►The basic cultural requirements for the successful colonization of the Pacific islands include the appropriate boat-building, sailing, and navigation skills to get to the islands in the first place, domesticated plants and gardening skills suited to often marginal conditions, and a varied inventory of fishing implements and techniques. It is now generally believed that these prerequisites originated with peoples speaking Austronesian languages (a group of several hundred related languages) and began to emerge in Southeast Asia by about 5000 B. C.E. The culture of that time, based on archaeology and linguistic reconstruction, is assumed to have had a broad inventory of cultivated plants including taro, yarns, banana, sugarcane, breadfruit, coconut, sago, and rice. ust as important, the culture also possessed the basic foundation for an effective maritime adaptation, including outrigger canoes and a variety of fishing techniques that could be effective for overseas voyaging. 10. All of the following are mentioned in Paragraph3 as required for successful colonization of the Pacific islands EXCEPT ○ knowledge of various Austronesian languages ○ a variety of fishing techniques ○ navigational skills ○ knowledge of plant cultivation 答案：A ************************************************************************************** ►The Ediacara fossil formation, which contains the oldest known animal fossils, consists exclusively of soft-bodied forms. Although named after a site in Australia, the Ediacara formation is worldwide in distribution and dates to Precambrian times. This 700-million-year-old formation gives few clues to the origins of modern animals, however, because paleontologists believe it represents an evolutionary experiment that failed. It contains no ancestors of modern animal groups. 11. Which of the following is NOT mentioned in Paragraph4 as being true of the Ediacara formation? ○ It contains fossils that date back to the Precambrian period. ○ It contains only soft-bodied animal fossils. ○ It is located on a single site in Australia. ○ It does not contain any fossils of the ancestors of modern animals. 答案：C ************************************************************************************** Moving water was one of the earliest energy sources to be harnessed to reduce the workload of people and animals. No one knows exactly when the water wheel was invented, but irrigation systems existed at least 5,000 years ago, and it seems probable that the earliest waterpower device was the noria, a waterwheel that raised water for irrigation in attached jars. This device appears to have evolved no later than the fifth century B.C., perhaps independently in different regions of the Middle and Far East. 12. In paragraph 1, uncertainty is expressed about all of the following aspects of the early development of waterpower EXCEPT ○ When exactly the very first waterpower devices were invented ○ Where exactly the very first waterpower devices were developed ○ Whether water was one of the earliest sources of power to be used by humans ○ Whether the very earliest waterpower devices arose independently 答案：C ************************************************************************************** >Medieval Europe gave new importance to reliable time. The Catholic Church had its seven daily prayers, one of which was at night, requiring an alarm arrangement to waken monks before dawn. And then the new cities and towns, squeezed by their walls, had to know and order time in order to organize collective activity and ration space. They set a time to go to sleep. All this was compatible with older devices so long as there was only one authoritative timekeeper; but with urban growth and the multiplication of time signals, discrepancy brought discord and strife. Society needed a more dependable instrument of time measurement and found it in the mechanical clock. 13. According to paragraph 2, all of the following are examples of the importance of timekeeping to medieval European society EXCEPT: ○ the need of different towns to coordinate timekeeping with each other ○ the setting of specific times for the opening and closing of markets ○ the setting of specific times for the start and finish of the working day ○ the regulation of the performance of daily church rituals 答案：C **************************************************************************************
        • 3. 跨句：A. - 解释句(解释A句) - B. - 解释句(解释B句) - C.
          • ►The most striking characteristic of the plants of the alpine zone is their low growth form. This enables them to avoid the worst rigors of high winds and permits them to make use of the higher temperatures immediately adjacent to the ground surface. In an area where low temperatures are limiting to life, the importance of the additional heat near the surface is crucial. The low growth form can also permit the plants to take advantage of the insulation provided by a winter snow cover. In the equatorial mountains the low growth form is less prevalent. ❤ 1. According to paragraph 6, all of the following statements are true of plants in the alpine zone EXCEPT: ○ Because they are low, they are less exposed to strong winds. ○ Because they are low, the winter snow cover gives them more protection from the extreme cold. ○ In the equatorial mountains, they tend to be lower than in mountains elsewhere. ○ Their low growth form keeps them closer to the ground, where there is more heat than further up. 答案：C ******************************************************************************* ►In the varied and constantly changing light environment of the forest, an animal must be able to send visual signals to members of its own species and at the same time avoid being detected by predators. An animal can hide from predators by choosing the light environment in which its pattern is least visible. This may require moving to different parts of the forest at different times of the day or under different weather conditions, or it may be achieved by changing color according to the changing light conditions. Many species of amphibians (frogs and toads) and reptiles (lizards and snakes) are able to change their color patterns to camouflage themselves. Some also signal by changing color. The chameleon lizard has the most striking ability to do this. Some chameleon species can change from a rather dull appearance to a full riot of carnival colors in seconds. By this means, they signal their level of aggression or readiness to mate. ❤❤ 2. According to paragraph 2, all of the following are reasons amphibians and reptiles change color EXCEPT ○ changing seasons ○ to signal others of their species ○ to match the light ○ to hide from predators 答案：C ******************************************************************************* ►This decline can be seen clearly in the changes that affected Venetian shipping and trade. First, Venice' s intermediary functions in the Adriatic Sea, where it had dominated the business of shipping for other parties, were lost to direct trading. In the fifteenth century there was little problem recruiting sailors to row the galleys (large ships propelled by oars): guilds (business associations) were required to provide rowers, and through a draft system free citizens served compulsorily when called for. In the early sixteenth century the shortage of rowers was not serious because the demand for galleys was limited by a move to round ships (round-hulled ships with more cargo space), which required fewer rowers. But the shortage of crews proved to be a greater and greater problem, despite continuous appeal to Venice' s tradition of maritime greatness. Even though sailors' wages doubled among the northern Italian cities from 1550 to 1590, this did not elicit an increased supply. ❤ 3. All of the following are mentioned in paragraph 2 as ways that Venice provided rowers for its galleys EXCEPT ○ requiring business associations to provide sailors ○ recruiting sailors from other cities in northern Italy ○ drafting Venetian citizens into service as rowers ○ appealing to the tradition of Venice as a sea power 答案：B ******************************************************************************* ► What could cause such high rates of extinction? There are several hypotheses, including warming or cooling of Earth, changes in seasonal fluctuations or ocean currents, and changing positions of the continents. Biological hypotheses include ecological changes brought about by the evolution of cooperation between insects and flowering plants or of bottom-feeding predators in the oceans. Some of the proposed mechanisms required a very brief period during which all extinctions suddenly took place; other mechanisms would be more likely to have taken place more gradually, over an extended period, or at different times on different continents. Some hypotheses fail to account for simultaneous extinctions on land and in the seas. Each mass extinction may have had a different cause. Evidence points to hunting by humans and habitat destruction as the likely causes for the current mass extinction. ❤❤ 4. According to paragraph 3, each of the following has been proposed as a possible cause of mass extinctions EXCEPT ○ habitat destruction ○ continental movement ○ fierce interspecies competition ○ changes in Earth's temperature 答案：C ******************************************************************************* ► A third possibility is that children will not be able to tell their own "life story" until they understand something about the general form stories take, that is, the structure of narratives. Knowledge about narratives arises from social interactions, particularly the storytelling that children experience from parents and the attempts parents make to talk with children about past events in their lives. When parents talk with children about "what we did today" or "last week" or "last year," they guide the children's formation of a framework for talking about the past. They also provide children with reminders about the memory and relay the message that memories are valued as part of the cultural experience. It is interesting to note that some studies show Caucasian American children have earlier childhood memories than Korean children do. Furthermore, other studies show that Caucasian American mother-child pairs talk about past events three times more often than do Korean mother-child pairs. Thus, the types of social experiences children have do factor into the development of autobiographical memories. ❤❤ 8. All of the following are mentioned in paragraph 4 as ways in which parents help their children understand the structure of narratives EXCEPT ○ talking with their children about past events ○ telling stories to their children ○ having their children repeat stories back to them ○ showing their children that they think memories are important 答案：D ******************************************************************************* ►General concern about misleading tactics that advertisers employ is centered on the use of exaggeration. Consumer protection groups and parents believe that children are largely ill-equipped to recognize such techniques and that often exaggeration is used at the expense of product information. Claims such as "the best" or "better than" can be subjective and misleading; even adults may be unsure as to their meaning. They represent the advertiser's opinions about the qualities of their products or brand and, as a consequence, are difficult to verify. Advertisers sometimes offset or counterbalance an exaggerated claim with a disclaimer—a qualification or condition on the claim. For example, the claim that breakfast cereal has a health benefit may be accompanied by the disclaimer "when part of a nutritionally balanced breakfast." However, research has shown that children often have difficulty understanding disclaimers: children may interpret the phrase "when part of a nutritionally balanced breakfast" to mean that the cereal is required as a necessary part of a balanced breakfast. The author George Comstock suggested that less than a quarter of children between the ages of six and eight years old understood standard disclaimers used in many toy advertisements and that disclaimers are more readily comprehended when presented in both audio and visual formats. Nevertheless, disclaimers are mainly presented in audio format only. 9. According to paragraph 2, all of the following are true of disclaimers made in advertisements EXCEPT: ○They are qualifications or conditions put on a claim. ○They may be used to balance exaggerations. ○They are usually presented in both audio and visual formats. ○They are often difficult for children to understand. 答案：D ******************************************************************************* ►The source had long been known but not exploited. Early in the century, a pump had come into use in which expanding steam raised a piston in a cylinder, and atmospheric pressure brought it down again when the steam condensed inside the cylinder to form a vacuum. This “atmospheric engine,” invented by Thomas Savery and vastly improved by his partner. Thomas Newcomen, embodied revolutionary principles, but it was so slow and wasteful of fuel that it could not be employed outside the coal mines for which it had been designed. In the 1760s, James Watt perfected a separate condenser for the steam, so that the cylinder did not have to be cooled at every stroke; then he devised a way to make the piston turn a wheel and thus convert reciprocating (back and forth) motion into rotary motion. He thereby transformed an inefficient pump of limited use into a steam engine of a thousand uses. The final step came when steam was introduced into the cylinder to drive the piston backward as well as forward thereby increasing the speed of the engine and cutting its fuel consumption. 10. According to paragraph 2, Watt's steam engine differed from earlier steam engines, in each of the following ways, Except: ○ It used steam to move a piston in a cylinder. ○ It worked with greater speed. ○ It was more efficient in its use of fuel. ○ It could be used in many different ways. 答案：A ******************************************************************************* ►Some of the earliest human civilizations arose in southern Mesopotamia, in what is now southern Iraq, in the fourth millennium B.C.E. In the second half of that millennium, in the south around the city of Uruk, there was an enormous escalation in the area occupied by permanent settlements. A large part of that increase took place in Uruk itself, which became a real urban center surrounded by a set of secondary settlements. While population estimates are notoriously unreliable, scholars assume that Uruk inhabitants were able to support themselves from the agricultural production of the field surrounding the city, which could be reached with a daily commute. But Uruk’s dominant size in the entire region, far surpassing that of other settlements, indicates that it was a regional center and a true city. Indeed, it was the first city in human history. Q1 Which of the sentences below best express the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information. ○ Although scholars cannot accurately determine the size of the Uruk population, they know the citizens were not dependent on agriculture. ○ Scholars do not have enough evidence to determine whether the agricultural areas just outside of Uruk were large enough to feed the city’s population ○ Because city populations cannot feed themselves, scholars think the surrounding farms provided food for the people in Uruk ○ Scholars believe that the inhabitants of Uruk were able to support themselves from produce grown in field surrounding the city. 11. According to paragraph 1, all of the following are true of the ancient settlement at Uruk EXCEPT: ○ It was a permanent settlement. ○ It was self-sufficient ○ It was one of a group of other larger settlements. ○ It had easy access to the land where its crops were grown. 答案：C ******************************************************************************* A heated debate has enlivened recent studies of evolution. Darwin’s original thesis, and the viewpoint supported by evolutionary gradualists, is that species change continuously but slowly and in small increments. Such changes are all but invisible over the short time scale of modern observations, and, it is argued, they are usually obscured by innumerable gaps in the imperfect fossil record. Gradualism, with its stress on the slow pace of change, is a comforting position, repeated over and over again in generations of textbooks. By the early twentieth century, the question about the rate of evolution had been answered in favor of gradualism to most biologists’ satisfaction. 12. According to paragraph 1, all of the following are true EXCEPT ○ Darwin saw evolutionary change as happening slowly and gradually ○ Gaps in the fossil record were used to explain why it is difficult to see continuous small changes in the evolution of species ○ Darwin’s evolutionary thesis was rejected because small changes could not be observed in the evolutionary record ○ By the early twentieth century, most biologists believed that gradualism explained evolutionary change 答案：C *******************************************************************************
        • 4. 跨段：P1. P2 第一段最後一句，加上第二段從第一句開始
          • ►Over long periods of time, substances whose physical and chemical properties change with the ambient climate at the time can be deposited in a systematic way to provide a continuous record of changes in those properties overtime, sometimes for hundreds or thousands of years. Generally, the layering occurs on an annual basis, hence the observed changes in the records can be dated. Information on temperature, rainfall, and other aspects of the climate that can be inferred from the systematic changes in properties is usually referred to as proxy data. Proxy temperature records have been reconstructed from ice core drilled out of the central Greenland ice cap, calcite shells embedded in layered lake sediments in Western Europe, ocean floor sediment cores from the tropical Atlantic Ocean, ice cores from Peruvian glaciers, and ice cores from eastern Antarctica. While these records provide broadly consistent indications that temperature variations can occur on a global scale, there are nonetheless some intriguing differences, which suggest that the pattern of temperature variations in regional climates can also differ significantly from each other. ►What the proxy records make abundantly clear is that there have been significant natural changes in the climate over timescales longer than a few thousand years. Equally striking, however, is the relative stability of the climate in the past 10.000 years (the Holocene period). ❤ 1. According to paragraphs 3 and 4, proxy data have suggested all of the following about the climate EXCEPT: ○ Regional climates may change overtime. ○ The climate has changed very little in the past 10,000 years. ○ Global temperatures vary more than regional temperatures. ○ Important natural changes in climate have occurred over large timescales. 答案：C ************************************************************************************** ►We all know that many more people today are right-handed than left-handed. Can one trace this same pattern far back in prehistory? Much of the evidence about right-hand versus left-hand dominance comes from stencils and prints found in rock shelters in Australia and elsewhere, and in many Ice Age caves in France, Spain, and Tasmania. When a left hand has been stenciled, this implies that the artist was right-handed, and vice versa. Even though the paint was often sprayed on by mouth, one can assume that the dominant hand assisted in the operation. One also has to make the assumption that hands were stenciled palm downward—a left hand stenciled palm upward might of course look as if it were a right hand. Of 158 stencils in the French cave of Gargas, 136 have been identified as left, and only 22 as right; right-handedness was therefore heavily predominant. ►Cave art furnishes other types of evidence of this phenomenon. Most engravings, for example, are best lit from the left, as befits the work of right-handed artists, who generally prefer to have the light source on the left so that the shadow of their hand does not fall on the tip of the engraving tool or brush. In the few cases where an Ice Age figure is depicted holding something, it is mostly, though not always, in the right hand. ❤❤❤ 2. All of the following are mentioned in paragraphs 1 and 2 as evidence of right-handedness in art and artists EXCEPT ○ the ideal source of lighting for most engravings ○ the fact that a left hand stenciled palm upward might look like a right hand ○ the prevalence of outlines of left hands ○ figures in prehistoric art holding objects with the right hand 答案：B ************************************************************************************** ►The surface of Mars shows a wide range of geologic features, including huge volcanoes—the largest known in the solar system—and extensive impact cratering. Three very large volcanoes are found on the Tharsis bulge, an enormous geologic area near Mars' equator. Northwest of Tharsis is the largest volcano of all: Olympus Mons, with a height of 25 kilometers and measuring some 700 kilometers in diameter at its base. The three large volcanoes on the Tharsis bulge are a little smaller—a "mere" 18 kilometers high. ►None of these volcanoes was formed as a result of collisions between plates of the Martian crust—there is no plate motion on Mars. Instead, they are shield volcanoes—volcanoes with broad, sloping sides formed by molten rock. All four show distinctive lava channels and other flow features similar to those found on shield volcanoes on Earth. Images of the Martian surface reveal many hundreds of volcanoes. Most of the largest volcanoes are associated with the Tharsis bulge, but many smaller ones are found in the northern plains. ❤❤ 3. According to paragraphs 1 and 2, which of the following is NOT true of the shield volcanoes on the Tharsis bulge? ○ They have broad, sloping sides. ○ They are smaller than the largest volcano on Mars. ○ They have channels that resemble the lava channels of volcanoes on Earth. ○ They are over 25 kilometers tall. 答案：D ************************************************************************************** ►The problem in shipping extended to the Arsenale, Venice' s huge and powerful shipyard Timber ran short, and it was necessary to procure it from farther and farther away. In ancient Roman times, the Italian peninsula had great forests of fir preferred for warships, but scarcity was apparent as early as the early fourteenth century. Arsenale officers first brought timber from the foothills of the Alps, then from north toward Trieste, and finally from across the Adriatic. Private shipbuilders were required to buy their oak abroad. As the costs of shipbuilding rose, Venice clung to its outdated standards while the Dutch were innovating in lighter and more easily handled ships. ►The step from buying foreign timber to buying foreign ships was regarded as a short one, especially when complaints were heard in the latter sixteenth century that the standards and traditions of the Arsenale were running down. Work was stretched out and done poorly. Older workers had been allowed to stop work a half hour before the regular time, and in 1601 younger workers left with them. Merchants complained that the privileges reserved for Venetian-built and -owned ships were first extended to those Venetians who bought ships from abroad and then to foreign-built and -owned vessels. Historian Frederic Lane observes that after the loss of ships in battle in the late sixteenth century, the shipbuilding industry no longer had the capacity to recover that it had displayed at the start of the century. ❤ 4. All of the following are mentioned in paragraphs 3 and 4 as contributing to the problems of the Venetian shipbuilding industry at the end of the sixteenth century EXCEPT: ○ The quality of work performed in the Arsenale had declined. ○ Venetian-built ships were heavy and generally inefficient. ○ Arsenale shipbuilders worked more slowly. ○ Only a few merchants controlled the buying and selling of most of the Venetian-built ships. 答案：D **************************************************************************************
    • 【2】错误选项一般特征
      • 【1】多出极端：如 only, always, all, until, unless, almost 最高级等
      • 【2】多出比较：harder /faster /easier /more /larger /longer than....
      • 【3】多出否定：not/no/none/never/seldom/few/little/rarely/scarcely
        • 明显否定关系
          • no, not, none, neither, nor, never等
          • too…to/neither…nor/rather than/more...than.../than.../contrary to
          • fail to/unable to/reject/remove/refuse/decrease/reduce/disappear/lack of/ignore
          • little/few/small/incomplete/absent/missing/useless
        • 隐含否定关系
          • - 否定前缀a-, ab-, anti-, counter-, de-, dis-, il-, im-, in-, ir-, mal-, mis-, non-, un-
          • - 否定后缀-less, -free (ice-free, salt-free, useless)
      • 【4】縮小或擴大概念：see, hear, feel => the range of visual field
    • 【3】"难度较大" 的题目
      • 以下哪个选项答非所问？
        • ►Dissatisfaction with conventional explanations for dinosaur extinctions led to a surprising observation that, in turn, has suggested a new hypothesis. Many plants and animals disappear abruptly from the fossil record as one moves from layers of rock documenting the end of the Cretaceous up into rocks representing the beginning of the Cenozoic (the era after the Mesozoic). Between the last layer of Cretaceous rock and the first layer of Cenozoic rock, there is often a thin layer of clay. Scientists felt that they could get an idea of how long the extinctions took by determining how long it took to deposit this one centimeter of clay and they thought they could determine the time it took to deposit the clay by determining the amount of the element iridium (lr) it contained. 1. In paragraph 4, all the following questions are answered EXCEPT: ○ Why is there a layer of clay between the rocks of the Cretaceous and Cenozoic? ○ Why were scientists interested in determining how long it took to deposit the layer of clay at the end of the Cretaceous? ○ What was the effect of the surprising observation scientists made? ○ Why did scientists want more information about the dinosaur extinctions at the end of the Cretaceous ？ 答案：A **************************************************************************** ►Some scientists speculate that Mars may have enjoyed an extended early Period during which rivers, lakes, and perhaps even oceans adorned its surface. A 2003 Mars Global Surveyor image shows what mission specialists think may be a delta—a fan-shaped network of channels and sediments where a river once flowed into a larger body of water, in this case a lake filling a crater in the southern highlands. Other researchers go even further, suggesting that the data provide evidence for large open expenses of water on the early Martian surface. A computer-generated view of the Martian north polar region shows the extent of what may have been an ancient ocean covering much of the northern lowlands. The Hellas Basin, which measures some 3,000 kilometers across and has a floor that lies nearly 9 kilometers below the basin’s rim, is another candidate for an ancient Martian sea. 2. All of the following questions about geological features on Mars are answered in paragraph 3 EXCEPT: ○ What are some regions of Mars that may have once been covered with an ocean? ○ Where do mission scientists believe that the river forming the delta emptied? ○ Approximately how many craters on Mars do mission scientists believe may once have been lakes filled with water? ○ During what period of Mars` history do some scientists think it may have had large bodies of water? 答案：C **************************************************************************** ►Scientists have asked important questions about this explosion for more than a century. Why did it occur so late in the history of Earth? The origin of multicellular forms of life seems a relatively simple step compared to the origin of life itself. Why does the fossil record not document the series of evolutionary changes during the evolution of animals? Why did animal life evolve so quickly? Paleontologists continue to search the fossil record for answers to these questions. 3. According to Paragraph 2, which of the following is NOT a question that paleontologists asked about the Cambrian explosion? ○ Why was the origin of life a simple step in Earth’s history? ○ Why did it take so long for multicellular organisms to develop? ○ Why did animal life evolve so rapidly? ○ Why does the fossil record lack evidence of animal evolution during that time? 答案：A **************************************************************************** Paragraph2: Another flaw of the tiredness theory is that yawning does not raise alertness or physiological activity, as the theory would predict. When researchers measured the heart rate, muscle tension and skin conductance of people before, during and after yawning, they did detect some changes in skin conductance following yawning, indicating a slight increase in physiological activity. However, similar changes occurred when the subjects were asked simply to open their mouths or to breathe deeply. Yawning did nothing special to their state of physiological activity. Experiments have also cast serious doubt on the belief that yawning is triggered by a drop in blood oxygen or a rise in blood carbon dioxide. Volunteers were told to think about yawning while they breathed either normal air, pure oxygen, or an air mixture with an above-normal level of carbon dioxide. If the theory was correct, breathing air with extra carbon dioxide should have triggered yawning, while breathing pure oxygen should have suppressed yawning. In fact, neither condition made any difference to the frequency of yawning, which remained constant at about 24 yawns per hour. Another experiment demonstrated that physical exercise, which was sufficiently vigorous to double the rate of breathing, had no effect on the frequency of yawning. Again the implication is that yawning has little or nothing to do with oxygen. 4. In the paragraph 2, why does the author note that there were physiological changes when subjects opened their mouths or breathed deeply? ○ To present an argument in support of the tiredness theory ○ To cast doubt on the reliability of the tests that measured heart rate, muscle tension and skin conductance ○ To argue against the hypothesis that yawning provides a special way to improve alertness or raise physiological activity ○ To support the idea that opening the mouth or breathing deeply can affect blood oxygen levels 6. Paragraph 2 answers all of the following questions about yawning EXCEPT ○ Does yawning increase alertness or physiological activity? ○ Does thinking about yawning increase yawning over not thinking about yawning? ○ Does the amount of carbon dioxide and oxygen in the air affect the rate at which people yawn? ○ Does the rate of breathing affect the rate at which people yawn? 答案：A ****************************************************************************
      • 以下哪个选项未被反驳？
        • ►How might this inability to recall early experiences be explained? The sheer passage of time does not account for it; adults have excellent recognition of pictures of people who attended high school with them 35 years earlier. Another seemingly plausible explanation--that infants do not form enduring memories at this point in development-also is incorrect. Children two and a half to three years old remember experiences that occurred in their first year, and eleven month olds remember some events a year later. Nor does the hypothesis that infantile amnesia reflects repression—or holding back—of sexually charged episodes explain the phenomenon. The statement that while such repression may occur, people cannot remember ordinary events from the infant and toddler periods either is wrong. All of the following theories about the inability to recall early experiences are rejected in paragraph 2 EXCEPT: ○ The ability to recall an event decreases as the time after the event increases. ○ Young children are not capable of forming memories that last for more than a short time. ○ People may hold back sexually meaningful memories . ○ Most events in childhood are too ordinary to be worth remembering. 答案：D ****************************************************************************
      • 选项返回原文对应的题目
        • ►Survival and successful reproduction usually require the activities of animals to be coordinated with predictable events around them. Consequently, the timing and rhythms of biological functions must closely match periodic events like the solar day, the tides, the lunar cycle, and the seasons. The relations between animal activity and these periods, particularly for the daily rhythms, have been of such interest and importance that a huge amount of work has been done on them and the special research field of chronobiology has emerged. Normally, the constantly changing levels of an animal's activity—sleeping, feeding, moving, reproducing, metabolizing, and producing enzymes and hormones, for example—are well coordinated with environmental rhythms, but the key question is whether the animal's schedule is driven by external cues, such as sunrise or sunset, or is instead dependent somehow on internal timers that themselves generate the observed biological rhythms. Almost universally, biologists accept the idea that all eukaryotes (a category that includes most organisms except bacteria and certain algae) have internal clocks. By isolating organisms completely from external periodic cues, biologists learned that organisms have internal clocks. For instance, apparently normal daily periods of biological activity were maintained for about a week by the fungus Neurospora when it was intentionally isolated from all geophysical timing cues while orbiting in a space shuttle. The continuation of biological rhythms in an organism without external cues attests to its having an internal clock. According to paragraph 1, all the following are generally assumed to be true EXCEPT: ○ It is important for animals' daily activities to be coordinated with recurring events in their environment. ○ Eukaryotes have internal clocks. ○ The relationship between biological function and environmental cycles is a topic of intense research. ○ Animals' daily rhythms are more dependent on external cues than on internal clocks. 答案：D ****************************************************************************
      • 定位不准导致的解题困难
        • ►The evolutionary history of plants has been marked by a series of adaptations. The ancestors of plants were photosynthetic single-celled organisms that gave rise to plants presumably lacked true roots, stems, leaves, and complex reproductive structures such as flowers. All of these features appeared later in the evolutionary history of plants. Of today’s different groups of algae, green algae are probably the most similar to ancestral plants. This supposition stems from the close phylogenetic (natural evolutionary) relationship between the two groups. DNA comparisons have shown that green algae are ancestral plants’ closest living relatives . In addition, other lines of evidence support the hypothesis that land plants evolved from green algae used the same type of chlorophyll and accessory pigments in photosynthesis as do land plants. This would not be true of red and brown algae. Green algae store food as starch , as do land plants and have cell walls made of cellulose , similar in composition to those of land plants. Again, the good storage and cell wall molecules of red and brown algae are different. 1. According to paragraph 1, all of the following are true of ancestral plants EXCEPT ○ They had cellulose-based cell walls. ○ They were closely related to green algae ○ They were able to store nutrients ○ They had a sophisticated multicellular structure. 答案：D ************************************************************************************** Why were these hundreds of thousands of settlers—most of them farmers, some of them artisans—drawn away from the cleared fields and established cities and villages of the East? Certain characteristics of American society help to explain this remarkable migration. The European ancestors of some Americans had for centuries lived rooted to the same village or piece of land until some religious, political, or economic crisis uprooted them and drove them across the Atlantic. Many of those who experienced this sharp break thereafter lacked the ties that had bound them and their ancestors to a single place. Moreover, European society was relatively stratified; occupation and social status were inherited. In American society, however, the class structure was less rigid; some people changed occupations easily and believed it was their duty to improve their social and economic position. As a result, many Americans were an inveterately restless, rootless, and ambitious people. Therefore, these social traits helped to produce the nomadic and daring settlers who kept pushing westward beyond the fringes of settlement. In addition, there were other immigrants who migrated west in search of new homes, material success, and better lives. 2. According to paragraph 2, all of the following are reasons why Americans migrated westward EXCEPT ○ the desire to move from one place to the next ○ the hope of improving their socioeconomic status ○ the opportunity to change jobs ○ the need to escape religious or political crises 答案：D **************************************************************************************
      • 根据全文排除的错误选项
        • Planets in Our Solar System The Sun is the hub of a huge rotating system consisting of nine planets, their satellites, and numerous small bodies, including asteroids, comets, and meteoroids. An estimated 99.85 percent of the mass of our solar system is contained within the Sun, while the planets collectively make up most of the remaining 0.15 percent. The planets, in order of their distance from the Sun, are Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, and Pluto. Under the control of the Sun's gravitational force, each planet maintains an elliptical orbit and all of them travel in the same direction. The planets in our solar system fall into two groups: the terrestrial (Earth-like) planets (Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars) and the Jovian (Jupiter-like) planets (Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune). Pluto is not included in either category, because its great distance from Earth and its small size make this planet's true nature a mystery. The most obvious difference between the terrestrial and the Jovian planets is their size. The largest terrestrial planet, Earth has a diameter only one quarter as great as the diameter of the smallest Jovian planet, Neptune, and its mass is only one seventeenth as great. Hence, the Jovian planets are often called giants. Also , because of their relative locations, the four Jovian planets are known as the outer planets, while the terrestrial planets are known as the inner planets. There appears to be a correlation between the positions of these planets and their sizes. Other dimensions along which the two groups differ markedly are density and composition. The densities of the terrestrial planets average about 5 times the density of water, whereas the Jovian planets have densities that average only 1.5 times the density of water. One of the outer planets, Saturn, has a density of only 0.7 that of water, which means that Saturn would float in water. Variations in the composition of the planets are largely responsible for the density differences. The substances that make up both groups of planets are divided into three groups—gases, rocks, and ices—based on their melting points. The terrestrial planets are mostly rocks: dense rocky and metallic material, with minor amounts of gases. The Jovian planets, on the other hand, contain a large percentage of the gases hydrogen and helium, with varying amounts of ices: mostly water, ammonia, and methane ices. The Jovian planets have very thick atmospheres consisting of varying amounts of hydrogen, helium, methane, and ammonia. By comparison, the terrestrial planets have meager atmospheres at best. A planet's ability to retain an atmosphere depends on its temperature and mass. Simply stated, a gas molecule can "evaporate" from a planet if it reaches a speed known as the escape velocity. For Earth, this velocity is 11 kilometers per second. Any material, including a rocket, must reach this speed before it can leave Earth and go into space. The Jovian planets, because of their greater masses and thus higher surface gravities, have higher escape velocities (21-60 kilometers per second) than the terrestrial planets. Consequently, it is more difficult for gases to "evaporate" from them. Also, because the molecular motion of a gas depends on temperature, at the low temperatures of the Jovian planets even the lightest gases are unlikely to acquire the speed needed to escape. On the other hand, a comparatively warm body with a small surface gravity, like Earth's moon, is unable to hold even the heaviest gas and thus lacks an atmosphere. The slightly larger terrestrial planets Earth, Venus, and Mars retain some heavy gases like carbon dioxide, but even their atmospheres make up only an infinitesimally small portion of their total mass. The orderly nature of our solar system leads most astronomers to conclude that the planets formed at essentially the same time and from the same material as the Sun. It is hypothesized that the primordial cloud of dust and gas from which all the planets are thought to have condensed had a composition somewhat similar to that of Jupiter. However, unlike Jupiter, the terrestrial planets today are nearly void of light gases and ices. The explanation may be that the terrestrial planets were once much larger and richer in these materials but eventually lost them because of these bodies' relative closeness to the Sun, which meant that their temperatures were relatively high. 文章第一题： 1. According to the passage, each of the following statements comparing terrestrial planets with Jovian planets is true EXCEPT: ○ Terrestrial planets are closer to the Sun than Jovian planets. ○ Terrestrial planets have smaller diameters than Jovian planets. ○ Terrestrial planets have smaller masses than Jovian planets. ○ Terrestrial planets travel in a different direction than Jovian planets do. 答案：D **************************************************************************** →By 1800 more than a thousand steam engines were in use in the British Isles, and Britain retained a virtual monopoly on steam engine production until the 1830s. Steam power did not merely spin cotton and roll iron; early in the new century it also multiplied ten times over the amount of paper that a single worker could produce in a day. At the same time, operators of the first printing presses run by steam rather than by hand found it possible to produce a thousand pages in an hour rather than thirty. Steam also promised to eliminate a transportation problem not fully solved by either canal boats of turnpikes. Boats could carry heavy weights, but canals could not cross hilly terrain; turnpikes could cross the hills, but the roadbeds could not stand up under great weights. These problems needed still another solution, and the ingredients for it lay close at hand. In some industrial regions, horses along metal rails were hauling heavily laden wagons, with flanged wheels,; and the stationary steam engine was puffing in the factory and mine. 2. According to paragraph 4, which of the following statements about steam engines is true? EXCEPT题变种 ○ They were used for the production of paper but not for printing ○ By 1800, significant numbers of them were produced outside of Britain ○ They were used in factories before they were used to power trains ○ They were used in the construction of canals and turnpikes 答案：C ****************************************************************************
      • 采用特殊提问方式排除题
        • ► How did it come about that farming developed independently in a number of world centers (the Southeast Asian mainland, Southwest Asia, Central America, lowland and highland South America, and equatorial Africa) at more or less the same time? Agriculture developed slowly among populations that had an extensive knowledge of plants and animals. Changing from hunting and gathering to agriculture had no immediate advantages. To start with, it forced the population to abandon the nomad's life and become sedentary, to develop methods of storage and, often, systems of irrigation. While hunter-gatherers always had the option of moving elsewhere when the resources were exhausted, this became more difficult with farming. Furthermore, as the archaeological record shows, the state of health of agriculturalists was worse than that of their contemporary hunter-gatherers. 2. According to paragraph 1, all of the following are advantages of hunting and gathering over agriculture EXCEPT: ○ It is a healthier lifestyle. ○ It requires less knowledge of plants and animals. ○ It does not need storage capabilities. ○ It is not tied to any specific location. 答案：B ****************************************************************************
  • 【3】选非训练步骤
    • 通过题干定位原文
    • 逐一排查列举信息
    • 注意同义改写原则
• 8. 推理题
  • 【1】推理出题思路
    • 【1】题干形式
      • - Which of the following can be inferred from paragraph # about….?
      • - Which of the following can be inferred from paragraphs # and # about?
      • - It can be inferred from the passage that the author most likely believes which of the following about….?
      • - In paragraph #, what does the author imply about….?
      • - By stating that…. the author means that....
      • - What does the author imply by saying….?
      • - It can be inferred that…. (Basilosaurus bred and gave birth in which of the following locations?)
    • 【2】推理依据
      • 【1】正向推理60%：原文已强烈暗示前提或强烈暗示細節，正确答案基于原文的前提或細節
      • 【2】反向推理40%：原文已强烈暗示时间/地点/逻辑概念，正确答案基于这些基点反向推理
  • 【2】推理解题思路
    • 【1】正向推理：前提条件及细节描述关系
      • 1. 句内句间正向推理
        • ►Even development in architecture has been the result of major technological changes, materials and methods of construction are integral parts of the design of architecture structures. In earlier times it was necessary to design structural systems suitable for the materials that were available, such as wood, stone, brick. Today technology has progressed to the point where it is possible to invent new building materials to suit the type of structure desired. Enormous changes in materials and techniques of construction within the last few generations have made it possible to enclose space with much greater ease and speed and with a minimum of material. Progress in this area can be measured by the difference in weight between buildings built now and those of comparable size built one hundred ago. ❤1. In paragraph 4, what does the author imply about modern buildings? ○ They occupy much less space than buildings constructed one hundred years ago. ○ They are not very different from the building of a few generations ago. ○ They weigh less in relation to their size than buildings constructed one hundred years ago. ○ They take a long time to build as a result of their complex construction methods. 答案：C ********************************************************************* ►An ecologist who studies a pond today may well find it relatively unchanged in a year’s time. Individual fish may be replaced, but the number of fish will tend to be the same from one year to the next. We can say that the properties of an ecosystem are more stable than the individual organisms that compose the ecosystem. ❤2. According to paragraph 2, which of the following principles of ecosystems can be learned by studying a pond? ○ The stability of an ecosystem tends to change as individuals are replaced. ○ Individual organisms are stable from one year to the next. ○ Ecosystem properties change more slowly than individuals in the system. ○ A change in the members of an organism does not affect an ecosystem’s properties. 答案：C ********************************************************************* ►Spores light enough to float on the breezes were carried thousands of miles from more ancient lands and deposited at random across the bare mountain flanks. A few of these spores found a toehold on the dark, forbidding rocks and grew and began to work their transformation upon the land. Lichens were probably the first successful flora. These are not single individual plants; each one is a symbiotic combination of an alga and a fungus. The algae capture the Sun's energy by photosynthesis and store it in organic molecules. The fungi absorb moisture and mineral salts from the rocks, passing these on in waste products that nourish algae. It is significant that the earliest living things that built communities on these islands are examples of symbiosis, a phenomenon that depends upon the close cooperation of two or more forms of life and a principle that is very important in island communities. ❤❤3. It can be inferred from paragraph 2 that the fungi in lichens benefit from their symbiotic relationship with algae in what way? ○ The algae help the fungi meet some of their energy needs. ○ The algae protect the fungi from the Sun's radiation. ○ The algae provide the fungi with greater space for absorbing water. ○ The fungi produce less waste in the presence of algae. 答案：A ********************************************************************* ►Wind power is most economical in areas with steady winds. In areas where the wind dies down, backup electricity from a utility company or from an energy storage system becomes necessary. Backup power could also be provided by linking wind farms with a solar cell, with conventional or pumped - storage hydropower, or with efficient natural-gas-burning turbines. Some drawbacks to wind farms include visual pollution and noise, although these can be overcome by improving their design and locating them in isolated areas. ❤4. According to paragraph 4, what can be inferred about the problems of visual pollution and noise associated with wind farms? ○ Both problems affect the efficiency of wind farms. ○ Possible solutions are known for both problems. ○ Wind power creates more noise than visual pollution. ○ People are more concerned about visual pollution than noise. 答案：B ********************************************************************* ►Even the kind of stability defined as simple lack of change is not always associated with maximum diversity. At least in temperate zones, maximum diversity is often found in mid-successional stages, not in the climax community. Once a redwood forest matures, for example, the kinds of species and the number of individuals growing on the forest floor are reduced. In general, diversity, by itself, does not ensure stability. Mathematical models of ecosystems likewise suggest that diversity does not guarantee ecosystem stability—just the opposite, in fact. A more complicated system is, in general, more likely than a simple system to break down. (A fifteen-speed racing bicycle is more likely to break down than a child’s tricycle.) ❤5. Which of the following can be inferred from paragraph 5 about redwood forests? ○ They become less stable as they mature. ○ They support many species when they reach climax. ○ They are found in temperate zones. ○ They have reduced diversity during mid-successional stages. 答案：C ************************************************************************************** ►Hills and mountains are often regarded as the epitome of permanence, successfully resisting the destructive forces of nature, but in fact they tend to be relatively short-lived in geological terms. As a general rule, the higher a mountain is, the more recently it was formed; for example, the high mountains of the Himalayas are only about 50 million years old. Lower mountains tend to be older, and are often the eroded relics of much higher mountain chains. About 400 million years ago, when the present-day continents of North America and Europe were joined, the Caledonian mountain chain was the same size as the modern Himalayas. Today, however, the relics of the Caledonian orogeny (mountain-building period) exist as the comparatively low mountains of Greenland, the northern Appalachians in the United States, the Scottish Highlands, and the Norwegian coastal plateau. ❤❤6. Which of the following can be inferred from paragraph 2 about the mountains of the Himalayas? ○ Their current height is not an indication of their age. ○ At present, they are much higher than the mountains of the Caledonian range. ○ They were a uniform height about 400 million years ago. ○ They are not as high as the Caledonian mountains were 400 million years ago. 答案：B ************************************************************************************** ►In Southwest France in the 1940’s, playing children discovered Lascaux Grotto, a series of narrow cave chambers that contain huge prehistoric paintings of animals. Many of these beasts are as large as 16 feet (almost 5 meters). Some follow each other in solemn parades, but others swirl about, sideways and upside down. The animals are bulls, wild horses, reindeer, bison, and mammoths outlined with charcoal and painted mostly in reds, yellow, and browns. Scientific analysis reveals that the colors were derived from ocher and other iron oxides ground into a fine powder. Methods of applying color varied: some colors were brushed or smeared on rock surfaces and others were blown or sprayed. It is possible that tubes made from animal bones were used for spraying because hollow bones, some stained with pigment, have been found nearby. ❤7. What are the bones found in the Lascaux caves believed to indicate? ○ Wild animals sometimes lived in the cave chambers. ○ Artists painted pictures on both walls and bones. ○ Artists ground (grind) them into a fine powder to make paint. ○ Artists developed special techniques for painting the walls. 答案：D ************************************************************************************** ►The chief problem was technological: How were the Europeans to reach the East? Europe's maritime tradition had developed in the context of easily navigable seas—the Mediterranean, the Baltic, and. to a lesser extent, the North Sea between England and the Continent—not of vast oceans. New types of ships were needed, new methods of finding one's way, new techniques for financing so vast a scheme. The sheer scale of the investment it took to begin commercial expansion at sea reflects the immensity of the profits that such East-West trade could create. Spices were the most sought-after commodities. Spices not only dramatically improved the taste of the European diet but also were used to manufacture perfumes and certain medicines. But even high-priced commodities like spices had to be transported in large bulk in order to justify the expense and trouble of sailing around the African continent all the way to India and China. ❤❤❤8. It can be inferred from paragraph 2 that spices from Asia were desirable in Europe in the Middle Ages because they ○ were easily transported in large quantities ○ could not be produced in European countries ○ could be traded for products such as perfumes and medicines ○ were expected to increase in value over time 答案：B ************************************************************************************** ►The orderly nature of our solar system leads most astronomers to conclude that the planets formed at essentially the same time and from the same material as the Sun. It is hypothesized that the primordial cloud of dust and gas from which all the planets are thought to have condensed had a composition somewhat similar to that of Jupiter. However, unlike Jupiter, the terrestrial planets today are nearly void of light gases and ices. The explanation may be that the terrestrial planets were once much larger and richer in these materials but eventually lost them because of these bodies' relative closeness to the Sun, which meant that their temperatures were relatively high. ❤9. In calling the cloud of gas and dust from which the Sun and all the planets are thought to have condensed "primordial,' the author means that the cloud was ○ immense in size ○ composed of similar particles ○ present at the very beginning of our solar system's formation ○ created from a great variety of different materials 答案：C ***************************************************************************************** ►P2. All had small populations. At the beginning of the nineteenth century, Denmark and Norway had fewer than 1 million people, while Sweden and the Netherlands had fewer than 2.5 million inhabitants. All exhibited moderate growth rates in the course of the century (Denmark the highest and Sweden the lowest), but all more than doubled in population by 1900. Density varied greatly. The Netherlands had one of the highest population densities in Europe, whereas Norway and Sweden had the lowest Denmark was in between but closer to the Netherlands. ►P3. Considering human capital as a characteristic of the population, however, all four countries were advantaged by the large percentages of their populations who could read and write. In both 1850 and 1914, the Scandinavian countries had the highest literacy rates in Europe, or in the world, and the Netherlands was well above the European average. This fact was of enormous value in helping the national economies find their niches in the evolving currents of the international economy. ❤❤10. Paragraph 2 suggests which of the following about the importance of population density in the industrialization of the Netherlands and Scandinavia? ○ It was a more important factor than population size. ○ It was more influential than the rate of population growth. ○ It was more important in the early stages than it was later. ○ It was not a significant factor. 答案：D ***************************************************************************************** ►Only rarely can we derive any "real" quantities from deposits of broken pots. However, there is one exceptional dump, which does represent a very large part of the site's total history of consumption and for which an estimate of quantity has been produced. On the left bank of the Tiber River in Rome, by one of the river ports of the ancient city, is a substantial hill some 50 meters high called Monte Testaccio. It is made up entirely of broken oil amphorae, mainly of the second and third centuries A.D. It has been estimated that Monte Testaccio contains the remains of some 53 million amphorae, in which around 6,000 million liters of oil were imported into the city from overseas, imports into imperial Rome were supported by the full might of the state and were therefore quite exceptional—but the size of the operations at Monte Testaccio, and the productivity and complexity that lay behind them, nonetheless cannot fail to impress. This was a society with similarities to modern one moving goods on a gigantic scale, manufacturing high-quality containers to do so, and occasionally, as here, even discarding them on delivery. ❤❤12. Paragraph 4 indicates which of the following about the port on the Tiber River near Monte Testaccio? ○ It was built around the third century A.D. ○ It was close to areas where large quantities of oil were produced. ○ It was in use only for a very short period of time. ○ It had an impressive level of commercial activity. 答案：D ***************************************************************************************** ►The questions become more complicated when actual volumes of water are considered: how much water enters and leaves by each route? Discovering the inputs and outputs of rivers is a matter of measuring the discharges of every inflowing and outflowing stream and river. Then exchanges with the atmosphere are calculated by finding the difference between the gains from rain, as measured (rather roughly) by rain gauges, and the losses by evaporation, measured with models that correct for the other sources of water loss. For the majority of lakes, certainly those surrounded by forests, input from overland flow is too small to have a noticeable effect. Changes in lake level not explained by river flows plus exchanges with the atmosphere must be due to the net difference between what seeps into the lake from the groundwater and what leaks into the groundwater. Note the word "net": measuring the actual amounts of groundwater seepage into the lake and out of the lake is a much more complicated matter than merely inferring their difference. ❤❤13. Which of the following can be inferred from paragraph 2 about the movement of water into a lake? ○ Heavy rain accounts for most of the water that enters into lakes. ○ Rainfall replaces approximately the amount of water lost through evaporation. ○ Overland flow into lakes is reduced by the presence of forests. ○ Seepage has a smaller effect on water level than any other input. 答案：D ***************************************************************************************** ►By whatever means, a lake is constantly gaining water and losing water: its water does not just sit there, or, anyway, not for long. This raises the matter of a lake’s residence time. The residence time is the average length of time that any particular molecule of water remains in the lake, and it is calculated by dividing the volume of water in the lake by the rate at which water leaves the lake. The residence time is an average; the time spent in the lake by a given molecule (if we could follow its fate) would depend on the route it took: it might flow through as part of the fastest, most direct current, or it might circle in a backwater for an indefinitely long time. ❤14. It can be inferred from paragraph 4 that the length of time a given molecule of water remains in a lake ○ depends entirely upon the average speed of a lake' s currents ○ can be measured by the volume of the lake alone ○ can be greater or lesser than the residence time ○ is similar to the length of time all other molecules remain in that lake 答案：C ***************************************************************************************** ►The Venetian Council finally allowed round ships to enter the trade that was previously reserved for merchant galleys, thus reducing transport costs by one third. Prices of spices delivered by ship from the eastern Mediterranean came to equal those of spices transported by Portuguese vessels, but the increase in quantity with both routes in operation drove the price far down. Gradually, Venice' s role as a storage and distribution center for spices and silk, dyes, cotton, and gold decayed, and by the early seventeenth century Venice had lost its monopoly in markets such as France and souther Germany. ❤❤15. Which of the following can be inferred from paragraph 6 about the Venetian Council' s decision concerning the use of round ships? ○ It resulted in a return to profitable trading in luxury goods for Venetian merchants. ○ Ultimately it did not restore the superiority in the spice trade that Venice had enjoyed earlier. ○ It eventually enabled Venetian merchants to increase the quantity and price of the spices they sold in Europe. ○ It meant a long-awaited improvement in the fortunes of the shipbuilding industry in Venice. 答案：B ***************************************************************************************** ►When the German chemist Lothar Meyer and (independently) the Russian Dmitry Mendeleyev first introduced the periodic table in 1869-70, one-third of the naturally occurring chemical elements had not yet been discovered. Yet both chemists were sufficiently farsighted to leave gaps where their analyses of periodic physical and chemical properties indicated that new elements should be located. Mendeleyev was bolder than Meyer and even assumed that if a measured atomic mass put an element in the wrong place in the table, the atomic mass was wrong. In some cases this was true. Indium, for example, had previously been assigned an atomic mass between those of arsenic and selenium. Because there is no space in the periodic table between these two elements, Mendeleyev suggested that the atomic mass of indium be changed to a completely different value, where it would fill an empty space between cadmium and tin. In fact, subsequent work has shown that in a periodic table, elements should not be ordered strictly by atomic mass. For example, tellurium comes before iodine in the periodic table, even though its atomic mass is slightly greater. Such anomalies are due to the relative abundance of the "isotopes" or varieties of each element. All the isotopes of a given element have the same number of protons, but differ in their number of neutrons, and hence in their atomic mass. The isotopes of a given element have the same chemical properties but slightly different physical properties. We now know that atomic number (the number of protons in the nucleus), not atomic mass number (the number of protons and neutrons), determines chemical behavior. ❤❤❤❤16. It can be inferred from paragraph 2 that tellurium comes before iodine in the periodic table even though tellurium's atomic mass is slightly greater because ○ iodine is less common than tellurium ○ both iodine and tellurium have no isotopes ○ the chemical behavior of tellurium is highly variable ○ the atomic number of tellurium is smaller than that of iodine 答案：B ***************************************************************************************** ►Sometime after midnight on February 8,1969, a large, bright meteor entered Earth's atmosphere and broke into thousands of pieces, plummeted to the ground, and scattered over an area 50 miles long and 10 miles wide in the state of Chihuahua in Mexico. The first meteorite from this fall was found in the village of Pueblito de Allende. Altogether, roughly two tons of meteorite fragments were recovered, all of which bear the name Allende for the location of the first discovery. ❤❤17. Which of the following can be inferred from paragraph 1 about the large meteor that entered Earths atmosphere on February 8, 1969? ○ It was almost ten miles wide. ○ It was the biggest meteor ever to hit Mexico. ○ It weighed more than two tons. ○ It broke into more pieces than most meteors do. 答案：C ***************************************************************************************** ►We all know that many more people today are right-handed than left-handed. Can one trace this same pattern far back in prehistory? Much of the evidence about right-hand versus left-hand dominance comes from stencils and prints found in rock shelters in Australia and elsewhere, and in many Ice Age caves in France, Spain, and Tasmania. When a left hand has been stenciled, this implies that the artist was right-handed, and vice versa. Even though the paint was often sprayed on by mouth, one can assume that the dominant hand assisted in the operation. One also has to make the assumption that hands were stenciled palm downward—a left hand stenciled palm upward might of course look as if it were a right hand. Of 158 stencils in the French cave of Gargas, 136 have been identified as left, and only 22 as right; right-handedness was therefore heavily predominant. ❤❤❤18. It can be inferred from paragraph 1 that even when paint was sprayed by mouth to make a hand stencil ○ there was no way to tell which hand was stenciled ○ the stenciled hand was the weaker hand ○ the stenciled hand was the dominant hand ○ artists stenciled more images of the dominant hand than they did of the weak 答案：B ***************************************************************************************** ►Fractures and other cut marks are another source of evidence. Right-handed soldiers tend to be wounded on the left. The skeleton of a 40- or 50-year-old Nabatean warrior, buried 2,000 years ago in the Negev Desert, Israel, had multiple healed fractures to the skull, the left arm, and the ribs. ❤❤❤19. Which of the following statements about fractures and cut marks can be inferred from paragraph 4? ○ Fractures and cut marks caused by right-handed soldiers tend to occur on the right side of the injured party's body. ○ The right arm sustains more injuries because, as the dominant arm, it is used more actively. ○ In most people, the left side of the body is more vulnerable to injury since it is not defended effectively by the dominant arm. ○ Fractures and cut marks on fossil humans probably occurred after death. 答案：B ***************************************************************************************** ►Very little light filters through the canopy of leaves and branches in a rain forest to reach ground level—or close to the ground—and at those levels the yellow-to-green wavelengths predominate. A signal might be most easily seen if it is maximally bright. In the green-to yellow lighting conditions of the lowest levels of the forest, yellow and green would be the brightest colors, but when an animal is signaling, these colors would not be very visible if the animal was sitting in an area with a yellowish or greenish background. The best signal depends not only on its brightness but also on how well it contrasts with the background against which it must be seen. In this part of the rain forest, therefore, red and orange are the best colors for signaling, and they are the colors used in signals by the ground-walking Australian brush turkey. This species, which lives in the rain forests and scrublands of the east coast of Australia, has a brown to-black plumage with bare, bright-red skin on the head and neck and a neck collar of orange-yellow loosely hanging skin. During courtship and aggressive displays, the turkey enlarges its colored neck collar by inflating sacs in the neck region and then flings about a pendulous part of the colored signaling apparatus as it utters calls designed to attract or repel. This impressive display is clearly visible in the light spectrum illuminating the forest floor. 20. Which of the following can be inferred from paragraph 4 about yellow and green colors compared with red and orange colors at the bottom of the forest? ○ Yellow and green are better colors for signaling than red and orange colors. ○ Orange and red are brighter colors than yellow and green. ○ Yellow and green are likely to be more common in the background than red and orange. ○ Orange and red colors do not contrast as well with the forest floor as yellow and green do. 答案：C ***************************************************************************************** Three other explanations seem more promising. One involves physiological changes relevant to memory. Maturation of the frontal lobes of the brain continues throughout early childhood. And this part of the brain may be critical for remembering particular episodes in ways that can be retrieved later. Demonstrations of infants' and toddlers' long-term memory have involved their repeating motor activities that they had seen or done earlier, such as reaching in the dark for objects, putting a bottle in a doll’s mouth, or pulling apart two pieces of a toy. The brain’s level of physiological maturation may support these types of memories, but not ones requiring explicit verbal descriptions. 21. What does paragraph 3 suggest about long-term memory in children? ○ Maturation of the frontal lobes of the brain is important for the long-term memory of motor activities but not verbal descriptions. ○ Young children may form long-term memories of actions they see earlier than of things they hear or are told. ○ Young children have better long-term recall of short verbal exchanges than of long ones. ○ Children’s long-term recall of motor activities increases when such activities are accompanied by explicit verbal descriptions 答案：B ********************************************************************************* With question such as these clearly before them, the scientists aboard the Glomar Challenger processed to the Mediterranean to search for the answers. On August 23, 1970, they recovered a sample. The sample consisted of pebbles of gypsum and fragments of volcanic rock. Not a single pebble was found that might have indicated that the pebbles came from the nearby continent. In the days following, samples of solid gypsum were repeatedly brought on deck as drilling operations penetrated the seafloor. Furthermore, the gypsum was found to possess peculiarities of composition and structure that suggested it had formed on desert flats. Sediment above and below the gypsum layer contained tiny marine fossils, indicating open-ocean conditions. As they drilled into the central and deepest part of the Mediterranean basin, the scientists took solid, shiny, crystalline salt from the core barrel. Interbedded with the salt were thin layers of what appeared to be windblown silt. 22. What does the author imply by saying “Not a single pebble was found that might have indicated that the pebbles came from the nearby continent”? ○ The most obvious explanation for the origin of the pebbles was not supported by the evidence. ○ The geologists did not find as many pebbles as they expected. ○ The geologists were looking for a particular kind of pebble. ○ The different pebbles could not have come from only one source. 答案：A ********************************************************************************* By whatever means, a lake is constantly gaining water and losing water: its water does not just sit there, or, anyway, not for long. This raises the matter of a lake’s residence time. The residence time is the average length of time that any particular molecule of water remains in the lake, and it is calculated by dividing the volume of water in the lake by the rate at which water leaves the lake. The residence time is an average; the time spent in the lake by a given molecule (if we could follow its fate) would depend on the route it took: it might flow through as part of the fastest, most direct current, or it might circle in a backwater for an indefinitely long time. 23. It can be inferred from paragraph 4 that the length of time a given molecule of water remains in a lake ○ depends entirely upon the average speed of a lake' s currents ○ can be measured by the volume of the lake alone ○ can be greater or lesser than the residence time ○ is similar to the length of time all other molecules remain in that lake 答案：C *********************************************************************************
      • 2. 跨段构成正向推理
        • ►P1 ….In principle, all the power needs of the United States could be provided by exploiting the wind potential of just three states—North Dakota, South Dakota, and Texas. ►P3 Wind power has a significant cost advantage over nuclear power and has become competitive with coal-fired power plants in many places. With new technological advances and mass production, projected cost declines should make wind power one of the world’s cheapest ways to produce electricity. In the long run, electricity from large wind farms in remote areas might be used to make hydrogen gas from water during periods when there is less than peak demand for electricity. The hydrogen gas could then be fed into a storage system and used to generate electricity when additional or backup power is needed. ►P4. Wind power is most economical in areas with steady winds. In areas where the wind dies down, backup electricity from a utility company or from an energy storage system becomes necessary. Backup power could also be provided by linking wind farms with a solar cell, with conventional or pumped-storage hydropower, or with efficient natural-gas-burning turbines. Some drawbacks to wind farms include visual pollution and noise, although these can be overcome by improving their design and locating them in isolated areas. 1. Based on the information in paragraph 3 and paragraph 4, what can be inferred about the states of North Dakota, South Dakota, and Texas mentioned at the end of paragraph 1? ○ They rely largely on coal-fired power plants. ○ They contain remote areas where the winds rarely die down. ○ Over 1 percent of the electricity in these states is produced by wind farms. ○ Wind farms in these states are being expanded to meet the power needs of the United States. 答案：B ******************************************************************************************** ►How did this tremendous development take place, and why did it happen in the Teotihuacán Valley? Among the main factors are Teotihuacán’s geographic location on a natural trade route to the south and east of the Valley of Mexico, the obsidian resources in the Teotihuacán Valley itself, and the valley’s potential for extensive irrigation. The exact role of other factors is much more difficult to pinpoint, for instance, Teotihuacán’s religious significance as a shrine, the historical situation in and around the Valley of Mexico toward the end of the first millennium B.C., the ingenuity and foresightedness of Teotihuacán’s elite, and, finally, the impact of natural disasters, such as the volcanic eruptions of the late first millennium B.C. ►This last factor is at least circumstantially implicated in Teotihuacán’s rise. Prior to 200 B.C., a number of relatively small centers coexisted in and near the Valley of Mexico. Around this time, the largest of these centers, Cuicuilco, was seriously affected by a volcanic eruption, with much of its agricultural land covered by lava. With Cuicuilco eliminated as a potential rival, any one of a number of relatively modest towns might have emerged as a leading economic and political power in Central Mexico. The archaeological evidence clearly indicates, though, that Teotihuacán was the center that did arise as the predominant force in the area by the first century A.D. 2. Which of the following can be inferred from paragraphs 2 and 3 about the Volcanic eruptions of the late first millennium B.C.? ○ They were more frequent than historians once thought. ○ They may have done more damage to Teotihuacán than to neighboring centers. ○ They may have played a major role in the rise of Teotihuacán. ○ They increased the need for extensive irrigation in the Teotihuacán Valley 答案：C ******************************************************************************************** ►P5: Rome’s debt to Greece was enormous. The Romans adopted Greek religion and moral philosophy. In literature, Greek writers were consciously used as models by their Latin successors. It was absolutely accepted that an educated Roman should be fluent in Greek. In speculative philosophy and the sciences, the Romans made virtually no advance on early achievements. ►P6: Yet it would be wrong to suggest that Rome was somehow a junior partner in Greco-Roman civilization. The Roman genius was projected into new spheres—especially into those of law, military organization, administration, and engineering. Moreover, the tensions that arose within the Roman state produced literary and artistic sensibilities of the highest order. It was no accident that many leading Roman soldiers and statesmen were writers of high caliber. 3. Which of the following statements about leading Roman soldiers and statesmen is supported by paragraphs 5 and 6? ○ They could read and write the Greek language. ○ They frequently wrote poetry and plays. ○ They focused their writing on military matters. ○ They wrote according to the philosophical laws of the Greeks. 答案：A ******************************************************************************************** ►Perceptions of the visible world were greatly altered by the invention of photography in the middle of the nineteenth century. In particular, and quite logically, the art of painting was forever changed, though not always in the ways one might have expected. The realistic and naturalistic painters of the mid- and late-nineteenth century were all intently aware of photography—as a thing to use, to learn from, and react to. ►Unlike most major inventions, photography had been long and impatiently awaited. The images produced by the camera obscura, a boxlike device that used a pinhole or lens to throw an image onto a ground-glass screen or a piece of white paper, were already familiar—the device had been much employed by topographical artists like the Italian painter Canaletto in his detailed views of the city of Venice. What was lacking was a way of giving such images permanent form. This was finally achieved by Louis Daguerre (1787-1851), who perfected a way of fixing them on a silvered copper plate. His discovery, the "daguerreotype," was announced in 1839. 4. What can be inferred from paragraphs 1 and 2 about the effect of photography on nineteenth-century painting? ○ Photography did not significantly change the way people looked at reality. ○ Most painters used the images of the camera obscura in preference to those of the daguerreotype. ○ Painters who were concerned with realistic or naturalistic representation were particularly influenced by photography. ○ Artists used the long-awaited invention of photography in just the ways they had expected to. 答案：C ******************************************************************************************** When experimental populations are set up under simple laboratory conditions, the predator often exterminates its prey and then becomes extinct itself, having nothing left to eat. However, if safe areas like those prey animals have in the wild are provided, the prey population drops to low levels but not to extinction. Low prey population levels then provide inadequate food for the predators, causing the predator population to decrease. When this occurs, the prey population can rebound. In this situation the predator and prey populations may continue in this cyclical pattern for some time. Population cycles are characteristic of small mammals, and they sometimes appear to be brought about by predators. Ecologists studying hare populations have found that the North American snow shoe hare follows a roughly ten-year cycle. Its numbers fall tenfold to thirty in a typical cycle, and a hundredfold change can occur. Two factors appear to be generating the cycle: food plants and predators. 5. Which of the following can be inferred from paragraphs 2 and 3 about the small mammals that experience population cycles? ○ Their population cycles are not affected by predators. ○ Their predators’ populations periodically disappear. ○ They typically undergo ten-year cycles. ○ They have access to places safe from predators. 答案：D ********************************************************************************************
    • 【2】逆向推理：选项内容和原文方向相反
      • 基于时间: before/after/by时间/now/once/earlier times/current...
        • ►“…The nineteenth century brought with it a burst of new discoveries and inventions that revolutionized the candle industry and made lighting available to all. In the early-to-mid-nineteenth century, a process was developed to refine tallow (fat from animals )with alkali and sulfuric acid. The result was a product called stearin. Stearin is harder and burns longer than unrefined tallow. This breakthrough meant that it was possible to make tallow candles that would not produce the usual smoke and rancid odor. Stearins were also derived from palm oils, so vegetable waxes as well as animal fats could be used to make candles …” ❤1. Which of the following can be inferred from paragraph1 about candles before the nineteenth century? ○ They did not smoke when they were burned. ○ They produced a pleasant odor as they burned. ○ They were not available to all. ○ They contained sulfuric acid. 答案：C ************************************************************************************* ►Accustomed though we are to speaking of the films made before 1927 as “silent”, the film has never been, in the full sense of the word, silent. From the very beginning, music was regarded as an indispensable accompaniment; when the Lumiere films were shown at the first public film exhibition in the United States in February 1896, they were accompanied by piano improvisations on popular tunes. At first, the music played bore no special relationship to the films; an accompaniment of any kind was sufficient. Within a very short time, however, the incongruity of playing lively music to a solemn film became apparent, and film pianists began to take some care in matching their pieces to the mood of the film. ❤2. What can be inferred from the passage about the majority of films made after 1927? ○ They were truly “silent.” ○ They were accompanied by symphonic orchestras. ○ They incorporated the sound of the actors’ voices. ○ They corresponded to specific musical compositions. 答案：C ************************************************************************************* ►Basic to any understanding of Canada in the 20 years after the Second World War is the country’s impressive population growth.…It appeared that Canada was once more falling in step with the trend toward smaller families that had occurred all through the Western world since the time of the Industrial Revolution.… ❤3. It can be inferred from the passage that before the Industrial Revolution ○ families were larger ○ population statistics were unreliable. ○ the population grew steadily. ○ economic conditions were bad. 答案：A ************************************************************************************* ►Oil pools are valuable underground accumulations of oil, and oil fields are regions underlain by one or more oil pools. When an oil pool or field has been discovered, wells are drilled into the ground. Permanent towers, called derricks, used to be built to handle the long sections of drilling pipe. Now portable drilling machines are set up and are then dismantled and removed. When the well reaches a pool, oil usually rises up the well because of its density difference with water beneath it or because of the pressure of expanding gas trapped above it. Although this rise of oil is almost always carefully controlled today, spouts of oil, or gushers, were common in the past. Gas pressure gradually dies out, and oil is pumped from the well. Water or steam may be pumped down adjacent wells to help push the oil out. At a refinery, the crude oil from underground is separated into natural gas, gasoline, kerosene, and various oils. Petrochemicals such as dyes, fertilizer, and plastic are also manufactured from the petroleum. ❤4. Which of the following can be inferred from paragraph 3 about gushers? ○ They make bringing the oil to the surface easier. ○ They signal the presence of huge oil reserves. ○ They waste more oil than they collect. ○ They are unlikely to occur nowadays. 答案：D ************************************************************************************* ►This was before the steam locomotive, and canal building was at its height. The companies building the canals to transport coal needed surveyors to help them find the coal deposits worth mining as well as to determine the best courses for the canals. This job gave Smith an opportunity to study the fresh rock outcrops created by the newly dug canal. He later worked on similar jobs across the length and breadth of England all the while studying the newly revealed strata and collecting all the fossils he could find. ❤5. Which of the following can be inferred from paragraph 2 about canal building? ○ Canals were built primarily in the south of England rather than in other regions. ○ Canal building decreased after the steam locomotive was invented. ○ Canal building made it difficult to study rock strata which often became damaged in the process. ○ Canal builders hired surveyors like Smith to examine exposed rock strata. 答案：B ************************************************************************************* ►The body that impacted Earth at the end of the Cretaceous period was a meteorite with a mass of more than a trillion tons and a diameter of at least 10 kilometers. Scientists first identified this impact in 1980 from the worldwide layer of sediment deposited from the dust cloud that enveloped the planet after the impact. This sediment layer is enriched in the rare metal iridium and other elements that are relatively abundant in a meteorite but very rare in the crust of Earth. Even diluted by the terrestrial material excavated from the crater, this component of meteorites is easily identified. By 1990 geologists had located the impact site itself in the Yucat region of Mexico. The crater, now deeply buried in sediment, was originally about 200 kilometers in diameter. ❤❤6. Which of the following can be inferred from paragraph 3 about the location of the meteorite impact in Mexico? ○ The location of the impact site in Mexico was kept secret by geologists from 1980 to 1990. ○ It was a well-known fact that the impact had occurred in the Yucat region. ○ Geologists knew that there had been an impact before they knew where it had occurred. ○ The Yucat region was chosen by geologists as the most probable impact site because of its climate. 答案：C ************************************************************************************* ►Yet this most fundamental standard of historical periodization conceals a host of paradoxes. Nearly every movie theater, however modest, had a piano or organ to provide musical accompaniment to silent pictures. In many instances, spectators in the era before recorded sound experienced elaborate aural presentations alongside movies' visual images, from the Japanese benshi (narrators) crafting multivoiced dialogue narratives to original musical compositions performed by symphony-size orchestras in Europe and the United States. In Berlin, for the premiere performance outside the Soviet Union of The Battleship Potemkin, film director Sergei Eisenstein worked with Austrian composer Edmund Meisel (1874-1930) on a musical score matching sound to image; the Berlin screenings with live music helped to bring the film its wide international fame. ❤7. Paragraph 2 suggests which of the following about Eisenstein’s film The Battleship Potemkirf? ○ The film was not accompanied by sound before its Berlin screening. ○ The film was unpopular in the Soviet Union before it was screened in Berlin. ○ Eisenstein’s film was the first instance of collaboration between a director and a composer. ○ Eisenstein believed that the musical score in a film was as important as dialogue. 答案：A ********************************************************************************************************************* ►The areas covered by this material were so vast that the ice that deposited it must have been a continental glacier larger than Greenland or Antarctica. Eventually, Agassiz and others convinced geologists and the general public that a great continental glaciation had extended the polar ice caps far into regions that now enjoy temperate climates. For the first time, people began to talk about ice ages. It was also apparent that the glaciation occurred in the relatively recent past because the drift was soft, like freshly deposited sediment. We now know the age of the glaciation accurately from radiometric dating of the carbon-14 in logs buried in the drift. The drift of the last glaciation was deposited during one of the most recent epochs of geologic time, the Pleistocene, which lasted from 1.8 million to 10,000 years ago. Along the east coast of the United States, the southernmost advance of this ice is recorded by the enormous sand and drift deposits of the terminal moraines that form Long Island and Cape Cod. ❤❤8. It can be inferred from paragraph 2 that Agassiz and other geologists of his time were not able to determine ○ which geographic regions had been covered with ice sheets in the last ice age ○ the exact dates at which drifts had been deposited during the last ice age ○ the exact composition of the drifts laid during the last ice age ○ how far south along the east coast of the United States the ice had advanced during the last ice age 答案：B ********************************************************************************************************************* ►Two species of deer have been prevalent in the Puget Sound area of Washington State in the Pacific Northwest of the United States. The black-tailed deer, a lowland, west-side cousin of the mule deer of eastern Washington, is now the most common. The other species, the Columbian white-tailed deer, in earlier times was common in the open prairie country, it is now restricted to the low, marshy islands and flood plains along the lower Columbia River. ❤9. According to paragraph 1, which of the following is true of the white-tailed deer of Puget Sound? ○ It is native to lowlands and marshes. ○ It is more closely related to the mule deer of eastern Washington than to other types of deer. ○ It has replaced the black-tailed deer in the open prairie. ○ It no longer lives in a particular type of habitat that it once occupied. 答案：D ********************************************************************************************************************* ►And when game moved out of the lowlands in early spring, the expedition decided to return east rather than face possible starvation. Later on in the early years of the nineteenth century, when Fort Vancouver became the headquarters of the Hudson's Bay Company, deer populations continued to fluctuate. David Douglas, Scottish botanical explorer of the 1830s, found a disturbing change in the animal life around the fort during the period between his first visit in 1825 and his final contact with the fort in 1832. A recent Douglas biographer states: "The deer which once picturesquely dotted the meadows around the fort were gone [in 1832], hunted to extermination in order to protect the crops." ❤10. According to paragraph 3, how had Fort Vancouver changed by the time David Douglas returned in 1832? ○ The fort had become the headquarters for the Hudson's Bay Company. ○ Deer had begun populating the meadows around the fort. ○ Deer populations near the fort had been destroyed. ○ Crop yields in the area around the fort had decreased. 答案：C ******************************************************************************************************* ►Reduction in numbers of game should have boded ill for their survival in later times. A worsening of the plight of deer was to be expected as settlers encroached on the land, logging, burning, and clearing, eventually replacing a wilderness landscape with roads, cities, towns, and factories. No doubt the numbers of deer declined still further. Recall the fate of the Columbian white-tailed deer, now in a protected status. But for the black-tailed deer, human pressure has had just the opposite effect. Wild life zoologist Hulmut Buechner (1953), in reviewing the nature of biotic changes in Washington through recorded time, Says that "since the early 1940s, the state has had more deer than at any other time in its history, the winter population fluctuating around approximately 320,000 deer (mule and black-tailed deer), which will yield about 65,000 of either sex and any age annually for an indefinite period." ❤11. Which of the following statements about deer populations is supported by the information in paragraph 4? ○ Deer populations reached their highest point during the 1940s and then began to decline. ○ The activities of settlers contributed in unexpected ways to the growth of some deer populations in later times. ○ The cleaning of wilderness land for construction caused biotic changes from which the black-tailed deer population has never recovered. ○ Since the 1940s the winter populations of deer have fluctuated more than the summer populations have. 答案：B *************************************************************************************************** ►Only recently have investigators considered using these plants to clean up soil and waste sites that have been contaminated by toxic levels of heavy metals–an environmentally friendly approach known as phytoremediation. This scenario begins with the planting of hyper-accumulating species in the target area, such as an abandoned mine or an irrigation pond contaminated by runoff. Toxic minerals would first be absorbed by roots but later relocated to the stem and leaves. A harvest of the shoots would remove the toxic compounds off site to be burned or composted to recover the metal for industrial uses. After several years of cultivation and harvest, the site would be restored at a cost much lower than the price of excavation and reburial, the standard practice for remediation of contaminated soils. For examples, in field trials, the plant alpine pennycress removed zinc and cadmium from soils near a zinc smelter, and Indian mustard, native to Pakistan and India, has been effective in reducing levels of selenium salts by 50 percent in contaminated soils. ❤❤12. It can be inferred from paragraph 6 that compared with standard practices for remediation of contaminated soils, phytoremediation ○ does not allow for the use of the removed minerals for industrial purposes ○ can be faster to implement ○ is equally friendly to the environment ○ is less suitable for soils that need to be used within a short period of time 答案：D ************************************************************************************* ►The story of the westward movement of population in the United States is, in the main, the story of the expansion of American agriculture—of the development of new areas for the raising of livestock and the cultivation of wheat, corn, tobacco, and cotton. After 1815 improved transportation enabled more and more western farmers to escape a self-sufficient way of life and enter a national market economy. During periods when commodity prices were high, the rate of westward migration increased spectacularly. "Old America seemed to be breaking up and moving westward," observed an English visitor in 1817,during the first great wave of migration. Emigration to the West reached a peak in the 1830's. Whereas in 1810 only a seventh of the American people lived west of the Appalachian Mountains, by 1840 more than a third lived there. 12. What can be inferred from paragraph 1 about western farmers prior to 1815? ○ They had limited their crop production to wheat, corn, tobacco, and cotton. ○ They were able to sell their produce at high prices. ○ They had not been successful in raising cattle. ○ They did not operate in a national market economy. 答案：D ************************************************************************************* 伪推理题： ►During NREM (the phase of sleep in which there is no rapid eye movement) breathing becomes deeper and more regular, but there is also a decrease in the breathing rate, resulting in less air being exchanged overall. This occurs because during NREM sleep the automatic, metabolic system has exclusive control over breathing and the body uses less oxygen and produces less carbon dioxide. Also, during sleep the automatic metabolic system is less responsive to carbon dioxide levels and oxygen levels in the blood. Two things result from these changes in breathing control that occur during sleep. First, there may be a brief cessation or reduction of breathing when falling asleep as the sleeper waxes and wanes between sleep and wakefulness and their differing control mechanisms. Second, once sleep is fully obtained, there is an increase of carbon dioxide and a decrease of oxygen in the blood that persists during NREM. 3. The word exclusive in the passage is closest in meaning to ○ consistent ○ perfect ○ partial ○ sole ❤❤❤4. According to paragraph 3, which of the following may occur just before NREM sleep begins? ○ The automatic, metabolic system may increase its dependence on air exchanges. ○ Breathing can stop for a short time as a person falls asleep. ○ An increase in the oxygen level in the blood can occur as sleep becomes fully obtained. ○ The level of carbon dioxide in the blood may drop suddenly. 答案：B *************************************************************************************
      • 基于空间: above/below/among/between...
        • ►With question such as these clearly before them, the scientists aboard the Glomar Challenger processed to the Mediterranean to search for the answers. On August 23, 1970, they recovered a sample. The sample consisted of pebbles of gypsum and fragments of volcanic rock. Not a single pebble was found that might have indicated that the pebbles came from the nearby continent. In the days following, samples of solidgypsum were repeatedly brought on deck as drilling operations penetrated the seafloor. Furthermore, the gypsum was found to possess peculiarities of composition and structure that suggested it had formed on desert flats. Sediment above and below the gypsum layer contained tiny marine fossils, indicating open-ocean conditions. As they drilled into the central and deepest part of the Mediterranean basin, the scientists took solid, shiny, crystalline salt from the core barrel. Interbedded with the salt were thin layers of what appeared to be windblown silt. 1. Which of the following can be inferred from paragraph 3 about the solid gypsum layer? ○ It did not contain any marine fossil. ○ It had formed in open-ocean conditions. ○ It had once been soft, deep-sea mud. ○ It contained sediment from nearby deserts. 答案：A ************************************************************************************* ►Two species of deer have been prevalent in the Puget Sound area of Washington State in the Pacific Northwest of the United States. The black-tailed deer, a lowland, west-side cousin of the mule deer of eastern Washington, is now the most common. The other species, the Columbian white-tailed deer, in earlier times was common in the open prairie country; it is now restricted to the low, marshy islands and flood plains along the lower Columbia River. 2. According to paragraph 1, which of the following is true of the white-tailed deer of Puget Sound? ○ It is native to lowlands and marshes. ○ It is more closely related to the mule deer of eastern Washington than to other types of deer. ○ It has replaced the black-tailed deer in the open prairie. ○ It no longer lives in a particular type of habitat that it once occupied. 答案：D ************************************************************************************* ►The Whigs, in contrast, viewed government power positively. They believed that it should be used to protect individual rights and public liberty, and that it had a special role where individual effort was ineffective. By regulating the economy and competition, the government could ensure equal opportunity. Indeed, for Whigs the concept of government promoting the general welfare went beyond the economy. In particular, Whigs in the northern sections of the United States also believed that government power should be used to foster the moral welfare of the country. They were much more likely to favor social-reform legislation and aid to education. 3. Which of the following can be inferred from paragraph 5 about variations in political beliefs within the Whig Party? ○They were focused on issues of public liberty. ○They caused some members to leave the Whig party. ○They were unimportant to most Whigs. ○They reflected regional interests. 答案：D ************************************************************************************* ►When these ice pellets fall, some of them strike much smaller ice crystals in the center of the cloud. The temperature at the center of the cloud is about -15 ℃ or lower. At such temperatures, the collision between the ice pellets and the ice crystals causes electrical charges to shift so that the ice pellets acquire a negative charge and the ice crystals become positively charged. Then updraft wind currents carry the light, positively charged ice crystals up to the top of the cloud. The heavier negatively charged ice pellets are left to concentrate in the center. This process explains why the top of the cloud becomes positively charged, while the center becomes negatively charged. The negatively charged region is large: several hundred meters thick and several kilometers in diameter. 4. It can be inferred from paragraph 2 that part of the reason that the top of a storm cloud becomes positively charged is that ○ the top of the cloud is warmer than the middle of the cloud ○ the middle of the cloud is already occupied by positively charged particles ○ the negatively charged ice pellets are too heavy to be carried by the updrafts that move ice crystals ○ collisions between ice pellets in the top of the cloud produce mainly positively charged particles 答案：C ************************************************************************************* ►Further evidence for the costs of begging comes from a study of differences in the begging calls of warbler species that nest in the relative safety of trees. The young of ground-nesting warblers produce begging cheeps of higher frequencies than do their tree-nesting relatives. These higher-frequency sounds do not travel as far, and so may better conceal the individuals producing them, who are especially vulnerable to predators in their ground nests. David Haskell created artificial nests with clay eggs and placed them on the ground beside a tape recorder that played the begging calls of either tree-nesting or of ground-nesting warblers. The eggs “advertised” by the tree-nesters' begging calls were found bitten significantly more often than the eggs associated with the ground-nesters' calls. ❤❤ 5. Paragraph 2 indicates that the begging calls of tree nesting warblers ○ put them at more risk than ground-nesting warblers experience ○ can be heard from a greater distance than those of ground-nesting warblers ○ are more likely to conceal the signaler than those of ground-nesting warblers ○ have higher frequencies than those of ground-nesting warblers 答案：B ************************************************************************************* When experimental populations are set up under simple laboratory conditions, the predator often exterminates its prey and then becomes extinct itself, having nothing left to eat. However, if safe areas like those prey animals have in the wild are provided, the prey population drops to low levels but not to extinction. Low prey population levels then provide inadequate food for the predators, causing the predator population to decrease. When this occurs, the prey population can rebound. In this situation the predator and prey populations may continue in this cyclical pattern for some time. 5. Paragraph 2 implies which of the following about experimental environments in which predators become extinct? ○ They may yield results that do not accurately predict changes of populations in the wild. ○ In these environments, the prey species is better adapted than the predator species. ○ These environments are appropriate only for studying small populations of predators and prey. ○ They are unrealistic because some predators are also the prey of other predators. 答案：A *************************************************************************************
      • 基于概念: only, unlike, without,proportion比例范围
        • ONLY --- only A具有α的特点，那么其他均无α特点。 ►Speculation on the origin of these Pacific islanders began as soon as outsiders encountered them, in the absence of solid linguistic, archaeological, and biological data, many fanciful and mutually exclusive theories were devised. Pacific islanders ere variously thought to have come from North America, South America, Egypt, Israel, and India, as well as Southeast Asia. Many older theories implicitly deprecated the navigational abilities and overall cultural creativity of the Pacific islanders. For example, British anthropologists G. Elliot Smith and W. J. Perry assumed that only Egyptians would have been skilled enough to navigate and colonize the Pacific. They inferred that the Egyptians even crossed the Pacific to found the great civilizations of the New World (North and South America). In1947 Norwegian adventurer Thor Heyerdahl drifted on a balsa-log raft westward with the winds and currents across the Pacific from South America to prove his theory that Pacific islanders were Native Americans (also called American Indians). 1. Which of the following can be inferred from Paragraph 2 about early theories of where the first inhabitants of the Pacific islands came from Egypt? ○ They were generally based on solid evidence. ○ They tried to account for the origin of the characteristic features of the languages spoken by Pacific islanders. ○ They assumed that the peoples living in Southeast Asia did not have the skills needed to sail to the Pacific islands. ○ They questioned the ideas of G. Elliot Smith and W. J. Perry. ********************************************************************************************************************* ►While some European countries, such as England and Germany, began to industrialize in the eighteenth century, the Netherlands and the Scandinavian countries of Denmark, Norway, and Sweden developed later. All four of these countries lagged considerably behind in the early nineteenth century. However, they industrialized rapidly in the second half of the century, especially in the last two or three decades. In view of their later start and their lack of coal—undoubtedly the main reason they were not among the early industrializers—it is important to understand the sources of their success. Paragraph 1 supports which of the following ideas about England and Germany? ○ They were completely industrialized by the start of the nineteenth century. ○ They possessed plentiful supplies of coal. ○ They were overtaken economically by the Netherlands and Scandinavia during the early nineteenth century. ○ They succeeded for the same reasons that the Netherlands and Scandinavia did. 答案：D ********************************************************************************************************************* UNLIKE A, B具有β的特点= A 不具有β的特点 ►It should be obvious that cetaceans—whales, porpoises, and dolphins—are mammals. They breathe through lungs, not through gills, and give birth to live young. Their streamlined bodies, the absence of hind legs, and the presence of a fluke1 and blowhole2 cannot disguise their affinities with land dwelling mammals. However, unlike the cases of sea otters and pinnipeds (seals, sea lions, and walruses, whose limbs are functional both on land and at sea), it is not easy to envision what the first whales looked like. Extinct but already fully marine cetaceans are known from the fossil record. How was the gap between a walking mammal and a swimming whale bridged? Missing until recently were fossils clearly intermediate, or transitional, between land mammals and cetaceans. 2. Which of the following can be inferred from paragraph 1 about early sea otters? ○ It is not difficult to imagine what they looked like. ○ There were great numbers of them. ○ They lived in the sea only. ○ They did not leave many fossil remains. 答案：A ********************************************************************************************************************* Without α, A…. ►One of the most puzzling aspects of the paintings is their location. Other rock paintings—for example, those of Bushmen in South Africa—are either located near cave entrances or completely in the open. Cave paintings in France and Spain, however, are in recesses and caverns far removed from original cave entrances. This means that artists were forced to work in cramped spaces and without sources of natural light. It also implies that whoever made them did not want them to be easily found. Since cave dwellers normally lived close to entrances, there must have been some reason why so many generations of Lascaux cave dwellers hid their art. 3. What can be inferred from paragraph 2 about cave painters in France and Spain? ○ They also painted rocks outside caves. ○ They did not live close to the cave entrances. ○ They developed their own sources of light to use while painting. ○ Their painting practices did not last for many years. 答案：C ********************************************************************************************************************* ►People are bound within relationships by two types of bonds: expressive ties and instrumental ties. Expressive ties are social links formed when we emotionally invest ourselves in and commit ourselves to other people. Through association with people who are meaningful to us, we achieve a sense of security, love, acceptance, companionship, and personal worth. Instrumental ties are social links formed when we cooperate with other people to achieve some goal. Occasionally, this may mean working with instead of against competitors. More often, we simply cooperate with others to reach some end without endowing the relationship with any larger significance. 4. Which of the following can be inferred about instrumental ties from the author's mention of working with competitors in paragraph 2? ○ Instrumental ties can develop even in situations in which people would normally not cooperate. ○ Instrumental ties require as much emotional investment as expressive ties. ○ Instrumental ties involve security, love, and acceptance. ○ Instrumental ties should be expected to be significant. 答案：A ********************************************************************************************************************* A, RATHER THAN B ►The United States dancer Loie Fuller (1862–1928) found theatrical dance in the late nineteenth century artistically unfulfilling. She considered herself an artist rather than a mere entertainer, and she, in turn, attracted the notice of other artists. 5. What can be inferred from paragraph 1 about theatrical dance in the late nineteenth century? ○ It influenced many artists outside of the field of dance. ○ It was very similar to theatrical dance of the early nineteenth century. ○ It was more a form of entertainment than a form of serious art. ○ It was a relatively new art form in the United States. 答案：C ********************************************************************************************************************* Range/ Proportion范围 ►By far the most abundant form of geothermal energy occurs at the relatively low temperatures of 80° to 180° centigrade. Water circulated through heat reservoirs in this temperature range is able to extract enough heat to warm residential, commercial, and industrial spaces. More than 20,000 apartments in France are now heated by warm underground water drawn from a heat reservoir in a geologic structure near Paris called the Paris Basin. Iceland sits on a volcanic structure known as the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. Reykjavik, the capital of Iceland, is entirely heated by geothermal energy derived from volcanic heat. 6. According to paragraph 2, which of the following is true about heat reservoirs with a temperature in the range of 80° to 180° centigrade? ○ They are under international control. ○ They are more common than reservoirs that have a higher temperature. ○ Few of them produce enough heat to warm large industrial spaces. ○ They are used to generate electricity. 答案：B ********************************************************************************************************************* ►Two other developments presaged the end of the era of turnpikes and started a transportation revolution that resulted in increased regional specialization and the growth of a national market economy. First came the steamboat; although flatboats and keelboats continued to be important until the 1850’s steamboats eventually superseded all other craft in the carrying of passengers and freight. Steamboats were not only faster but also transported upriver freight for about one tenth of what it had previously cost on hand-propelled keelboats. Next came the Erie Canal, an enormous project in its day, spanning about 350 miles. After the canal went into operation, the cost per mile of transporting a ton of freight from Buffalo to New York City declined from nearly 20 cents to less than 1 cent. Eventually, the western states diverted much of their produce from the rivers to the Erie Canal, a shorter route to eastern markets. 7. Which of the following can be inferred from paragraph 5 about flatboats and keelboats? ○ They ceased to be used as soon as the first turnpikes were built. ○ They were slower and more expensive to operate than steamboats. ○ They were used for long-distance but not for regional transportation. ○ They were used primarily on the Erie Canal. 答案：B ********************************************************************************************************************* ►While some European countries, such as England and Germany, began to industrialize in the eighteenth century, the Netherlands and the Scandinavian countries of Denmark, Norway, and Sweden developed later. All four of these countries lagged considerably behind in the early nineteenth century. However, they industrialized rapidly in the second half of the century, especially in the last two or three decades. In view of their later start and their lack of coal—undoubtedly the main reason they were not among the early industrializers—it is important to understand the sources of their success. 8. Paragraph 1 supports which of the following ideas about England and Germany? ○ They were completely industrialized by the start of the nineteenth century. ○ They possessed plentiful supplies of coal. ○ They were overtaken economically by the Netherlands and Scandinavia during the early nineteenth century. ○ They succeeded for the same reasons that the Netherlands and Scandinavia did. 答案：B ********************************************************************************************************************* ►Another type of fossilization, known as carbonization, occurs when soft tissues are preserved as thin films of carbon. Leaves and tissue of soft-bodied organisms such as jellyfish or worms may accumulate, become buried and compressed, and lose their volatile constituents. The carbon often remains behind as a blackened silhouette. 9. Paragraph 5 suggests which of the following about the carbonization process? ○ It is completed soon after an organism dies. ○ It does not occur in hard-shell organisms. ○ It sometimes allows soft-tissued organisms to be preserved with all their parts. ○ It is a more precise process of preservation than is replacement. 答案：B ****************************************************************************************************************** ►The probability that actual remains of soft tissue will be preserved is improved if the organism dies in an environment of rapid deposition and oxygen deprivation. Under such conditions, the destructive effects of bacteria are diminished. The Middle Eocene Messel Shale (from about 48 million years ago) of Germany accumulated in such an environment. The shale was deposited in an oxygen-deficient lake where lethal gases sometimes bubbled up and killed animals. Their remains accumulated on the floor of the lake and were then covered by clay and silt. Among the superbly preserved Messel fossils are insects with iridescent exoskeletons (hard outer coverings), frogs with skin and blood vessels intact, and even entire small mammals with preserved fur and soft tissue. 10. According to paragraph 7, how do environments containing oxygen affect fossil preservation? ○ They increase the probability that soft-tissued organisms will become fossils. ○ They lead to more bacteria production. ○ They slow the rate at which clay and silt are deposited. ○ They reduce the chance that animal remains will be preserved. 答案：D *************************************************************************************
    • 【3】解决推理题的最佳方式 —— 排除法
      • - 没有提到
      • - 与原文相反
      • - 含义偏离
  • 【4】课后训练内容
    • 总结：定位点及出题点之间的逻辑关系
    • 分析：正确选项和原文的同义改写原则
• 9. 六选三
  • 【1】正确选项与引导句对象角度一致
    • TPO-12-1 Which Hand Did They Use? We all know that many more people today are right-handed than left-handed. Can one trace this same pattern far back in prehistory? Much of the evidence about right-hand versus left-hand dominance comes from stencils and prints found in rock shelters in Australia and elsewhere, and in many Ice Age caves in France, Spain, and Tasmania. When a left hand has been stenciled, this implies that the artist was right-handed, and vice versa. Even though the paint was often sprayed on by mouth, one can assume that the dominant hand assisted in the operation. One also has to make the assumption that hands were stenciled palm downward—a left hand stenciled palm upward might of course look as if it were a right hand. Of 158 stencils in the French cave of Gargas, 136 have been identified as left, and only 22 as right; right-handedness was therefore heavily predominant. Cave art furnishes other types of evidence of this phenomenon. Most engravings, for example, are best lit from the left, as befits the work of right-handed artists, who generally prefer to have the light source on the left so that the shadow of their hand does not fall on the tip of the engraving tool or brush. In the few cases where an Ice Age figure is depicted holding something, it is mostly, though not always, in the right hand. Clues to right-handedness can also be found by other methods. Right-handers tend to have longer, stronger, and more muscular bones on the right side , and Marcellin Boule as long ago as 1911 noted the La Chapelle-aux-Saints Neanderthal skeleton had a right upper arm bone that was noticeably stronger than the left. Similar observations have been made on other Neanderthal skeletons such as La Ferrassie I and Neanderthal itself. Fractures and other cut marks are another source of evidence. Right-handed soldiers tend to be wounded on the left. The skeleton of a 40- or 50-year-old Nabatean warrior, buried 2,000 years ago in the Negev Desert, Israel, had multiple healed fractures to the skull, the left arm, and the ribs. Tools themselves can be revealing. Long-handed Neolithic spoons of yew wood preserved in Alpine villages dating to 3000 B.C. have survived; the signs of rubbing on their left side indicate that their users were right-handed. The late Ice Age rope found in the French cave of Lascaux consists of fibers spiraling to the right, and was therefore tressed by a righthander. Occasionally one can determine whether stone tools were used in the right hand or the left, and it is even possible to assess how far back this feature can be traced. In stone toolmaking experiments, Nick Toth, a right-hander, held the core (the stone that would become the tool) in his left hand and the hammer stone in his right. As the tool was made, the core was rotated clockwise, and the flakes, removed in sequence, had a little crescent of cortex (the core's outer surface) on the side. Toth's knapping produced 56 percent flakes with the cortex on the right, and 44 percent left-oriented flakes. A left-handed toolmaker would produce the opposite pattern. Toth has applied these criteria to the similarly made pebble tools from a number of early sites (before 1.5 million years) at Koobi Fora, Kenya, probably made by Homo habilis. At seven sites he found that 57 percent of the flakes were right-oriented, and 43 percent left, a pattern almost identical to that produced today. About 90 percent of modern humans are right-handed: we are the only mammal with a preferential use of one hand. The part of the brain responsible for fine control and movement is located in the left cerebral hemisphere, and the findings above suggest that the human brain was already asymmetrical in its structure and function not long after 2 million years ago. Among Neanderthalers of 70,000–35,000 years ago, Marcellin Boule noted that the La Chapelle-aux-Saints individual had a left hemisphere slightly bigger than the right, and the same was found for brains of specimens from Neanderthal, Gibraltar, and La Quina. 14. Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2 points. Several categories of evidence indicate that people have always been predominantly right-handed. ● ● ● Answer Choices ○ Stencils of right-handed figures are characteristic of cave art in France, Spain, and Tasmania. ○ Signs on the skeletal remains of prehistoric figures, including arm-bone size and injury marks, imply that these are the remains of right-handed people. ○ Instruments such as spoons, ropes, and pebble tools show signs that indicate they were used or constructed by right-handed people. ○ The amount of prehistoric art created by right-handed artists indicates that left-handed people were in the minority. ○ Neanderthal skeletons often have longer finger bones in the right hand, which is evidence that the right hand was stronger. ○ Nick Toth, a modem right-handed toolmaker, has shown that prehistoric tools were knapped to fit the right hand. **************************************************************************************** TPO-8-3 Running Water on Mars? Photographic evidence suggests that liquid water once existed in great quantity on the surface of Mars.Two types of flow features are seen: runoff channels and outflow channels. Runoff channels are found in the southern highlands. These flow features are extensive systems—sometimes hundreds of kilometers in total length—of interconnecting, twisting channels that seem to merge into larger, wider channels. They bear a strong resemblance to river systems on Earth, and geologists think that they are dried-up beds of long-gone rivers that once carried rainfall on Mars from the mountains down into the valleys. Runoff channels on Mars speak of a time 4 billion years ago (the age of the Martian highlands), when the atmosphere was thicker, the surface warmer, and liquid water widespread. Outflow channels are probably relics of catastrophic flooding on Mars long ago. They appear only in equatorial regions and generally do not form extensive interconnected networks. Instead, they are probably the paths taken by huge volumes of water draining from the southern highlands into the northern plains. The onrushing water arising from these flash floods likely also formed the odd teardrop-shaped “islands” (resembling the miniature versions seen in the wet sand of our beaches at low tide) that have been found on the plains close to the ends of the outflow channels. Judging from the width and depth of the channels, the flow rates must have been truly enormous—perhaps as much as a hundred times greater than the 105 tons per second carried by the great Amazon river. Flooding shaped the outflow channels approximately 3 billion years ago, about the same times as the northern volcanic plains formed. Some scientists speculate that Mars may have enjoyed an extended early period during which rivers, lakes, and perhaps even oceans adorned its surface. A 2003 Mars Global Surveyor image shows what mission specialists think may be a delta—a fan-shaped network of channels and sediments where a river once flowed into a larger body of water, in this case a lake filling a crater in the southern highlands. Other researchers go even further, suggesting that the data provide evidence for large open expenses of water on the early Martian surface. A computer-generated view of the Martian north polar region shows the extent of what may have been an ancient ocean covering much of the northern lowlands. The Hellas Basin, which measures some 3,000 kilometers across and has a floor that lies nearly 9 kilometers below the basin’s rim, is another candidate for an ancient Martian sea. These ideas remain controversial. Proponents point to features such as the terraced “beaches” shown in one image, which could conceivably have been left behind as a lake or ocean evaporated and the shoreline receded. But detractors maintain that the terraces could also have been created by geological activity, perhaps related to the geologic forces that depressed the Northern Hemisphere far below the level of the south, in which case they have nothing whatever to do with Martian water. Furthermore, Mars Global Surveyor data released in 2003 seem to indicate that the Martian surface contains too few carbonate rock layers—layers containing compounds of carbon and oxygen—that should have been formed in abundance in an ancient ocean. Their absence supports the picture of a cold, dry Mars that never experienced the extended mild period required to form lakes and oceans. However, more recent data imply that at least some parts of the planet did in fact experience long periods in the past during which liquid water existed on the surface. Aside from some small-scale gullies (channels) found since 2000, which are inconclusive, astronomers have no direct evidence for liquid water anywhere on the surface of Mars today, and the amount of water vapor in the Martian atmosphere is tiny. Yet even setting aside the unproven hints of ancient oceans, the extent of the outflow channels suggests that a huge total volume of water existed on Mars in the past. Where did all the water go? The answer may be that virtually all the water on Mars is now locked in the permafrost layer under the surface, with more contained in the planet’s polar caps. 13. Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2 points. There is much debate concerning whether Mars once had water. ● ● ● Answer choices ○ Mars’ runoff and outflow channels are large-scale, distinctive features that suggest that large quantities of liquid water once flowed on Mars. ○ Although some researchers claim that Mars may once have had oceans, others dispute this, pointing to an absence of evidence or offering alternative interpretations of evidence. ○ Various types of images have been used to demonstrate that most of Martian surface contains evidence of flowing water. ○ The runoff and outflow channels of Mars apparently carried a higher volume of water and formed more extensive networks than do Earth’s river systems. ○ There is very little evidence of liquid water on Mars today, and it is assumed that all the water that once existed on the planet is frozen beneath its surface. ○ While numerous gullies have been discovered on Mars since 2000, many astronomers dismiss them as evidence that Mars once had liquid water. **************************************************************************************** TPO-18-3 The Mystery of Yawning According to conventional theory, yawning takes place when people are bored or sleepy and serves the function of increasing alertness by reversing, through deeper breathing, the drop in blood oxygen levels that are caused by the shallow breathing that accompanies lack of sleep or boredom. Unfortunately, the few scientific investigations of yawning have failed to find any connection between how often someone yawns and how much sleep they have had or how tired they are. About the closest any research has come to supporting the tiredness theory is to confirm that adults yawn more often on weekdays than at weekends, and that school children yawn more frequently in their first year at primary school than they do in kindergarten. Another flaw of the tiredness theory is that yawning does not raise alertness or physiological activity, as the theory would predict. When researchers measured the heart rate, muscle tension and skin conductance of people before, during and after yawning, they did detect some changes in skin conductance following yawning, indicating a slight increase in physiological activity. However, similar changes occurred when the subjects were asked simply to open their mouths or to breathe deeply. Yawning did nothing special to their state of physiological activity. Experiments have also cast serious doubt on the belief that yawning is triggered by a drop in blood oxygen or a rise in blood carbon dioxide. Volunteers were told to think about yawning while they breathed either normal air, pure oxygen, or an air mixture with an above-normal level of carbon dioxide. If the theory was correct, breathing air with extra carbon dioxide should have triggered yawning, while breathing pure oxygen should have suppressed yawning. In fact, neither condition made any difference to the frequency of yawning, which remained constant at about 24 yawns per hour. Another experiment demonstrated that physical exercise, which was sufficiently vigorous to double the rate of breathing, had no effect on the frequency of yawning. Again the implication is that yawning has little or nothing to do with oxygen. A completely different theory holds that yawning assists in the physical development of the lungs early in life, but has no remaining biological function in adults. It has been suggested that yawning and hiccuping might serve to clear out the fetuses airways. The lungs of a fetus secrete a liquid that mixes with its mother's amniotic fluid. Babies with congenital blockages that prevent this fluid from escaping from their lungs are sometimes born with deformed lungs. It might be that yawning helps to clear out the lungs by periodically lowering the pressure in them. According to this theory, yawning in adults is just a developmental fossil with no biological function. But, while accepting that not everything in life can be explained by Darwinian evolution, there are sound reasons for being skeptical of theories like this one, which avoid the issue of what yawning does for adults. Yawning is distracting, consumes energy and takes time. It is almost certainly doing something significant in adults as well as in fetuses. What could it be? The empirical evidence, such as it is, suggests an altogether different function for yawning—namely, that yawning prepares us for a change in activity level. Support for this theory came from a study of yawning behavior in everyday life. Volunteers wore wrist-mounted devices that automatically recorded their physical activity for up to two weeks: the volunteers also recorded their yawns by pressing a button on the device each time they yawned. The data showed that yawning tended to occur about 15 minutes before a period of increased behavioral activity. Yawning bore no relationship to sleep patterns, however. This accords with anecdotal evidence that people often yawn in situations where they are neither tired nor bored, but are preparing for impending mental and physical activity. Such yawning is often referred to as "incongruous" because it seems out of place, at least on the tiredness view: soldiers yawning before combat, musicians yawning before performing, and athletes yawning before competing. Their yawning seems to have nothing to do with sleepiness or boredom—quite the reverse—but it does precede a change in activity level. 15. Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THERR answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2 points. The tiredness theory of yawning does not seem to explain why yawning occurs. ● ● ● ○ Although earlier scientific studies strongly supported the tiredness theory, new evidence has cast doubt on these findings. ○ Evidence has shown that yawning is almost completely unrelated to amount of oxygen in the blood and is unrelated to sleep behavior. ○ Some have proposed that yawning plays a role in the development of the lungs before birth but that it serves no purpose in adults. ○ Fluids in the lungs of the fetus prevent yawning from occurring, which disproves the developmental theory of yawning. ○ New studies, along with anecdotal evidence, have shown that the frequency of yawning increases during extended periods of inactivity. ○ There is some evidence that suggests that yawning prepares the body and mind for a change in activity level. **************************************************************************************** TPO-11-2 Orientation and Navigation To South Americans, robins are birds that fly north every spring. To North Americans, the robins simply vacation in the south each winter. Furthermore, they fly to very specific places in South America and will often come back to the same trees in North American yards the following spring. The question is not why they would leave the cold of winter so much as how they find their way around. The question perplexed people for years, until, in the 1950s, a German scientist named Gustave Kramer provided some answers and, in the process, raised new questions. Kramer initiated important new kinds of research regarding how animals orient and navigate. Orientation is simply facing in the right direction; navigation involves finding ones way from point A to point B. Early in his research, Kramer found that caged migratory birds became very restless at about the time they would normally have begun migration in the wild. Furthermore, he noticed that as they fluttered around in the cage, they often launched themselves in the direction of their normal migratory route. He then set up experiments with caged starlings and found that their orientation was, in fact, in the proper migratory direction except when the sky was overcast, at which times there was no clear direction to their restless movements. Kramer surmised, therefore, that they were orienting according to the position of the Sun. To test this idea, he blocked their view of the Sun and used mirrors to change its apparent position. He found that under these circumstances, the birds oriented with respect to the new "Sun." They seemed to be using the Sun as a compass to determine direction. At the time, this idea seemed preposterous. How could a bird navigate by the Sun when some of us lose our way with road maps? Obviously, more testing was in order. So, in another set of experiments, Kramer put identical food boxes around the cage, with food in only one of the boxes. The boxes were stationary, and the one containing food was always at the same point of the compass. However, its position with respect to the surroundings could be changed by revolving either the inner cage containing the birds or the outer walls, which served as the background. As long as the birds could see the Sun, no matter how their surroundings were altered, they went directly to the correct food box. Whether the box appeared in front of the right wall or the left wall, they showed no signs of confusion. On overcast days, however, the birds were disoriented and had trouble locating their food box. In experimenting with artificial suns, Kramer made another interesting discovery. If the artificial Sun remained stationary, the birds would shift their direction with respect to it at a rate of about 15 degrees per hour, the Sun's rate of movement across the sky. Apparently, the birds were assuming that the "Sun" they saw was moving at that rate. When the real Sun was visible, however, the birds maintained a constant direction as it moved across the sky. In other words, they were able to compensate for the Sun's movement. This meant that some sort of biological clock was operating-and a very precise clock at that. What about birds that migrate at night? Perhaps they navigate by the night sky. To test the idea, caged night-migrating birds were placed on the floor of a planetarium during their migratory period. A planetarium is essentially a theater with a domelike ceiling onto which a night sky can be projected for any night of the year. When the planetarium sky matched the sky outside, the birds fluttered in the direction of their normal migration. But when the dome was rotated, the birds changed their direction to match the artificial sky. The results clearly indicated that the birds were orienting according to the stars. There is accumulating evidence indicating that birds navigate by using a wide variety of environmental cues. Other areas under investigation include magnetism, landmarks, coastlines, sonar, and even smells. The studies are complicated by the fact that the data are sometimes contradictory and the mechanisms apparently change from time to time. Furthermore, one sensory ability may back up another. 14.Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2 points. Gustave Kramer conducted important research related to the ability of birds to orient and navigate. ● ● ● Answer Choices ○ Because caged birds become disoriented when the sky is overcast, Kramer hypothesized that birds orient themselves according to the Sun's position. ○ In one set of experiments, Kramer placed the box containing food at the same point of the compass each time he put food boxes in the birds’ environment. ○ Kramer demonstrated that an internal biological clock allows starlings to compensate for the Sun's movement. ○ After several studies, Kramer surmised that an internal biological clock allows some species of birds to navigate at night. ○ The role of environmental cues in birds' navigation is clear, for on overcast days, birds use objects besides the Sun to orient themselves. ○ Kramer showed that night-migrating birds use the sky to navigate by the stars. **************************************************************************************** TPO-11-3 Begging by Nestlings Many signals that animals make seem to impose on the signalers costs that are overly damaging. A classic example is noisy begging by nestling songbirds when a parent returns to the nest with food. These loud cheeps and peeps might give the location of the nest away to a listening hawk or raccoon, resulting in the death of the defenseless nestlings. In fact, when tapes of begging tree swallows were played at an artificial swallow nest containing an egg, the egg in that “noisy” nest was taken or destroyed by predators before the egg in a nearby quiet nest in 29 of 37 trials. Further evidence for the costs of begging comes from a study of differences in the begging calls of warbler species that nest on the ground versus those that nest in the relative safety of trees. The young of ground-nesting warblers produce begging cheeps of higher frequencies than do their tree-nesting relatives. These higher-frequency sounds do not travel as far, and so may better conceal the individuals producing them, who are especially vulnerable to predators in their ground nests. David Haskell created artificial nests with clay eggs and placed them on the ground beside a tape recorder that played the begging calls of either tree-nesting or of ground-nesting warblers. The eggs “advertised” by the tree-nesters' begging calls were found bitten significantly more often than the eggs associated with the ground-nesters' calls. The hypothesis that begging calls have evolved properties that reduce their potential for attracting predators yields a prediction : baby birds of species that experience high rates of nest predation should produce softer begging signals of higher frequency than nestlings of other species less often victimized by nest predators. This prediction was supported by data collected in one survey of 24 species from an Arizona forest, more evidence that predator pressure favors the evolution of begging calls that are hard to detect and pinpoint. Given that predators can make it costly to beg for food, what benefit do begging nestlings derive from their communications? One possibility is that a noisy baby bird provides accurate signals of its real hunger and good health, making it worthwhile for the listening parent to give it food in a nest where several other offspring are usually available to be fed. If this hypothesis is true, then it follows that nestlings should adjust the intensity of their signals in relation to the signals produced by their nestmates, who are competing for parental attention. When experimentally deprived baby robins are placed in a nest with normally fed siblings, the hungry nestlings beg more loudly than usual—but so do their better-fed siblings, though not as loudly as the hungrier birds. If parent birds use begging intensity to direct food to healthy offspring capable of vigorous begging, then parents should make food delivery decisions on the basis of their offsprings’ calls. Indeed, if you take baby tree swallows out of a nest for an hour feeding half the set and starving the other half, when the birds are replaced in the nest, the starved youngsters beg more loudly than the fed birds, and the parent birds feed the active beggars more than those who beg less vigorously. As these experiments show, begging apparently provides a signal of need that parents use to make judgments about which offspring can benefit most from a feeding. But the question arises, why don't nestlings beg loudly when they aren't all that hungry? By doing so, they could possibly secure more food, which should result in more rapid growth or larger size, either of which is advantageous. The answer lies apparently not in the increased energy costs of exaggerated begging—such energy costs are small relative to the potential gain in calories—but rather in the damage that any successful cheater would do to its siblings, which share genes with one another. An individual's success in propagating his or her genes can be affected by more than just his or her own personal reproductive success. Because close relatives have many of the same genes, animals that harm their close relatives may in effect be destroying some of their own genes. Therefore, a begging nestling that secures food at the expense of its siblings might actually leave behind fewer copies of its genes overall than it might otherwise. 14. Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2 points. Experiments have shed much light on the begging behaviors of baby songbirds. ● ● ● Answer Choices ○ Songbird species that are especially vulnerable to predators have evolved ways of reducing the dangers associated with begging calls. ○ Songbird parents focus their feeding effort on the nestlings that beg loudest for food. ○ It is genetically disadvantageous for nestlings to behave as if they are really hungry when they are not really hungry. ○ The begging calls of songbird nestlings provide a good example of overly damaging cost to signalers of signaling. ○ The success with which songbird nestlings communicate their hunger to their parents is dependent on the frequencies of the nestlings' begging calls. ○ Songbird nestlings have evolved several different ways to communicate the intensity of their hunger to their parents. **************************************************************************************** TPO-9-1 Colonizing the Americas via the Northwest Coast It has long been accepted that the Americas were colonized by a migration of peoples from Asia, slowly traveling across a land bridge called Beringia (now the Bering Strait between northeastern Asia and Alaska) during the last Ice Age. The first water craft theory about this migration was that around 11,000-12,000 years ago there was an ice-free corridor stretching from eastern Beringia to the areas of North America south of the great northern glaciers. It was this midcontinental corridor between two massive ice sheets–the Laurentide to the east and the Cordilleran to the west–that enabled the southward migration. But belief in this ice-free corridor began to crumble when paleoecologist Glen MacDonald demonstrated that some of the most important radiocarbon dates used to support the existence of an ice-free corridor were incorrect. He persuasively argued that such an ice-free corridor did not exist until much later, when the continental ice began its final retreat. Support is growing for the alternative theory that people using watercraft, possibly skin boats, moved southward from Beringia along the Gulf of Alaska and then southward along the Northwest coast of North America possibly as early as 16,000 years ago. This route would have enabled humans to enter southern areas of the Americas prior to the melting of the continental glaciers. Until the early 1970s,most archaeologists did not consider the coast a possible migration route into the Americas because geologists originally believed that during the last Ice Age the entire Northwest Coast was covered by glacial ice. It had been assumed that the ice extended westward from the Alaskan/Canadian mountains to the very edge of the continental shelf, the flat, submerged part of the continent that extends into the ocean. This would have created a barrier of ice extending from the Alaska Peninsula, through the Gulf of Alaska and southward along the Northwest Coast of north America to what is today the state of Washington. The most influential proponent of the coastal migration route has been Canadian archaeologist Knut Fladmark. He theorized that with the use of watercraft, people gradually colonized unglaciated refuges and areas along the continental shelf exposed by the lower sea level. Fladmark’s hypothesis received additional support form from the fact that the greatest diversity in native American languages occurs along the west coast of the Americas, suggesting that this region has been settled the longest. More recent geologic studies documented deglaciation and the existence of ice-free areas throughout major coastal areas of British Columbia, Canada, by 13,000 years ago. Research now indicates that sizable areas of southeastern Alaska along the inner continental shelf were not covered by ice toward the end of the last Ice Age. One study suggests that except for a 250-mile coastal area between southwestern British Columbia and Washington State, the Northwest Coast of North America was largely free of ice by approximately 16,000 years ago. Vast areas along the coast may have been deglaciated beginning around 16,000 years ago, possibly providing a coastal corridor for the movement of plants, animals, and humans sometime between 13,000 and 14,000 years ago. The coastal hypothesis has gained increasing support in recent years because the remains of large land animals, such as caribou and brown bears, have been found in southeastern Alaska dating between 10,000 and 12,500 years ago. This is the time period in which most scientists formerly believed the area to be inhospitable for humans. It has been suggested that if the environment were capable of supporting breeding populations of bears, there would have been enough food resources to support humans. Fladmark and other believe that the first human colonization of America occurred by boat along the Northwest Coast during the very late Ice Age, possibly as early as 14,000 years ago. The most recent geologic evidence indicates that it may have been possible for people to colonize ice-free regions along the continental shelf that were still exposed by the lower sea level between13,000 and 14,000 years ago. The coastal hypothesis suggests an economy based on marine mammal hunting, saltwater fishing, shellfish gathering, and the use of watercraft. Because of the barrier of ice to the east, the Pacific Ocean to the west, and populated areas to the north, there may have been a greater impetus for people to move in a southerly direction. 14. Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some answer choices do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2 points. Recent evidence favors a rival to the long-standing theory that the Americas were colonized 11,000-12,000 years ago by people migrating south from Beringia along a midcontinental ice-free corridor. ● ● ● Answer Choices ○ Evidence that an ice-free corridor between two ice sheets developed when the continental ice first began to melt came primarily from radiocarbon dating. ○ There is growing support for the theory that migration took place much earlier, by sea, following a coastal route along Alaska and down the northwest coast. ○ Recent geologic evidence indicates that contrary to what had been believed, substantial areas along the coast were free of ice as early as 16,000 years ago. ○ Research now indicates that the parts of the inner continental shelf that remained covered with ice were colonized by a variety of early human groups well adapted to living in extremely cold environments. ○ There is evidence suggesting that areas along the coast may have contained enough food resources between 13,000 and 14,000 years ago to have made human colonization possible. ○ Even though the northern part of the continent allowed for a more varied economy, several early human groups quickly moved south. **************************************************************************************** TPO-1-2 The Origins of Theater In seeking to describe the origins of theater, one must rely primarily on speculation, since there is little concrete evidence on which to draw.The most widely accepted theory, championed by anthropologists in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, envisions theater as emerging out of myth and ritual. The process perceived by these anthropologists may be summarized briefly. During the early stages of its development, a society becomes aware of forces that appear to influence or control its food supply and well-being. Having little understanding of natural causes, it attributes both desirable and undesirable occurrences to supernatural or magical forces, and it searches for means to win the favor of these forces. Perceiving an apparent connection between certain actions performed by the group and the result it desires, the group repeats, refines and formalizes those actions into fixed ceremonies, or rituals. Stories (myths) may then grow up around a ritual. Frequently the myths include representatives of those supernatural forces that the rites celebrate or hope to influence. Performers may wear costumes and masks to represent the mythical characters or supernatural forces in the rituals or in accompanying celebrations. As a person becomes more sophisticated, its conceptions of supernatural forces and causal relationships may change. As a result, it may abandon or modify some rites. But the myths that have grown up around the rites may continue as part of the group’s oral tradition and may even come to be acted out under conditions divorced from these rites. When this occurs, the first step has been taken toward theater as an autonomous activity, and thereafter entertainment and aesthetic values may gradually replace the former mystical and socially efficacious concerns. Although origin in ritual has long been the most popular, it is by no means the only theory about how the theater came into being. Storytelling has been proposed as one alternative. Under this theory, relating and listening to stories are seen as fundamental human pleasures. Thus, the recalling of an event (a hunt, battle, or other feat) is elaborated through the narrator’s pantomime and impersonation and eventually through each role being assumed by a different person. A closely related theory sees theater as evolving out of dances that are primarily pantomimic, rhythmical or gymnastic, or from imitations of animal noises and sounds. Admiration for the performer’s skill, virtuosity, and grace are seen as motivation for elaborating the activities into fully realized theatrical performances. In addition to exploring the possible antecedents of theater, scholars have also theorized about the motives that led people to develop theater. Why did theater develop, and why was it valued after it ceased to fulfill the function of ritual? Most answers fall back on the theories about the human mind and basic human needs. One, set forth by Aristotle in the fourth century B.C., sees humans as naturally imitative—as taking pleasure in imitating persons, things, and actions and in seeing such imitations. Another, advanced in the twentieth century, suggests that humans have a gift for fantasy, through which they seek to reshape reality into more satisfying forms than those encountered in daily life. Thus, fantasy or fiction (of which drama is one form) permits people to objectify their anxieties and fears, confront them, and fulfill their hopes in fiction if not fact. The theater, then, is one tool whereby people define and understand their world or escape from unpleasant realities. But neither the human imitative instinct nor a penchant for fantasy by itself leads to an autonomous theater. Therefore, additional explanations are needed. One necessary condition seems to be a somewhat detached view of human problems. For example, one sign of this condition is the appearance of the comic vision, since comedy requires sufficient detachment to view some deviations from social norms as ridiculous rather than as serious threats to the welfare of the entire group. Another condition that contributes to the development of autonomous theater is the emergence of the aesthetic sense. For example, some early societies ceased to consider certain rites essential to their well-being and abandoned them, nevertheless, they retained as parts of their oral tradition the myths that had grown up around the rites and admired them for their artistic qualities rather than for their religious usefulness. 14. Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2 points. Anthropologists have developed many theories to help understand why and how theater originated. ● ● ● Answer choices ○ The presence of theater in almost all societies is thought to have occurred because early storytellers traveled to different groups to tell their stories. ○ Many theorists believe that theater arises when societies act out myths to preserve social well-being. ○ The more sophisticated societies became, the better they could influence desirable occurrences through ritualized theater. ○ Some theories of theater development focus on how theater was used by group leaders to group leaders govern other members of society. ○ Theater may have come from pleasure humans receive from storytelling and moving rhythmically. ○ The human capacities for imitation and fantasy are considered possible reasons why societies develop theater. **************************************************************************************** TPO-19-3 Discovering the Ice Ages In the middle of the nineteenth century, Louis Agassiz, one of the first scientists to study glaciers, immigrated to the United States from Switzerland and became a professor at Harvard University, where he continued his studies in geology and other sciences. For his research, Agassiz visited many places in the northern parts of Europe and North America, from the mountains of Scandinavia and New England to the rolling hills of the American Midwest. In all these diverse regions, Agassiz saw signs of glacial erosion and sedimentation. In flat plains country, he saw moraines (accumulations of earth and loose rock that form at the edges of glaciers) that reminded him of the terminal moraines found at the end of valley glaciers in the Alps. The heterogeneous material of the drift (sand, clay, and rocks deposited there) convinced him of its glacial origin. The areas covered by this material were so vast that the ice that deposited it must have been a continental glacier larger than Greenland or Antarctica. Eventually, Agassiz and others convinced geologists and the general public that a great continental glaciation had extended the polar ice caps far into regions that now enjoy temperate climates. For the first time, people began to talk about ice ages. It was also apparent that the glaciation occurred in the relatively recent past because the drift was soft, like freshly deposited sediment. We now know the age of the glaciation accurately from radiometric dating of the carbon-14 in logs buried in the drift. The drift of the last glaciation was deposited during one of the most recent epochs of geologic time, the Pleistocene, which lasted from 1.8 million to 10,000 years ago. Along the east coast of the United States, the southernmost advance of this ice is recorded by the enormous sand and drift deposits of the terminal moraines that form Long Island and Cape Cod. It soon became clear that there were multiple glacial ages during the Pleistocene, with warmer interglacial intervals between them. As geologists mapped glacial deposits in the late nineteenth century, they became aware that there were several layers of drift, the lower ones corresponding to earlier ice ages. Between the older layers of glacial material were well-developed soils containing fossils of warm-climate plants. These soils were evidence that the glaciers retreated as the climate warmed. By the early part of the twentieth century, scientists believed that four distinct glaciations had affected North America and Europe during the Pleistocene epoch. This idea was modified in the late twentieth century, when geologists and oceanographers examining oceanic sediment found fossil evidence of warming and cooling of the oceans. Ocean sediments presented a much more complete geologic record of the Pleistocene than continental glacial deposits did. The fossils buried in Pleistocene and earlier ocean sediments were of foraminifera—small, single-celled marine organisms that secrete shells of calcium carbonate, or calcite. These shells differ in their proportion of ordinary oxygen (oxygen-16) and the heavy oxygen isotope (oxygen-18). The ratio of oxygen-16 to oxygen-18 found in the calcite of a foraminifer's shell depends on the temperature of the water in which the organism lived. Different ratios in the shells preserved in various layers of sediment reveal the temperature changes in the oceans during the Pleistocene epoch. Isotopic analysis of shells allowed geologists to measure another glacial effect. They could trace the growth and shrinkage of continental glaciers, even in parts of the ocean where there may have been no great change in temperature—around the equator, for example. The oxygen isotope ratio of the ocean changes as a great deal of water is withdrawn from it by evaporation and is precipitated as snow to form glacial ice. During glaciations, the lighter oxygen-16 has a greater tendency to evaporate from the ocean surface than the heavier oxygen-18 does. Thus, more of the heavy isotope is left behind in the ocean and absorbed by marine organisms. From this analysis of marine sediments, geologists have learned that there were many shorter, more regular cycles of glaciation and deglaciation than geologists had recognized from the glacial drift of the continents alone. 14. Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2 points. Louis Agassiz was the first to note signs of glacial erosion and sedimentation in diverse regions of Europe and North America. ● ● ● Answer Choices ○ Evidence of a pattern of glacier-like deposits eventually convinced most geologists that an enormous continental glacier had extended into the temperate zone. ○ Glacial research showed that many layers of ice were deposited, with each new period of glaciation extending farther south than the one before. ○ Isotopic analysis of marine sediments showed that periods of glaciation and deglaciation were more frequent, shorter, and more cyclic than previously thought. ○ Nineteenth-century geologists came to accept the idea that the areas covered by polar ice had reached as far as the equator, a far larger area than Agassiz had thought. ○ Nineteenth-century geologists studying the layers of drift concluded that during the Pleistocene epoch, several glaciations had occurred with warm periods between them. ○ Research involving foraminifera fossil shells show that ocean temperatures in the Northern Hemisphere varied greatly during the most extensive periods of glaciation. **************************************************************************************** TPO-21-2 The Origins of Agriculture How did it come about that farming developed independently in a number of world centers (the Southeast Asian mainland, Southwest Asia, Central America, lowland and highland South America, and equatorial Africa) at more or less the same time? Agriculture developed slowly among populations that had an extensive knowledge of plants and animals. Changing from hunting and gathering to agriculture had no immediate advantages. To start with, it forced the population to abandon the nomad's life and become sedentary, to develop methods of storage and, often, systems of irrigation. While hunter-gatherers always had the option of moving elsewhere when the resources were exhausted, this became more difficult with farming. Furthermore, as the archaeological record shows, the state of health of agriculturalists was worse than that of their contemporary hunter-gatherers. Traditionally, it was believed that the transition to agriculture was the result of a worldwide population crisis.It was argued that once hunter-gatherers had occupied the whole world, the population started to grow everywhere and food became scarce ; agriculture would have been a solution to this problem. We know, however, that contemporary hunter-gatherer societies control their population in a variety of ways. The idea of a world population crisis is therefore unlikely, although population pressure might have arisen in some areas. Climatic changes at the end of the glacial period 13,000 years ago have been proposed to account for the emergence of farming. The temperature increased dramatically in a short period of time (years rather than centuries), allowing for a growth of the hunting-gathering population due to the abundance of resources. There were, however, fluctuations in the climatic conditions, with the consequences that wet conditions were followed by dry ones, so that the availability of plants and animals oscillated brusquely. It would appear that the instability of the climatic conditions led populations that had originally been nomadic to settle down and develop a sedentary style of life, which led in turn to population growth and to the need to increase the amount of food available. Farming originated in these conditions. Later on, it became very difficult to change because of the significant expansion of these populations. It could be argued, however, that these conditions are not sufficient to explain the origins of agriculture. Earth had experienced previous periods of climatic change, and yet agriculture had not been developed. It is archaeologist Steven Mithen's thesis, brilliantly developed in his book The Prehistory of the Mind (1996), that approximately 40,000 years ago the human mind developed cognitive fluidity, that is, the integration of the specializations of the mind: technical, natural history (geared to understanding the behavior and distribution of natural resources), social intelligence, and the linguistic capacity. Cognitive fluidity explains the appearance of art, religion, and sophisticated speech. Once humans possessed such a mind, they were able to find an imaginative solution to a situation of severe economic crisis such as the farming dilemma described earlier. Mithen proposes the existence of four mental elements to account for the emergence of farming: (1) the ability to develop tools that could be used intensively to harvest and process plant resources; (2) the tendency to use plants and animals as the medium to acquire social prestige and power; (3) the tendency to develop "social relationships" with animals structurally similar to those developed with people—specifically, the ability to think of animals as people (anthropomorphism) and of people as animals (totemism); and (4) the tendency to manipulate plants and animals. The fact that some societies domesticated animals and plants, discovered the use of metal tools, became literate, and developed a state should not make us forget that others developed pastoralism or horticulture (vegetable gardening) but remained illiterate and at low levels of productivity; a few entered the modern period as hunting and gathering societies. It is anthropologically important to inquire into the conditions that made some societies adopt agriculture while others remained hunter-gatherers or horticulturalists. However, it should be kept in mind that many societies that knew of agriculture more or less consciously avoided it. Whether Mithen's explanation is satisfactory is open to contention, and some authors have recently emphasized the importance of other factors. **************************************************************************************** TPO 7-1 The Geologic History of the Mediterranean In 1970 geologists Kenneth J. Hsu and William B.F. Ryan were collecting research data while aboard the oceanographic research vessel Glomar Challenger. An objective of this particular cruise was to investigate the floor of the Mediterranean and to resolve questions about its geologic history. One question was related to evidence that the invertebrate fauna (animals without spines) of the Mediterranean had changed abruptly about 6 million years ago. Most of the older organisms were nearly wiped out, although a few hardy species survived. A few managed to migrate into the Atlantic. Somewhat later, the migrants returned, bringing new species with them. Why did the near extinction and migrations occur? Another task for the Glomar Challenger’s scientists was to try to determine the origin of the domelike masses buried deep beneath the Mediterranean seafloor. These structures had been detected years earlier by echo-sounding instruments, but they had never been penetrated in the course of drilling. Were they salt domes such as are common along the United States Gulf Coast, and if so, why should there have been so much solid crystalline salt beneath the floor of the Mediterranean? With question such as these clearly before them, the scientists aboard the Glomar Challenger processed to the Mediterranean to search for the answers. On August 23, 1970, they recovered a sample. The sample consisted of pebbles of hardened sediment that had once been soft, deep-sea mud, as well as granules of gypsum and fragments of volcanic rock. Not a single pebble was found that might have indicated that the pebbles came from the nearby continent. In the days following, samples of solid gypsum were repeatedly brought on deck as drilling operations penetrated the seafloor. Furthermore, the gypsum was found to possess peculiarities of composition and structure that suggested it had formed on desert flats. Sediment above and below the gypsum layer contained tiny marine fossils, indicating open-ocean conditions. As they drilled into the central and deepest part of the Mediterranean basin, the scientists took solid, shiny, crystalline salt from the core barrel. Interbedded with the salt were thin layers of what appeared to be windblown silt. The time had come to formulate a hypothesis. The investigators theorized that about 20 million years ago, the Mediterranean was a broad seaway linked to the Atlantic by two narrow straits. Crustal movements closed the straits, and the landlocked Mediterranean began to evaporate. Increasing salinity caused by the evaporation resulted in the extermination of scores of invertebrate species. Only a few organisms especially tolerant of very salty conditions remained. As evaporation continued, the remaining brine (salt water) became so dense that the calcium sulfate of the hard layer was precipitated. In the central deeper part of the basin, the last of the brine evaporated to precipitate more soluble sodium chloride (salt). Later, under the weight of overlying sediments, this salt flowed plastically upward to form salt domes. Before this happened, however, the Mediterranean was a vast desert 3,000 meters deep. Then, about 5.5 million years ago came the deluge. As a result of crustal adjustments and faulting, the Strait of Gibraltar, where the Mediterranean now connects to the Atlantic, opened, and water cascaded spectacularly back into the Mediterranean. Turbulent waters tore into the hardened salt flats, broke them up, and ground them into the pebbles observed in the first sample taken by the Challenger. As the basin was refilled, normal marine organisms returned. Soon layer of oceanic ooze began to accumulate above the old hard layer. The salt and gypsum, the faunal changes, and the unusual gravel provided abundant evidence that the Mediterranean was once a desert. An expedition to the Mediterranean answered some long-standing questions about the ocean’s history. ● ● ● Answer choices ○ The Glomar Challenger expedition investigated changes in invertebrate fauna and some unusual geologic features. ○ Researchers collected fossils to determine which new species migrated from the Atlantic with older species. ○ Scientists aboard the Glomar Challenger were the first to discover the existence of domelike masses underneath the seafloor. ○ Samples recovered from the expedition revealed important differences in chemical composition and fossil distribution among the sediment layers. ○ Evidence collected by the Glomar Challenger supports geologists' beliefs that the Mediterranean had evaporated and become a desert, before it refilled with water. ○ Mediterranean salt domes formed after crustal movements opened the straits between the Mediterranean and the Atlantic, and the Mediterranean refilled with water. **************************************************************************************** Groundwater Groundwater is the word used to describe water that saturates the ground, filling all the available spaces. By far the most abundant type of groundwater is meteoric water; this is the groundwater that circulates as part of the water cycle. Ordinary meteoric water is water that has soaked into the ground from the surface, from precipitation (rain and snow) and from lakes and streams. There it remains, sometimes for long periods, before emerging at the surface again. At first thought it seems incredible that there can be enough space in the “solid” ground underfoot to hold all this water. The necessary space is there, however, in many forms. The commonest spaces are those among the particles—sand grains and tiny pebbles—of loose, unconsolidated sand and gravel. Beds of this material, out of sight beneath the soil, are common. They are found wherever fast rivers carrying loads of coarse sediment once flowed. For example, as the great ice sheets that covered North America during the last ice age steadily melted away, huge volumes of water flowed from them. The water was always laden with pebbles, gravel, and sand, known as glacial outwash, that was deposited as the flow slowed down. The same thing happens to this day, though on a smaller scale, wherever a sediment-laden river or stream emerges from a mountain valley onto relatively flat land, dropping its load as the current slows: the water usually spreads out fanwise, depositing the sediment in the form of a smooth, fan-shaped slope. Sediments are also dropped where a river slows on entering a lake or the sea, the deposited sediments are on a lake floor or the seafloor at first, but will be located inland at some future date, when the sea level falls or the land rises; such beds are sometimes thousands of meters thick. In lowland country almost any spot on the ground may overlie what was once the bed of a river that has since become buried by soil; if they are now below the water’s upper surface (the water table), the gravels and sands of the former riverbed, and its sandbars, will be saturated with groundwater. So much for unconsolidated sediments. Consolidated (or cemented) sediments, too, contain millions of minute water-holding pores. This is because the gaps among the original grains are often not totally plugged with cementing chemicals; also, parts of the original grains may become dissolved by percolating groundwater, either while consolidation is taking place or at any time afterwards. The result is that sandstone, for example, can be as porous as the loose sand from which it was formed. Thus a proportion of the total volume of any sediment, loose or cemented, consists of empty space. Most crystalline rocks are much more solid; a common exception is basalt, a form of solidified volcanic lava, which is sometimes full of tiny bubbles that make it very porous. The proportion of empty space in a rock is known as its porosity. But note that porosity is not the same as permeability, which measures the ease with which water can flow through a material; this depends on the sizes of the individual cavities and the crevices linking them. Much of the water in a sample of water-saturated sediment or rock will drain from it if the sample is put in a suitable dry place. But some will remain, clinging to all solid surfaces. It is held there by the force of surface tension without which water would drain instantly from any wet surface, leaving it totally dry. The total volume of water in the saturated sample must therefore be thought of as consisting of water that can, and water that cannot, drain away. The relative amount of these two kinds of water varies greatly from one kind of rock or sediment to another, even though their porosities may be the same. What happens depends on pore size. If the pores are large, the water in them will exist as drops too heavy for surface tension to hold, and it will drain away; but if the pores are small enough, the water in them will exist as thin films, too light to overcome the force of surface tension holding them in place; then the water will be firmly held. Paragraph 1: Groundwater is the word used to describe water that saturates the ground, filling all the available spaces. By far the most abundant type of groundwater is meteoric water; this is the groundwater that circulates as part of the water cycle. Ordinary meteoric water is water that has soaked into the ground from the surface, from precipitation (rain and snow) and from lakes and streams. There it remains, sometimes for long periods, before emerging at the surface again. At first thought it seems incredible that there can be enough space in the “solid” ground underfoot to hold all this water. 1. Which of the following can be inferred from paragraph 1 about the ground that we walk on? ○ It cannot hold rainwater for long periods of time. ○ It prevents most groundwater from circulating. ○ It has the capacity to store large amounts of water. ○ It absorbs most of the water it contains from rivers. 2. The word “incredible” in the passage is closest in meaning to ○ confusing ○ comforting ○ unbelievable ○ interesting Paragraph 2: The necessary space is there, however, in many forms. The commonest spaces are those among the particles—sand grains and tiny pebbles—of loose, unconsolidated sand and gravel. Beds of this material, out of sight beneath the soil, are common. They are found wherever fast rivers carrying loads of coarse sediment once flowed. For example, as the great ice sheets that covered North America during the last ice age steadily melted away, huge volumes of water flowed from them. The water was always laden with pebbles, gravel, and sand, known as glacial outwash, that was deposited as the flow slowed down. 3. The word “out of sight” in the passage is closest in meaning to ○ far away ○ hidden ○ partly visible ○ discovered 4. According to paragraph 2, where is groundwater usually found? ○ Inside pieces of sand and gravel ○ On top of beds of rock ○ In fast rivers that are flowing beneath the soil ○ In spaces between pieces of sediment 5. The phrase “glacial outwash” in the passage refers to ○ fast rivers ○ glaciers ○ the huge volumes of water created by glacial melting ○ the particles carried in water from melting glaciers Paragraph 3: The same thing happens to this day, though on a smaller scale, wherever a sediment-laden river or stream emerges from a mountain valley onto relatively flat land, dropping its load as the current slows: the water usually spreads out fanwise, depositing the sediment in the form of a smooth, fan-shaped slope. Sediments are also dropped where a river slows on entering a lake or the sea, the deposited sediments are on a lake floor or the seafloor at first, but will be located inland at some future date, when the sea level falls or the land rises; such beds are sometimes thousands of meters thick. 6. All of the following are mentioned in paragraph 3 as places that sediment-laden rivers can deposit their sediments EXCEPT ○ A mountain valley ○ Flat land ○ A lake floor ○ The seafloor Paragraph 4: In lowland country almost any spot on the ground may overlie what was once the bed of a river that has since become buried by soil; if they are now below the water’s upper surface (the water table), the gravels and sands of the former riverbed, and its sandbars, will be saturated with groundwater. 7. The word “overlie” in the passage is closest in meaning to ○ cover ○ change ○ separate ○ surround Paragraph 5: So much for unconsolidated sediments. Consolidated (or cemented) sediments, too, contain millions of minute water-holding pores. This is because the gaps among the original grains are often not totally plugged with cementing chemicals; also, parts of the original grains may become dissolved by percolating groundwater, either while consolidation is taking place or at any time afterwards. The result is that sandstone, for example, can be as porous as the loose sand from which it was formed. 8. The phrase “So much for” in the passage is closest in meaning to ○ that is enough about ○ now let us turn to ○ of greater concern are ○ this is related to 9. The word “plugged” in the passage is closet in meaning to ○ washed ○ dragged ○ filled up ○ soaked through Paragraph 6: Thus a proportion of the total volume of any sediment, loose or cemented, consists of empty space. Most crystalline rocks are much more solid; a common exception is basalt, a form of solidified volcanic lava, which is sometimes full of tiny bubbles that make it very porous. Paragraph 7: The proportion of empty space in a rock is known as its porosity. But note that porosity is not the same as permeability, which measures the ease with which water can flow through a material; this depends on the sizes of the individual cavities and the crevices linking them. 10. According to paragraphs 6 and 7, why is basalt unlike most crystalline forms of rock? ○ It is unusually solid. ○ It often has high porosity. ○ It has a low proportion of empty space. ○ It is highly permeable. 11. What is the main purpose of paragraph 7? ○ To explain why water can flow through rock ○ To emphasize the large amount of empty space in all rock ○ To point out that a rock cannot be both porous and permeable ○ To distinguish between two related properties of rock Paragraph 9: The relative amount of these two kinds of water varies greatly from one kind of rock or sediment to another, even though their porosities may be the same. What happens depends on pore size. If the pores are large, the water in them will exist as drops too heavy for surface tension to hold, and it will drain away; but if the pores are small enough, the water in them will exist as thin films, too light to overcome the force of surface tension holding them in place; then the water will be firmly held. 12. Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information. ○ Surface tension is not strong enough to retain drops of water in rocks with large pores but it strong enough to hold on to thin films of water in rocks with small pores. ○ Water in rocks is held in place by large pores and drains away from small size pores through surface tension. ○ Small pores and large pores both interact with surface tension to determine whether a rock will hold water as heavy drops or as a thin film. ○ If the force of surface tension is too weak to hold water in place as heavy drops, the water will continue to be held firmly in place as a thin film when large pores exist. Paragraph 8: Much of the water in a sample of water-saturated sediment or rock will drain from it if the sample is put in a suitable dry place. █But some will remain, clinging to all solid surfaces. █It is held there by the force of surface tension without which water would drain instantly from any wet surface, leaving it totally dry. █The total volume of water in the saturated sample must therefore be thought of as consisting of water that can, and water that cannot, drain away. █ 13. Look at the four squares [█] that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage. What, then, determines what proportion of the water stays and what proportion drains away? Where would the sentence best fit? 14. Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2 points. Much of the ground is actually saturated with water. ● ● ● Answer choices ○ Sediments that hold water were spread by glaciers and are still spread by rivers and streams. ○ Water is stored underground in beds of loose sand and gravel or in cemented sediment. ○ The size of a saturated rock’s pores determines how much water it will retain when the rock is put in a dry place. ○ Groundwater often remains underground for a long time before it emerges again. ○ Like sandstone, basalt is a crystalline rock that is very porous. ○ Beds of unconsolidated sediments are typically located at inland sites that were once underwater.
  • 【2】错误选项内容过于细节或者概括
  • 【3】任意两选项相同，應當選擇概括
    • The Origins of Theater In seeking to describe the origins of theater, one must rely primarily on speculation, since there is little concrete evidence on which to draw. The most widely accepted theory, championed by anthropologists in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, envisions theater as emerging out of myth and ritual. The process perceived by these anthropologists may be summarized briefly. During the early stages of its development, a society becomes aware of forces that appear to influence or control its food supply and well-being. Having little understanding of natural causes, it attributes both desirable and undesirable occurrences to supernatural or magical forces, and it searches for means to win the favor of these forces. Perceiving an apparent connection between certain actions performed by the group and the result it desires, the group repeats, refines and formalizes those actions into fixed ceremonies, or rituals. Stories (myths) may then grow up around a ritual. Frequently the myths include representatives of those supernatural forces that the rites celebrate or hope to influence. Performers may wear costumes and masks to represent the mythical characters or supernatural forces in the rituals or in accompanying celebrations. As a person becomes more sophisticated, its conceptions of supernatural forces and causal relationships may change. As a result, it may abandon or modify some rites. But the myths that have grown up around the rites may continue as part of the group’s oral tradition and may even come to be acted out under conditions divorced from these rites. When this occurs, the first step has been taken toward theater as an autonomous activity, and thereafter entertainment and aesthetic values may gradually replace the former mystical and socially efficacious concerns. Although origin in ritual has long been the most popular, it is by no means the only theory about how the theater came into being. Storytelling has been proposed as one alternative. Under this theory, relating and listening to stories are seen as fundamental human pleasures. Thus, the recalling of an event (a hunt, battle, or other feat) is elaborated through the narrator’s pantomime and impersonation and eventually through each role being assumed by a different person. A closely related theory sees theater as evolving out of dances that are primarily pantomimic, rhythmical or gymnastic, or from imitations of animal noises and sounds. Admiration for the performer’s skill, virtuosity, and grace are seen as motivation for elaborating the activities into fully realized theatrical performances. In addition to exploring the possible antecedents of theater, scholars have also theorized about the motives that led people to develop theater. Why did theater develop, and why was it valued after it ceased to fulfill the function of ritual? Most answers fall back on the theories about the human mind and basic human needs. One, set forth by Aristotle in the fourth century B.C., sees humans as naturally imitative—as taking pleasure in imitating persons, things, and actions and in seeing such imitations. Another, advanced in the twentieth century, suggests that humans have a gift for fantasy, through which they seek to reshape reality into more satisfying forms than those encountered in daily life. Thus, fantasy or fiction (of which drama is one form) permits people to objectify their anxieties and fears, confront them, and fulfill their hopes in fiction if not fact. The theater, then, is one tool whereby people define and understand their world or escape from unpleasant realities. But neither the human imitative instinct nor a penchant for fantasy by itself leads to an autonomous theater. Therefore, additional explanations are needed. One necessary condition seems to be a somewhat detached view of human problems. For example, one sign of this condition is the appearance of the comic vision, since comedy requires sufficient detachment to view some deviations from social norms as ridiculous rather than as serious threats to the welfare of the entire group. Another condition that contributes to the development of autonomous theater is the emergence of the aesthetic sense. For example, some early societies ceased to consider certain rites essential to their well-being and abandoned them, nevertheless, they retained as parts of their oral tradition the myths that had grown up around the rites and admired them for their artistic qualities rather than for their religious usefulness. Paragraph 1: In seeking to describe the origins of theater, one must rely primarily on speculation, since there is little concrete evidence on which to draw. The most widely accepted theory, championed by anthropologists in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, envisions theater as emerging out of myth and ritual. The process perceived by these anthropologists may be summarized briefly. During the early stages of its development, a society becomes aware of forces that appear to influence or control its food supply and well-being. Having little understanding of natural causes, it attributes both desirable and undesirable occurrences to supernatural or magical forces, and it searches for means to win the favor of these forces. Perceiving an apparent connection between certain actions performed by the group and the result it desires, the group repeats, refines and formalizes those actions into fixed ceremonies, or rituals. 1. The word “championed” in the passage is closest in meaning to ○ changed ○ debated ○ created ○ supported 2. The word “attributes” in the passage is closest in meaning to ○ ascribes ○ leaves ○ limits ○ contrasts 3. According to paragraph 1, theories of the origins of theater ○ are mainly hypothetical ○ are well supported by factual evidence ○ have rarely been agreed upon by anthropologists ○ were expressed in the early stages of theater’s development 4. According to paragraph 1, why did some societies develop and repeat ceremonial actions? ○ To establish a positive connection between the members of the society ○ To help society members better understand the forces controlling their food supply ○ To distinguish their beliefs from those of other societies ○ To increase the society’s prosperity Paragraph 2: Stories (myths) may then grow up around a ritual. Frequently the myths include representatives of those supernatural forces that the rites celebrate or hope to influence. Performers may wear costumes and masks to represent the mythical characters or supernatural forces in the rituals or in accompanying celebrations. As a person becomes more sophisticated, its conceptions of supernatural forces and causal relationships may change. As a result, it may abandon or modify some rites. But the myths that have grown up around the rites may continue as part of the group’s oral tradition and may even come to be acted out under conditions divorced from these rites. When this occurs, the first step has been taken toward theater as an autonomous activity, and thereafter entertainment and aesthetic values may gradually replace the former mystical and socially efficacious concerns. 5. The word “this” in the passage refers to ○ the acting out of rites ○ the divorce of ritual performers from the rest of society ○ the separation of myths from rites ○ the celebration of supernatural forces 6. The word “autonomous” in the passage is closest in meaning to ○ artistic ○ important ○ independent ○ established 7. According to paragraph 2, what may cause societies to abandon certain rites? ○ Emphasizing theater as entertainment ○ Developing a new understanding of why events occur ○ Finding a more sophisticated way of representing mythical characters ○ Moving from a primarily oral tradition to a more written tradition Paragraph 5: In addition to exploring the possible antecedents of theater, scholars have also theorized about the motives that led people to develop theater. Why did theater develop, and why was it valued after it ceased to fulfill the function of ritual? Most answers fall back on the theories about the human mind and basic human needs. One, set forth by Aristotle in the fourth century B.C., sees humans as naturally imitative—as taking pleasure in imitating persons, things, and actions and in seeing such imitations. Another, advanced in the twentieth century, suggests that humans have a gift for fantasy, through which they seek to reshape reality into more satisfying forms than those encountered in daily life. Thus, fantasy or fiction (of which drama is one form) permits people to objectify their anxieties and fears, confront them, and fulfill their hopes in fiction if not fact. The theater, then, is one tool whereby people define and understand their world or escape from unpleasant realities. 8. All of following are mentioned in paragraph 5 as possible reasons that led societies to develop theater EXCEPT: ○ Theater allows people to face that they are afraid of. ○ Theater gives an opportunity to imagine a better reality. ○ Theater is a way to enjoy imitating other people. ○ Theater provides people the opportunity to better understand the human mind. 9. Which of the following best describes the organization of paragraph 5? ○ The author presents two theories for a historical phenomenon. ○ The author argues against theories expressed earlier in the passage. ○ The author argues for replacing older theories with a new one. ○ The author points out problems with two popular theories. Paragraph 6: But neither the human imitative instinct nor a penchant for fantasy by itself leads to an autonomous theater. Therefore, additional explanations are needed. One necessary condition seems to be a somewhat detached view of human problems. For example, one sign of this condition is the appearance of the comic vision, since comedy requires sufficient detachment to view some deviations from social norms as ridiculous rather than as serious threats to the welfare of the entire group. Another condition that contributes to the development of autonomous theater is the emergence of the aesthetic sense. For example, some early societies ceased to consider certain rites essential to their well-being and abandoned them, nevertheless, they retained as parts of their oral tradition the myths that had grown up around the rites and admired them for their artistic qualities rather than for their religious usefulness. 10. The word “penchant” in the passage is closest in meaning to ○ compromise ○ inclination ○ tradition ○ respect 11. Why does the author mention “comedy”? ○ To give an example of early types of theater ○ To explain how theater helps a society respond to threats to its welfare ○ To help explain why detachment is needed for the development of theater ○ To show how theatrical performers become detached from other members of society 12. Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information. ○ A society’s rites were more likely to be retained in the oral tradition if its myths were admired for artistic qualities. ○ The artistic quality of a myth was sometimes an essential reason for a society to abandon it from the oral tradition. ○ Some early societies stopped using myths in their religious practices when rites ceased to be seen as useful for social well-being. ○ Myths sometimes survived in a society’s tradition because of their artistic qualities even after they were no longer deemed religiously beneficial. Paragraph 3: █Although origin in ritual has long been the most popular, it is by no means the only theory about how the theater came into being. █Storytelling has been proposed as one alternative. █Under this theory, relating and listening to stories are seen as fundamental human pleasures. █Thus, the recalling of an event (a hunt, battle, or other feat) is elaborated through the narrator’s pantomime and impersonation and eventually through each role being assumed by a different person. 13. Look at the four squares [█] that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage. To enhance their listeners’ enjoyment, storytellers continually make their stories more engaging and memorable. Where would the sentence best fit? 14. Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2 points. Anthropologists have developed many theories to help understand why and how theater originated. ● ● ● Answer choices ○ The presence of theater in almost all societies is thought to have occurred because early storytellers traveled to different groups to tell their stories. ○ Many theorists believe that theater arises when societies act out myths to preserve social well-being. ○ The more sophisticated societies became, the better they could influence desirable occurrences through ritualized theater. ○ Some theories of theater development focus on how theater was used by group leaders to group leaders govern other members of society. ○Theater may have come from pleasure humans receive from storytelling and moving rhythmically. ○ The human capacities for imitation and fantasy are considered possible reasons why societies develop theater. 1 vs 5 **************************************************************************************** Industrialization in the Netherlands and Scandinavia While some European countries, such as England and Germany, began to industrialize in the eighteenth century, the Netherlands and the Scandinavian countries of Denmark, Norway, and Sweden developed later. All four of these countries lagged considerably behind in the early nineteenth century. However, they industrialized rapidly in the second half of the century, especially in the last two or three decades. In view of their later start and their lack of coal—undoubtedly the main reason they were not among the early industrializers—it is important to understand the sources of their success. All had small populations. At the beginning of the nineteenth century, Denmark and Norway had fewer than 1 million people, while Sweden and the Netherlands had fewer than 2.5 million inhabitants. All exhibited moderate growth rates in the course of the century (Denmark the highest and Sweden the lowest), but all more than doubled in population by 1900. Density varied greatly. The Netherlands had one of the highest population densities in Europe, whereas Norway and Sweden had the lowest Denmark was in between but closer to the Netherlands. Considering human capital as a characteristic of the population, however, all four countries were advantaged by the large percentages of their populations who could read and write. In both 1850 and 1914, the Scandinavian countries had the highest literacy rates in Europe, or in the world, and the Netherlands was well above the European average. This fact was of enormous value in helping the national economies find their niches in the evolving currents of the international economy. Location was an important factor for all four countries. All had immediate access to the sea, and this had important implications for a significant international resource, fish, as well as for cheap transport, merchant marines, and the shipbuilding industry. Each took advantage of these opportunities in its own way. The people of the Netherlands, with a long tradition of fisheries and mercantile shipping, had difficulty in developing good harbors suitable for steamships: eventually they did so at Rotterdam and Amsterdam, with exceptional results for transit trade with Germany and central Europe and for the processing of overseas foodstuffs and raw materials (sugar, tobacco, chocolate, grain, and eventually oil). Denmark also had an admirable commercial history, particularly with respect to traffic through the Sound (the strait separating Denmark and Sweden). In 1857, in return for a payment of 63 million kronor from other commercial nations, Denmark abolished the Sound toll dues the fees it had collected since 1497 for the use of the Sound. This, along with other policy shifts toward free trade, resulted in a significant increase in traffic through the Sound and in the port of Copenhagen. The political institutions of the four countries posed no significant barriers to industrialization or economic growth. The nineteenth century passed relatively peacefully for these countries, with progressive democratization taking place in all of them. They were reasonably well governed, without notable corruption or grandiose state projects, although in all of them the government gave some aid to railways, and in Sweden the state built the main lines. As small countries dependent on foreign markets, they followed a liberal trade policy in the main, though a protectionist movement developed in Sweden. In Denmark and Sweden agricultural reforms took place gradually from the late eighteenth century through the first half of the nineteenth, resulting in a new class of peasant landowners with a definite market orientation. The key factor in the success of these countries (along with high literacy, which contributed to it) was their ability to adapt to the international division of labor determined by the early industrializers and to stake out areas of specialization in international markets for which they were especially well suited. This meant a great dependence on international commerce, which had notorious fluctuations; but it also meant high returns to those factors of production that were fortunate enough to be well placed in times of prosperity. In Sweden exports accounted for 18 percent of the national income in 1870, and in 1913, 22 percent of a much larger national income. In the early twentieth century, Denmark exported 63 percent of its agricultural production: butter, pork products, and eggs. It exported 80 percent of its butter, almost all to Great Britain, where it accounted for 40 percent of British butter imports. Paragraph 1: While some European countries, such as England and Germany, began to industrialize in the eighteenth century, the Netherlands and the Scandinavian countries of Denmark, Norway, and Sweden developed later. All four of these countries lagged considerably behind in the early nineteenth century. However, they industrialized rapidly in the second half of the century, especially in the last two or three decades. In view of their later start and their lack of coal—undoubtedly the main reason they were not among the early industrializers—it is important to understand the sources of their success. 1. Paragraph 1 supports which of the following ideas about England and Germany? ○ They were completely industrialized by the start of the nineteenth century. ○ They possessed plentiful supplies of coal. ○ They were overtaken economically by the Netherlands and Scandinavia during the early nineteenth century. ○ They succeeded for the same reasons that the Netherlands and Scandinavia did. Paragraph 2: All had small populations. At the beginning of the nineteenth century, Denmark and Norway had fewer than 1 million people, while Sweden and the Netherlands had fewer than 2.5 million inhabitants. All exhibited moderate growth rates in the course of the century (Denmark the highest and Sweden the lowest), but all more than doubled in population by 1900. Density varied greatly. The Netherlands had one of the highest population densities in Europe, whereas Norway and Sweden had the lowest Denmark was in between but closer to the Netherlands. Paragraph 3: Considering human capital as a characteristic of the population, however, all four countries were advantaged by the large percentages of their populations who could read and write. In both 1850 and 1914, the Scandinavian countries had the highest literacy rates in Europe, or in the world, and the Netherlands was well above the European average. This fact was of enormous value in helping the national economies find their niches in the evolving currents of the international economy. 2. Paragraph 2 suggests which of the following about the importance of population density in the industrialization of the Netherlands and Scandinavia? ○ It was a more important factor than population size. ○ It was more influential than the rate of population growth. ○ It was more important in the early stages than it was later. ○ It was not a significant factor. 3. According to paragraphs 2 and 3, which of the following contributed significantly to the successful economic development of the Netherlands and of Scandinavia? ○ The relatively small size of their populations ○ The rapid rate at which their populations were growing ○ The large amount of capital they had available for investment ○ The high proportion of their citizens who were educated Paragraph 4: Location was an important factor for all four countries. All had immediate access to the sea, and this had important implications for a significant international resource, fish, as well as for cheap transport, merchant marines, and the shipbuilding industry. Each took advantage of these opportunities in its own way. The people of the Netherlands, with a long tradition of fisheries and mercantile shipping, had difficulty in developing good harbors suitable for steamships: eventually they did so at Rotterdam and Amsterdam, with exceptional results for transit trade with Germany and central Europe and for the processing of overseas foodstuffs and raw materials (sugar, tobacco, chocolate, grain, and eventually oil). Denmark also had an admirable commercial history, particularly with respect to traffic through the Sound (the strait separating Denmark and Sweden). In 1857, in return for a payment of 63 million kronor from other commercial nations, Denmark abolished the Sound toll dues the fees it had collected since 1497 for the use of the Sound. This, along with other policy shifts toward free trade, resulted in a significant increase in traffic through the Sound and in the port of Copenhagen. 4. According to paragraph 4, because of their location, the Netherlands and the Scandinavian countries had all of the following advantages when they began to industrialize EXCEPT ○ low-cost transportation of goods ○ access to fish ○ shipbuilding industries ○ military control of the sea 5. The word “exceptional” in the passage is closest in meaning to ○ extraordinary ○ surprising ○ immediate ○ predictable 6. The word “abolished” in the passage is closest in meaning to ○ ended ○ raised ○ returned ○ lowered Paragraph 5: The political institutions of the four countries posed no significant barriers to industrialization or economic growth. The nineteenth century passed relatively peacefully for these countries, with progressive democratization taking place in all of them. They were reasonably well governed, without notable corruption or grandiose state projects, although in all of them the government gave some aid to railways, and in Sweden the state built the main lines. As small countries dependent on foreign markets, they followed a liberal trade policy in the main, though a protectionist movement developed in Sweden. In Denmark and Sweden agricultural reforms took place gradually from the late eighteenth century through the first half of the nineteenth, resulting in a new class of peasant landowners with a definite market orientation. 7. According to paragraph 5, each of the following contributed positively to the industrialization of the Netherlands and Scandinavia EXCEPT ○ generally liberal trade policies ○ huge projects undertaken by the state ○ relatively uncorrupt governments ○ relatively little social or political disruption 8. The word “progressive” in the passage is closest in meaning to ○ rapid ○ partial ○ increasing ○ individual 9. The author includes the information that “a protectionist movement developed in Sweden” in order to ○ support the claim that the political institutions of the four countries posed no significant barriers to industrialization or economic growth ○ identify an exception to the general trend favoring liberal trade policy ○ explain why Sweden industrialized less quickly than the other Scandinavian countries and Netherlands ○ provide evidence that agricultural reforms take place more quickly in countries that have a liberal trade policy than in those that do not Paragraph 6: The key factor in the success of these countries (along with high literacy, which contributed to it) was their ability to adapt to the international division of labor determined by the early industrializers and to stake out areas of specialization in international markets for which they were especially well suited. This meant a great dependence on international commerce, which had notorious fluctuations; but it also meant high returns to those factors of production that were fortunate enough to be well placed in times of prosperity. In Sweden exports accounted for 18 percent of the national income in 1870, and in 1913, 22 percent of a much larger national income. In the early twentieth century, Denmark exported 63 percent of its agricultural production: butter, pork products, and eggs. It exported 80 percent of its butter, almost all to Great Britain, where it accounted for 40 percent of British butter imports. 10. Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information. ○ The early industrializes controlled most of the international economy, leaving these countries to stake out new areas of specialization along the margins. ○ Aided by their high literacy rates these countries were able to claim key areas of specialization within established international markets. ○ High literacy rates enabled these countries to take over international markets and adapt the international division of labor to suit their strengths. ○ The international division of labor established by the early industrializers was suited to these countries, a key factor in their success. 11. According to paragraph 6, a major problem with depending heavily on international markets was that they ○ lacked stability ○ were not well suited to agricultural products ○ were largely controlled by the early industrializers ○ led to slower growth of local industries 12. According to paragraph 6, what advantage could a country gain from being heavily involved in international commerce? ○ A steadily rising national income ○ Greater control over market fluctuations ○ High returns when things went well ○ A reduced need for imports While some European countries, such as England and Germany, began to industrialize in the eighteenth century, the Netherlands and the Scandinavian countries of Denmark, Norway, and Sweden developed later. ■ All four of these countries lagged considerably behind in the early nineteenth century. ■ However, they industrialized rapidly in the second half of the century, especially in the last two or three decades. ■ In view of their later start and their lack of coal—undoubtedly the main reason they were not among the early industrializers—it is important to understand the sources of their success. ■ 13. Look at the four squares [■] that indicate where the following sentence be added to passage. During this period, Sweden had the highest rate of growth of output per capita of any country in Europe, and Denmark was second. Where would the sentence best fit? 14. Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THERR answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2 points. Although the Netherlands and Scandinavia began to industrialize relatively late, they did so very successfully ○ Although these countries all started with small, uneducated populations, industrialization led to significant population growth and higher literacy rates. ○ Thanks to their ready access to the sea, these countries enjoyed advantages in mercantile shipping, fishing, and shipbuilding. ○ Because they all started with good harbors for steamships, these countries started with an important advantage in the competition for transit trade. ○ These countries were helped by the fact that their governments were relatively stable and honest and generally supported liberal trade policies. ○ These countries were successful primarily because their high literacy rates helped them fill specialized market niches. ○ Because they were never fully dependent on international commerce, these countries were able to survive notorious fluctuations in international markets. 1 vs. 5 2 vs. 3 **************************************************************************************** The surface of Mars The surface of Mars shows a wide range of geologic features, including huge volcanoes-the largest known in the solar system-and extensive impact cratering. Three very large volcanoes are found on the Tharsis bulge, an enormous geologic area near Mars’s equator. Northwest of Tharsis is the largest volcano of all: Olympus Mons, with a height of 25 kilometers and measuring some 700 kilometers in diameter at its base. The three large volcanoes on the Tharsis bulge are a little smaller-a “mere” 18 kilometers high. None of these volcanoes was formed as a result of collisions between plates of the Martian crust-there is no plate motion on Mars. Instead, they are shield volcanoes — volcanoes with broad, sloping slides formed by molten rock. All four show distinctive lava channels and other flow features similar to those found on shield volcanoes on Earth. Images of the Martian surface reveal many hundreds of volcanoes. Most of the largest volcanoes are associated with the Tharsis bulge, but many smaller ones are found in the northern plains. The great height of Martian volcanoes is a direct consequence of the planet’s low surface gravity. As lava flows and spreads to form a shield volcano, the volcano’s eventual height depends on the new mountain’s ability to support its own weight. The lower the gravity, the lesser the weight and the greater the height of the mountain. It is no accident that Maxwell Mons on Venus and the Hawaiian shield volcanoes on Earth rise to about the same height (about 10 kilometers) above their respective bases-Earth and Venus have similar surface gravity. Mars’s surface gravity is only 40 percent that of Earth, so volcanoes rise roughly2.5 times as high. Are the Martian shield volcanoes still active? Scientists have no direct evidence for recent or ongoing eruptions, but if these volcanoes were active as recently as 100 million years ago (an estimate of the time of last eruption based on the extent of impact cratering on their slopes), some of them may still be at least intermittently active. Millions of years, though, may pass between eruptions. Another prominent feature of Mars’s surface is cratering. The Mariner spacecraft found that the surface of Mars, as well as that of its two moons, is pitted with impact craters formed by meteoroids falling in from space. As on our Moon, the smaller craters are often filled with surface matter-mostly dust-confirming that Mars is a dry desert world. However, Martian craters get filled in considerably faster than their lunar counterparts. On the Moon, ancient craters less than 100 meters across (corresponding to depths of about 20 meters) have been obliterated, primarily by meteoritic erosion. On Mars, there are relatively few craters less than 5 kilometers in diameter. The Martian atmosphere is an efficient erosive agent, with Martian winds transporting dust from place to place and erasing surface features much faster than meteoritic impacts alone can obliterate them. As on the Moon, the extent of large impact cratering (i.e. craters too big to have been filled in by erosion since they were formed) serves as an age indicator for the Martian surface. Age estimates ranging from four billion years for Mars’s southern highlands to a few hundred million years in the youngest volcanic areas were obtained in this way. The detailed appearance of Martian impact craters provides an important piece of information about conditions just below the planet’s surface. Martian craters are surrounded by ejecta (debris formed as a result of an impact) that looks quite different from its lunar counterparts. A comparison of the Copernicus crater on the Moon with the (fairly typical) crater Yuty on Mars demonstrates the differences. The ejecta surrounding the lunar crater is just what one would expect from an explosion ejecting a large volume of dust, soil, and boulders. However, the ejecta on Mars gives the distinct impression of a liquid that has splashed or flowed out of crater. Geologists think that this fluidized ejecta crater indicates that a layer of permafrost, or water ice, lies just a few meters under the surface. Explosive impacts heated and liquefied the ice, resulting in the fluid appearance of the ejecta. Paragraph 1: The surface of Mars shows a wide range of geologic features, including huge volcanoes-the largest known in the solar system-and extensive impact cratering. Three very large volcanoes are found on the Tharsis bulge, an enormous geologic area near Mars’s equator. Northwest of Tharsis is the largest volcano of all: Olympus Mons, with a height of 25 kilometers and measuring some 700 kilometers in diameter at its base. The three large volcanoes on the Tharsis bulge are a little smaller-a “mere” 18 kilometers high. 1. The word “enormous” in the passage is closest in meaning to ○ Important ○ Extremely large ○ Highly unusual ○ Active 2. According to paragraph 1, Olympus Mons differs from volcanoes on the Tharsis bulge in that Olympus Mons ○ Has more complex geologic features ○ Shows less impact cratering ○ Is taller ○ Wa formed at a later time Paragraph 2: None of these volcanoes was formed as a result of collisions between plates of the Martian crust-there is no plate motion on Mars. Instead, they are shield volcanoes-volcanoes with broad, sloping slides formed by molten rock. All four show distinctive lava channels and other flow features similar to those found on shield volcanoes on Earth. Images of the Martian surface reveal many hundreds of volcanoes. Most of the largest volcanoes are associated with the Tharsis bulge, but many smaller ones are found in the northern plains. 3. The word “distinctive” in the passage is closest in meaning to ○ Deep ○ Complex ○ Characteristic ○ Ancient 4. According to paragraphs 1 and 2, which of the following is NOT true of the shield volcanoes on the Tharsis bulge? ○ They have broad, sloping sides. ○ They are smaller than the largest volcano on Mars. ○ They have channels that resemble the lava channels of volcanoes on Earth. ○ They are over 25 kilometers tall. Paragraph 3: The great height of Martian volcanoes is a direct consequence of the planet’s low surface gravity. As lava flows and spreads to form a shield volcano, the volcano’s eventual height depends on the new mountain’s ability to support its own weight. The lower the gravity, the lesser the weight and the greater the height of the mountain. It is no accident that Maxwell Mons on Venus and the Hawaiian shield volcanoes on Earth rise to about the same height (about 10 kilometers) above their respective bases-Earth and Venus have similar surface gravity. Mars’s surface gravity is only 40 percent that of Earth, so volcanoes rise roughly 2.5 times as high. Are the Martian shield volcanoes still active? Scientists have no direct evidence for recent or ongoing eruptions, but if these volcanoes were active as recently as 100 million years ago (an estimate of the time of last eruption based on the extent of impact cratering on their slopes), some of them may still be at least intermittently active. Millions of years, though, may pass between eruptions. 5. The word “roughly” in the passage is closest in meaning to ○ Typically ○ Frequently ○ Actually ○ Approximately 6. In paragraph 3, why does the author compare Maxwell Mons on Venus to the Hawaiian shield volcanoes on Earth? ○ To help explain the relationship between surface gravity and volcano height ○ To explain why Mars’s surface gravity is only 40 percent of Earth’s ○ To point out differences between the surface gravity of Earth and the surface gravity of Venus ○ To argue that there are more similarities than differences between volcanoes on different planets 7. Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information. ○ Although direct evidence of recent eruptions is lacking, scientists believe that these volcanoes were active as recently as 100 million years ago. ○ Scientists estimate that volcanoes active more recently than 100 years ago will still have extensive impact cratering on their slopes. ○ If, as some evidence suggests, these volcanoes erupted as recently as 100 million years ago, they may continue to be intermittently active. ○ Although these volcanoes were active as recently as 100 million years ago, there is no direct evidence of recent or ongoing eruptions. Paragraph 4: Another prominent feature of Mars’s surface is cratering. The Mariner spacecraft found that the surface of Mars, as well as that of its two moons, is pitted with impact craters formed by meteoroids falling in from space. As on our Moon, the smaller craters are often filled with surface matter-mostly dust-confirming that Mars is a dry desert world. However, Martian craters get filled in considerably faster than their lunar counterparts. On the Moon, ancient craters less than 100 meters across (corresponding to depths of about 20 meters) have been obliterated, primarily by meteoritic erosion. On Mars, there are relatively few craters less than 5 kilometers in diameter. The Martian atmosphere is an efficient erosive agent, with Martian winds transporting dust from place to place and erasing surface features much faster than meteoritic impacts alone can obliterate them. 8. The word “considerably” in the passage is closest in meaning to ○ Frequently ○ Significantly ○ Clearly ○ Surprisingly 9. According to paragraph 4, what is demonstrated by the fact that craters fill in much faster on Mars than on the Moon? ○ Erosion from meteoritic impacts takes place more quickly on Mars than on the Moon. ○ There is more dust on Mars than on the Moon. ○ The surface of Mars is a dry desert. ○ Wind is a powerful eroding force on Mars. 10. In paragraph 4, why does the author point out that Mars has few ancient craters that are less than 5 kilometers in diameter? ○ To explain why scientists believe that the surface matter filling Martian craters is mostly dust ○ To explain why scientists believe that the impact craters on Mars were created by meteoroids ○ To support the claim that the Martian atmosphere is an efficient erosive agent ○ To argue that Mars experienced fewer ancient impacts than the Moon did Paragraph 5:As on the Moon, the extent of large impact cratering (i.e. craters too big to have been filled in by erosion since they were formed) serves as an age indicator for the Martian surface. Age estimates ranging from four billion years for Mars’s southern highlands to a few hundred million years in the youngest volcanic areas were obtained in this way. 11. According to paragraph 5, what have scientists been able to determine from studies of large impact cratering on Mars? ○ Some Martian volcanoes are much older than was once thought. ○ The age of Mars’s surface can vary from area to area. ○ Large impact craters are not reliable indicators of age in areas with high volcanic activity. ○ Some areas of the Martian surface appear to be older than they actually are. The detailed appearance of Martian impact craters provides an important piece of information about conditions just below the planet’s surface. Martian craters are surrounded by ejecta (debris formed as a result of an impact) that looks quite different from its lunar counterparts. A comparison of the Copernicus crater on the Moon with the (fairly typical) crater Yuty on Mars demonstrates the differences. The ejecta surrounding the lunar crater is just what one would expect from an explosion ejecting a large volume of dust, soil, and boulders. ■However, the ejecta on Mars gives the distinct impression of a liquid that has splashed or flowed out of crater. ■Geologists think that this fluidized ejecta crater indicates that a layer of permafrost, or water ice, lies just a few meters under the surface. ■Explosive impacts heated and liquefied the ice, resulting in the fluid appearance of the ejecta. ■ 12. According to paragraph 6, the ejecta of Mars’s crater Yuty differs from the ejecta of the Moon’s Copernicus crater in that the ejecta of the Yuty crater ○ Has now become part of a permafrost layer ○ Contains a large volume of dust, soil and boulders ○ Suggests that liquid once came out of the surface at the crater site ○ Was thrown a comparatively long distance from the center of the crater 13. Look at the four squares 【 ■ 】 that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage. This surface feature has led to speculation about what may lie under Mars’s surface. Where would the sentence best fit? Click on a square to add the sentence to the passage. 14. Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2 points. Drag your answer choices to the spaces where they belong. To remove an answer choice, click on it. To review the passage, click VIEW NEXT. Volcanoes and impact craters are major features of Martian geology. Answer Choices ● ● ● ○ Plate motion on Mars, once considered to have played no role in shaping the planet’s surface, is now seen as being directly associated with the planet’s earliest volcanoes. ○ Mars has shield volcanoes, some of which are extremely tall because of the planet’s low surface gravity. ○ Although the erosive power of the Martian atmosphere ensures that Mars has fewer craters than the Moon does, impact craters are prominent on Mars’ s surface. ○ Scientists cannot yet reliably estimate the age of the Martian surface because there has been too much erosion of it. ○ Scientists have been surprised to discover that conditions just below the surface of Mars are very similar to conditions just below the surface of the Moon ○ Studies of crater ejecta have revealed the possibility of a layer of permafrost below the surface of Mars. 5 vs. 6 **************************************************************************************** TPO-12-1 Which Hand Did They Use? We all know that many more people today are right-handed than left-handed. Can one trace this same pattern far back in prehistory? Much of the evidence about right-hand versus left-hand dominance comes from stencils and prints found in rock shelters in Australia and elsewhere, and in many Ice Age caves in France, Spain, and Tasmania. When a left hand has been stenciled, this implies that the artist was right-handed, and vice versa. Even though the paint was often sprayed on by mouth, one can assume that the dominant hand assisted in the operation. One also has to make the assumption that hands were stenciled palm downward—a left hand stenciled palm upward might of course look as if it were a right hand. Of 158 stencils in the French cave of Gargas, 136 have been identified as left, and only 22 as right; right-handedness was therefore heavily predominant. Cave art furnishes other types of evidence of this phenomenon. Most engravings, for example, are best lit from the left, as befits the work of right-handed artists, who generally prefer to have the light source on the left so that the shadow of their hand does not fall on the tip of the engraving tool or brush. In the few cases where an Ice Age figure is depicted holding something, it is mostly, though not always, in the right hand. Clues to right-handedness can also be found by other methods. Right-handers tend to have longer, stronger, and more muscular bones on the right side , and Marcellin Boule as long ago as 1911 noted the La Chapelle-aux-Saints Neanderthal skeleton had a right upper arm bone that was noticeably stronger than the left. Similar observations have been made on other Neanderthal skeletons such as La Ferrassie I and Neanderthal itself. Fractures and other cut marks are another source of evidence. Right-handed soldiers tend to be wounded on the left. The skeleton of a 40- or 50-year-old Nabatean warrior, buried 2,000 years ago in the Negev Desert, Israel, had multiple healed fractures to the skull, the left arm, and the ribs. Tools themselves can be revealing. Long-handed Neolithic spoons of yew wood preserved in Alpine villages dating to 3000 B.C. have survived; the signs of rubbing on their left side indicate that their users were right-handed. The late Ice Age rope found in the French cave of Lascaux consists of fibers spiraling to the right, and was therefore tressed by a righthander. Occasionally one can determine whether stone tools were used in the right hand or the left, and it is even possible to assess how far back this feature can be traced. In stone toolmaking experiments, Nick Toth, a right-hander, held the core (the stone that would become the tool) in his left hand and the hammer stone in his right. As the tool was made, the core was rotated clockwise, and the flakes, removed in sequence, had a little crescent of cortex (the core's outer surface) on the side. Toth's knapping produced 56 percent flakes with the cortex on the right, and 44 percent left-oriented flakes. A left-handed toolmaker would produce the opposite pattern. Toth has applied these criteria to the similarly made pebble tools from a number of early sites (before 1.5 million years) at Koobi Fora, Kenya, probably made by Homo habilis. At seven sites he found that 57 percent of the flakes were right-oriented, and 43 percent left, a pattern almost identical to that produced today. About 90 percent of modern humans are right-handed: we are the only mammal with a preferential use of one hand. The part of the brain responsible for fine control and movement is located in the left cerebral hemisphere, and the findings above suggest that the human brain was already asymmetrical in its structure and function not long after 2 million years ago. Among Neanderthalers of 70,000–35,000 years ago, Marcellin Boule noted that the La Chapelle-aux-Saints individual had a left hemisphere slightly bigger than the right, and the same was found for brains of specimens from Neanderthal, Gibraltar, and La Quina. 14. Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2 points. Several categories of evidence indicate that people have always been predominantly right-handed. ● ● ● Answer Choices ○ Stencils of right-handed figures are characteristic of cave art in France, Spain, and Tasmania. ○ Signs on the skeletal remains of prehistoric figures, including arm-bone size and injury marks, imply that these are the remains of right-handed people. ○ Instruments such as spoons, ropes, and pebble tools show signs that indicate they were used or constructed by right-handed people. ○ The amount of prehistoric art created by right-handed artists indicates that left-handed people were in the minority. ○ Neanderthal skeletons often have longer finger bones in the right hand, which is evidence that the right hand was stronger. ○ Nick Toth, a modem right-handed toolmaker, has shown that prehistoric tools were knapped to fit the right hand. 2 vs. 5 3 vs. 6 **************************************************************************************** TPO-11-2 Orientation and Navigation To South Americans, robins are birds that fly north every spring. To North Americans, the robins simply vacation in the south each winter. Furthermore, they fly to very specific places in South America and will often come back to the same trees in North American yards the following spring. The question is not why they would leave the cold of winter so much as how they find their way around. The question perplexed people for years, until, in the 1950s, a German scientist named Gustave Kramer provided some answers and, in the process, raised new questions. Kramer initiated important new kinds of researches regarding how animals orient and navigate. Orientation is simply facing in the right direction; navigation involves finding ones way from point A to point B. Early in his research, Kramer found that caged migratory birds became very restless at about the time they would normally have begun migration in the wild. Furthermore, he noticed that as they fluttered around in the cage, they often launched themselves in the direction of their normal migratory route. He then set up experiments with caged starlings and found that their orientation was, in fact, in the proper migratory direction except when the sky was overcast, at which times there was no clear direction to their restless movements. Kramer surmised, therefore, that they were orienting according to the position of the Sun. To test this idea, he blocked their view of the Sun and used mirrors to change its apparent position. He found that under these circumstances, the birds oriented with respect to the new "Sun." They seemed to be using the Sun as a compass to determine direction. At the time, this idea seemed preposterous. How could a bird navigate by the Sun when some of us lose our way with road maps? Obviously, more testing was in order. So, in another set of experiments, Kramer put identical food boxes around the cage, with food in only one of the boxes. The boxes were stationary, and the one containing food was always at the same point of the compass. However, its position with respect to the surroundings could be changed by revolving either the inner cage containing the birds or the outer walls, which served as the background. As long as the birds could see the Sun, no matter how their surroundings were altered, they went directly to the correct food box. Whether the box appeared in front of the right wall or the left wall, they showed no signs of confusion. On overcast days, however, the birds were disoriented and had trouble locating their food box. In experimenting with artificial suns, Kramer made another interesting discovery. If the artificial Sun remained stationary, the birds would shift their direction with respect to it at a rate of about 15 degrees per hour, the Sun's rate of movement across the sky. Apparently, the birds were assuming that the "Sun" they saw was moving at that rate. When the real Sun was visible, however, the birds maintained a constant direction as it moved across the sky. In other words, they were able to compensate for the Sun's movement. This meant that some sort of biological clock was operating-and a very precise clock at that. What about birds that migrate at night? Perhaps they navigate by the night sky. To test the idea, caged night-migrating birds were placed on the floor of a planetarium during their migratory period. A planetarium is essentially a theater with a domelike ceiling onto which a night sky can be projected for any night of the year. When the planetarium sky matched the sky outside, the birds fluttered in the direction of their normal migration. But when the dome was rotated, the birds changed their direction to match the artificial sky. The results clearly indicated that the birds were orienting according to the stars. There is accumulating evidence indicating that birds navigate by using a wide variety of environmental cues. Other areas under investigation include magnetism, landmarks, coastlines, sonar, and even smells. The studies are complicated by the fact that the data are sometimes contradictory and the mechanisms apparently change from time to time. Furthermore, one sensory ability may back up another. 14.Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2 points. Gustave Kramer conducted important research related to the ability of birds to orient and navigate. ● ● ● Answer Choices ○ Because caged birds become disoriented when the sky is overcast, Kramer hypothesized that birds orient themselves according to the Sun's position. ○ In one set of experiments, Kramer placed the box containing food at the same point of the compass each time he put food boxes in the birds’ environment. ○ Kramer demonstrated that an internal biological clock allows starlings to compensate for the Sun's movement. ○ After several studies, Kramer surmised that an internal biological clock allows some species of birds to navigate at night. ○ The role of environmental cues in birds' navigation is clear, for on overcast days, birds use objects besides the Sun to orient themselves. ○ Kramer showed that night-migrating birds use the sky to navigate by the stars. 4 vs. 3&6 **************************************************************************************** THE RISE OF TEOTIHUACAN The city of Teotihuacán, which lay about 50 kilometers northeast of modern-Day Mexico City, began its growth by 200-100 B.C. At its height, between about A.D. 150 and 700, it probably had a population of more than 125,000 people and covered at least 20 square kilometers. It had over 2,000 apartment complexes, a great market, a large number of industrial workshops, an administrative center, a number of massive religious edifices, and a regular grid pattern of streets and buildings. Clearly, much planning and central control were involved in the expansion and ordering of his great metropolis. Moreover, the city had economic and perhaps religious contacts with most parts of Mesoamerica (modern Central America and Mexico). How did this tremendous development take place, and why did it happen in the Teotihuacán Valley? Among the main factors are Teotihuacán’s geographic location on a natural trade route to the south and east of the Valley of Mexico, the obsidian resources in the Teotihuacán Valley itself, and the valley’s potential for extensive irrigation. The exact role of other factors is much more difficult to pinpoint―for instance, Teotihuacán’s religious significance as a shrine, the historical situation in and around the Valley of Mexico toward the end of the first millennium B.C., the ingenuity and foresightedness of Teotihuacán’s elite, and, finally, the impact of natural disasters, such as the volcanic eruptions of the late first millennium B.C. This last factor is at least circumstantially implicated in Teotihuacán’s rise. Prior to 200 B.C., a number of relatively small centers coexisted in and near the Valley of Mexico. Around this time, the largest of these centers, Cuicuilco, was seriously affected by a volcanic eruption, with much of its agricultural land covered by lava. With Cuicuilco eliminated as a potential rival, any one of a number of relatively modest towns might have emerged as a leading economic and political power in Central Mexico. The archaeological evidence clearly indicates, though, that Teotiluacan was the center that did arise as the predominant force in the area by the first century A.D. It seems likely that Teotihuacán’s natural resources―along with the city elite’s ability to recognize their potential―gave the city a competitive edge over its neighbors, The valley, like many other places in Mexican and Guatemalan highlands, was rich in obsidian. The hard volcanic stone was a resource that had been in great demand for many years, at least since the rise of the Olmecs (a people who flourished between 1200 and 400 B.C.), and it apparently had a secure market. Moreover, recent research on obsidian tools found at Olmecs sites has shown that some of the obsidian obtained by the Olmecs originated near Teotihuacán. Teotihuacán obsidian must have been recognized as a valuable commodity for many centuries before the great city arose. Long-distance trade in obsidian probably gave the elite residents of Teotihuacán access to a wide variety of exotic good, as well as a relatively prosperous life. Such success may have attracted immigrants to Teotihuacán. In addition, Teotihuacán’s elite may have consciously attempted to attract new inhabitants. It is also probable that as early as 200 B.C. Teotihuacán may have achieved some religious significance and its shrine (or shrines) may have served as an additional population magnet. Finally, the growing population was probably fed by increasing the number and size of irrigated fields. The picture of Teotihuacán that emerges is a classic picture of positive feedback among obsidian mining and working, trade, population growth, irrigation, and religious tourism. The thriving obsidian operation, for example, would necessitate more miners, additional manufacturers of obsidian tools, and additional traders to carry the goods to new markets. All this led to increased wealth, which in turn would attract more immigrants to Teotihuacán. The growing power of the elite, who controlled the economy, would give them the means to physically coerce people to move to Teotihuacán and serve as additions to the labor force. More irrigation works would have to be built to feed the growing population, and this resulted in more power and wealth for the elite. The city of Teotihuacán, which lay about 50 kilometers northeast of modern-Day Mexico City, began its growth by 200-100 B.C. At its height, between about A.D. 150 and 700, it probably had a population of more than 125,000 people and covered at least 20 square kilometers. ■It had over 2,000 apartment complexes, a great market, a large number of industrial workshops, an administrative center, a number of massive religious edifices, and a regular grid pattern of streets and buildings. ■Clearly, much planning and central control were involved in the expansion and ordering of this great metropolis. ■Moreover, the city had economic and perhaps religious contacts with most parts of Mesoamerica (modern Central America and Mexico). ■ 14. Teotihuacán was a highly developed city in Mesoamerica that reached its peak between about A.D. 150 and 700. ○ ○ ○ Answer choices 1. The number and sophistication of the architectural, administrative, commercial, and religious features of Teotihuacan indicate the existence of centralized planning and control. 2. Teotihuacán may have developed its own specific local religion as a result of the cultural advances made possible by the city’s great prosperity. 3. As a result of its large number of religious shrines, by the first century A.D., Teotihuacan become the most influential. 4. Several factors may account for Teotihuacán’s extraordinary development, including its location, rich natural resources, irrigation potential, intelligent elite, and the misfortune of rival communities. 5. In many important areas, from the obsidian industry to religious tourism, Teotihuacán’s success and prosperity typified the classic positive feedback cycle. 6. Although many immigrants settled in Teotihuacán between A.D.150 and 700, the increasing threat of coerced labor discouraged further settlement and limited Teotihuacán’s population growth. 1 vs. 3 ****************************************************************************************
  • 【4】任意两选项相反，必有一个正确
    • TPO-17-1 Europe's Early Sea Trade with Asia In the fourteenth century, a number of political developments cut Europe's overland trade routes to southern and eastern Asia, with which Europe had had important and highly profitable commercial ties since the twelfth century. This development, coming as it did when the bottom had fallen out of the European economy, provided an impetus to a long-held desire to secure direct relations with the East by establishing a sea trade. Widely reported, if somewhat distrusted, accounts by figures like the famous traveler from Venice, Marco Polo, of the willingness of people in China to trade with Europeans and of the immensity of the wealth to be gained by such contact made the idea irresistible. Possibilities for trade seemed promising, but no hope existed for maintaining the traditional routes over land A new way had to be found. The chief problem was technological: How were the Europeans to reach the East? Europe's maritime tradition had developed in the context of easily navigable seas—the Mediterranean, the Baltic, and, to a lesser extent, the North Sea between England and the Continent—not of vast oceans. New types of ships were needed, new methods of finding one's way, new techniques for financing so vast a scheme. The sheer scale of the investment it took to begin commercial expansion at sea reflects the immensity of the profits that such East-West trade could create Spices were the most sought-after commodities. Spices not only dramatically improved the taste of the European diet but also were used to manufacture perfumes and certain medicines. But even high-priced commodities like spices had to be transported in large bulk in order to justify the expense and trouble of sailing around the African continent all the way to India and China. The principal seagoing ship used throughout the Middle Ages was the galley, a long, low ship fitted with sails but driven primarily by oars. The largest galleys had as many as 50 oarsmen Since they had relatively shallow hulls, they were unstable when driven by sail or when on rough water: hence they were unsuitable for the voyage to the East. Even if they hugged the African coastline, they had little chance of surviving a crossing of the Indian Ocean. Shortly after 1400, shipbuilders began developing a new type of vessel properly designed to operate in rough, open water: the caravel. It had a wider and deeper hull than the galley and hence could carry more cargo: increased stability made it possible to add multiple masts and sails. In the largest caravels, two main masts held large square sails that provided the bulk of the thrust driving the ship forward, while a smaller forward mast held a triangular-shaped sail, called a lateen sail, which could be moved into a variety of positions to maneuver the ship. The astrolabe had long been the primary instrument for navigation, having been introduced in the eleventh century. It operated by measuring the height of the Sun and the fixed stars: by calculating the angles created by these points, it determined the degree of latitude at which one stood (The problem of determining longitude, though, was not solved until the eighteenth century.) By the early thirteenth century. Western Europeans had also developed and put into use the magnetic compass, which helped when clouds obliterated both the Sun and the stars. Also beginning in the thirteenth century, there were new maps refined by precise calculations and the reports of sailors that made it possible to trace one's path with reasonable accuracy. Certain institutional and practical norms had become established as well. A maritime code known as the Consulate of the Sea, which originated in the western Mediterranean region in the fourteenth century, won acceptance by a majority of sea goers as the normative code for maritime conduct; it defined such matters as the authority of a ship's officers, protocols of command, pay structures, the rights of sailors, and the rules of engagement when ships met one another on the sea-lanes. Thus by about 1400 the key elements were in place to enable Europe to begin its seaward adventure. Paragraph 1: In the fourteenth century, a number of political developments cut Europe's overland trade routes to southern and eastern Asia, with which Europe had had important and highly profitable commercial ties since the twelfth century. This development, coming as it did when the bottom had fallen out of the European economy, provided an impetus to a long-held desire to secure direct relations with the East by establishing a sea trade. Widely reported, if somewhat distrusted, accounts by figures like the famous traveler from Venice, Marco Polo, of the willingness of people in China to trade with Europeans and of the immensity of the wealth to be gained by such contact made the idea irresistible. Possibilities for trade seemed promising, but no hope existed for maintaining the traditional routes over land A new way had to be found. 1. The word impetus in the passage is closest in meaning to ○ Return ○ Opportunity ○ Stimulus ○ Obstacle 2. According to paragraph 1 why was it necessary to find a new way for European merchants to reach the East? ○ People in China were finally ready to trade with Europeans ○ The European economy was failing because there was no trade with the East ○ Traditional ways of trading with the East had becomevery costly ○ Commercial routes over land had become blocked because of political events Paragraph 2: The chief problem was technological: How were the Europeans to reach the East? Europe's maritime tradition had developed in the context of easily navigable seas—the Mediterranean, the Baltic, and, to a lesser extent, the North Sea between England and the Continent—not of vast oceans. New types of ships were needed, new methods of finding one's way, new techniques for financing so vast a scheme. The sheer scale of the investment it took to begin commercial expansion at sea reflects the immensity of the profits that such East-West trade could create Spices were the most sought-after commodities. Spices not only dramatically improved the taste of the European diet but also were used to manufacture perfumes and certain medicines. But even high-priced commodities like spices had to be transported in large bulk in order to justify the expense and trouble of sailing around the African continent all the way to India and China. 3. According to paragraph 2. what was the main difficulty Europeans had to overcome in order to develop a new way of trading with the East? ○ Europeans were unwilling to invest in large-scale commercial ventures. ○ Europeans lacked the means for navigating long distances across oceans. ○ Europeans were unwilling to experiment with new business techniques. ○ Europeans lacked knowledge about the commercial methods of other peoples. 4. Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information. ○ The high cost to investors of developing trade by sea between East and West indicates the great size of the profits that such trade could produce. ○ The profits that could be created by sea trade between East and West were immense compared with the investment required to develop such trade. ○ The increase in commercial activity by using sea routes reflects the importance trade between East and West had for investors seeking great profits. ○ Because people made large investments in sea commerce between East and West. They expected to make immense profits. 5. The word dramatically in the passage is closest in meaning to ○ Artificially ○ Greatly ○ Immediately ○ Regularly 6. It can be inferred from paragraph 2 that spices from Asia were desirable in Europe in the Middle Ages because they ○ were easily transported in large quantities ○ could not be produced in European countries ○ could be traded for products such as perfumes and medicines ○ were expected to increase in value over time Paragraph 3: The principal seagoing ship used throughout the Middle Ages was the galley, a long, low ship fitted with sails but driven primarily by oars. The largest galleys had as many as 50 oarsmen. Since they had relatively shallow hulls, they were unstable when driven by sail or when on rough water: hence they were unsuitable for the voyage to the East. Even if they hugged the African coastline, they had little chance of surviving a crossing of the Indian Ocean. Shortly after 1400, shipbuilders began developing a new type of vessel properly designed to operate in rough, open water: the caravel. It had a wider and deeper hull than the galley and hence could carry more cargo: increased stability made it possible to add multiple masts and sails. In the largest caravels, two main masts held large square sails that provided the bulk of the thrust driving the ship forward, while a smaller forward mast held a triangular-shaped sail, called a lateen sail, which could be moved into a variety of positions to maneuver the ship. 7. According to paragraph 3, all of the following statements comparing the caravel with the galley are true EXCEPT: ○ The caravel had fewer masts than the galley. ○ The caravel had a wider hull than the galley. ○ The caravel could carry more cargo than the galley. ○ The caravel was more stable in rough water than the galley. 8. According to paragraph 3, what did the lateen sail contribute to the caravel as a sailing ship? ○ It provided stability for the front part of the ship. ○ It made it possible for the hull to be wider and deeper. ○ It added considerably to the speed of the wind-driven ship. ○ It improved the capacity of the ship to be guided. Paragraph 4: The astrolabe had long been the primary instrument for navigation, having been introduced in the eleventh century. It operated by measuring the height of the Sun and the fixed stars: by calculating the angles created by these points, it determined the degree of latitude at which one stood (The problem of determining longitude, though, was not solved until the eighteenth century.) By the early thirteenth century. Western Europeans had also developed and put into use the magnetic compass, which helped when clouds obliterated both the Sun and the stars. Also beginning in the thirteenth century, there were new maps refined by precise calculations and the reports of sailors that made it possible to trace one's path with reasonable accuracy. Certain institutional and practical norms had become established as well. A maritime code known as the Consulate of the Sea, which originated in the western Mediterranean region in the fourteenth century, won acceptance by a majority of sea goers as the normative code for maritime conduct; it defined such matters as the authority of a ship's officers, protocols of command, pay structures, the rights of sailors, and the rules of engagement when ships met one another on the sea-lanes. Thus by about 1400 the key elements were in place to enable Europe to begin its seaward adventure. 9. Why does the author include the information that Western Europeans had developed and put into use the magnetic compass ○ To provide an example of an instrument that was developed after caravels had begun traveling across oceans ○ To provide an example of an improvement that resulted directly from the invention of the astrolabe ○ To identify one of the technological advances that made sea trade with the East possible ○ To explain how the problem of determining longitude was solved 10. The word refined in the passage is closest in meaning to ○ Completed ○ Improved ○ Drawn ○ Checked 11. The word norms in the passage is closest in meaning to ○ purposes ○ skills ○ activities ○ rules 12. According to paragraph 4, which of the following is true of the maritime code developed in Europe in the fourteenth century? ○ It mapped out lanes in the seas for trading ships to follow. ○ It defined the ways in which people should behave at sea. ○ It replaced an earlier code that could not be adapted to the sea trade with the East. ○ It gave instructions on how to navigate a ship. The chief problem was technological: How were the Europeans to reach the East? Europe's maritime tradition had developed in the context of easily navigable seas—the Mediterranean, the Baltic, and, to a lesser extent, the North Sea between England and the Continent—not of vast oceans. New types of ships were needed, new methods of finding one's way, new techniques for financing so vast a scheme. The sheer scale of the investment it took to begin commercial expansion at sea reflects the immensity of the profits that such East-West trade could create. ■ Spices were the most sought-after commodities. ■ Spices not only dramatically improved the taste of the European diet but also were used to manufacture perfumes and certain medicines. ■ But even high-priced commodities like spices had to be transported in large bulk in order to justify the expense and trouble of sailing around the African continent all the way to India and China. ■ 13. Look at the four squares [■] that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage. They were highly valued for a couple of reasons. Where would the sentence best fit? 14. Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2 points. Because land routes to Asia had been cut off in the fourteenth century, Europeans had to find a new way to trade with Asia. ● ● ● Answer Choices 1. Reports by travelers indicated that people in Asia were interested in renewing trade with Europeans. 2. For trade in Asian goods such as spices to be profitable, these items needed to be transported in large quantities. 3. European galleys were able to bring Asian goods across Indian Ocean and around the African coastline. 4. Wind-driven caravels were developed to carry cargo across the oceans. 5. The development of maps, navigational instruments, and a maritime code of conduct provided crucial elements for long-distance navigation. 6. Europeans wanted to import spices from Asia in order to improve the taste of food and to make perfumes and medicines. 4 vs. 3 2 vs. 6 ********************************************************************************************************* Paragraph 1: Plant communities assemble themselves flexibly, and their particular structure depends on the specific history of the area. Ecologists use the term “succession” to refer to the changes that happen in plant communities and ecosystems over time. The first community in a succession is called a pioneer community, while the long-lived community at the end of succession is called a climax community. Pioneer and successional plant communities are said to change over periods from 1 to 500 years. These changes—in plant numbers and the mix of species—are cumulative. Climax communities themselves change but over periods of time greater than about 500 years. 1. The word “particular” in the passage is closest in meaning to ○ natural ○ final ○ specific ○ complex 2. According to paragraph 1, which of the following is NOT true of climax communities? ○ They occur at the end of a succession. ○ They last longer than any other type of community. ○ The numbers of plants in them and the mix of species do not change. ○ They remain stable for at least 500 years at a time. Paragraph 2: An ecologist who studies a pond today may well find it relatively unchanged in a year’s time. Individual fish may be replaced, but the number of fish will tend to be the same from one year to the next. We can say that the properties of an ecosystem are more stable than the individual organisms that compose the ecosystem. 3. According to paragraph 2, which of the following principles of ecosystems can be learned by studying a pond? ○ Ecosystem properties change more slowly than individuals in the system. ○ The stability of an ecosystem tends to change as individuals are replaced. ○ Individual organisms are stable from one year to the next. ○ A change in the members of an organism does not affect an ecosystem’s properties. Paragraph 3: At one time, ecologists believed that species diversity made ecosystems stable. They believed that the greater the diversity the more stable the ecosystem. Support for this idea came from the observation that long-lasting climax communities usually have more complex food webs and more species diversity than pioneer communities. Ecologists concluded that the apparent stability of climax ecosystems depended on their complexity. To take an extreme example, farmlands dominated by a single crop are so unstable that one year of bad weather or the invasion of a single pest can destroy the entire crop. In contrast, a complex climax community, such as a temperate forest, will tolerate considerable damage from weather to pests. 4. According to paragraph 3, ecologists once believed that which of the following illustrated the most stable ecosystems? ○Pioneer communities ○Climax communities ○Single-crop farmlands ○Successional plant communities Paragraph 4: The question of ecosystem stability is complicated, however. The first problem is that ecologists do not all agree what “stability” means. Stability can be defined as simply lack of change. In that case, the climax community would be considered the most stable, since, by definition, it changes the least over time. Alternatively, stability can be defined as the speed with which an ecosystem returns to a particular form following a major disturbance, such as a fire. This kind of stability is also called resilience. In that case, climax communities would be the most fragile and the least stable, since they can require hundreds of years to return to the climax state. 5. According to paragraph 4, why is the question of ecosystem stability complicated? ○ The reasons for ecosystem change are not always clear. ○ Ecologists often confuse the word “stability” with the word “resilience.” ○ The exact meaning of the word “stability” is debated by ecologists. ○ There are many different answers to ecological questions. 6. According to paragraph 4, which of the following is true of climax communities? ○ They are more resilient than pioneer communities. ○ They can be considered both the most and the least stable communities. ○ They are stable because they recover quickly after major disturbances. ○ They are the most resilient communities because they change the least over time. Paragraph 5: Even the kind of stability defined as simple lack of change is not always associated with maximum diversity. At least in temperate zones, maximum diversity is often found in mid-successional stages, not in the climax community. Once a redwood forest matures, for example, the kinds of species and the number of individuals growing on the forest floor are reduced. In general, diversity, by itself, does not ensure stability. Mathematical models of ecosystems likewise suggest that diversity does not guarantee ecosystem stability—just the opposite, in fact. A more complicated system is, in general, more likely than a simple system to break down. A fifteen-speed racing bicycle is more likely to break down than a child’s tricycle. 7. Which of the following can be inferred from paragraph 5 about redwood forests? ○ They become less stable as they mature. ○ They support many species when they reach climax. ○ They are found in temperate zones. ○ They have reduced diversity during mid-successional stages. 8. The word “guarantee” in the passage is closest in meaning to ○ increase ○ ensure ○ favor ○ complicate 9. In paragraph 5, why does the author provide the information that “A fifteen-speed racing bicycle is more likely to break down than a child’s tricycle”? ○ To illustrate a general principle about the stability of systems by using an everyday example ○ To demonstrate that an understanding of stability in ecosystems can be applied to help understand stability in other situations ○ To make a comparison that supports the claim that, in general, stability increases with diversity ○ To provide an example that contradicts mathematical models of ecosystems Paragraph 6: Ecologists are especially interested to know what factors contribute to the resilience of communities because climax communities all over the world are being severely damaged or destroyed by human activities. The destruction caused by the volcanic explosion of Mount St. Helens, in the northwestern United States, for example, pales in comparison to the destruction caused by humans. We need to know what aspects of a community are most important to the community’s resistance to destruction, as well as its recovery. 10. The word “pales” in the passage is closest in meaning to ○ increases proportionally ○ differs ○ loses significance ○ is common Paragraph 7: Many ecologists now think that the relative long-term stability of climax communities comes not from diversity but from the “patchiness” of the environment, an environment that varies from place to place supports more kinds of organisms than an environment that is uniform. A local population that goes extinct is quickly replaced by immigrants from an adjacent community. Even if the new population is of a different species, it can approximately fill the niche vacated by the extinct population and keep the food web intact. 11．Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incurred choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information. ○ Ecologists now think that the stability of an environment is a result of diversity rather than patchiness. ○ Patchy environments that vary from place to place do not often have high species diversity. ○ Uniform environments cannot be climax communities because they do not support as many types of organisms as patchy environments. ○ A patchy environment is thought to increase stability because it is able to support a wide variety of organisms. 12. The word “adjacent” in the passage is closest in meaning to ○ foreign ○ stable ○ fluid ○ neighboring Paragraph 6: █Ecologists are especially interested to know what factors contribute to the resilience of communities because climax communities all over the world are being severely damaged or destroyed by human activities. █The destruction caused by the volcanic explosion of Mount St. Helens, in the northwestern United States, for example, pales in comparison to the destruction caused by humans. █We need to know what aspects of a community are most important to the community’s resistance to destruction, as well as its recovery. █ 13. Look at the four squares [█] that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage. In fact, damage to the environment by humans is often much more severe than damage by natural events and processes. Where would the sentence best fit? Click on a square to add the sentence to the passage. 14. Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2 points. The process of succession and the stability of a climax community can change over time. ● ● ● Answer choices ○ The changes that occur in an ecosystem from the pioneer to the climax community can be seen in one human generation. ○ A high degree of species diversity does not always result in a stable ecosystem. ○ The level of resilience in a plant community contributes to its long-term stability. ○ Ecologists agree that climax communities are the most stable types of ecosystems. ○ Disagreements over the meaning of the term “stability” make it difficult to identify the most stable ecosystems. ○ The resilience of climax communities makes them resistant to destruction caused by humans. 4 vs. 5 *********************************************************************************************************
  • 【5】和原文相反内容，必定错误选项
    • TPO-11 Ancient Egyptian Sculpture In order to understand ancient Egyptian art, it is vital to know as much as possible of the elite Egyptians' view of the world and the functions and contexts of the art produced for them. Without this knowledge we can appreciate only the formal content of Egyptian art, and we will fail to understand why it was produced or the concepts that shaped it and caused it to adopt its distinctive forms. In fact, a lack of understanding concerning the purposes of Egyptian art has often led it to be compared unfavorably with the art of other cultures: Why did the Egyptians not develop sculpture in which the body turned and twisted through space like classical Greek statuary? Why do the artists seem to get left and right confused? And why did they not discover the geometric perspective as European artists did in the Renaissance? The answer to such questions has nothing to do with a lack of skill or imagination on the part of Egyptian artists and everything to do with the purposes for which they were producing their art. The majority of three-dimensional representations, whether standing, seated, or kneeling, exhibit what is called frontality: they face straight ahead, neither twisting nor turning. When such statues are viewed in isolation, out of their original context and without knowledge of their function, it is easy to criticize them for their rigid attitudes that remained unchanged for three thousand years. Frontality is, however, directly related to the functions of Egyptian statuary and the contexts in which the statues were set up. Statues were created not for their decorative effect but to play a primary role in the cults of the gods, the king, and the dead. They were designed to be put in places where these beings could manifest themselves in order to be the recipients of ritual actions. Thus it made sense to show the statue looking ahead at what was happening in front of it, so that the living performer of the ritual could interact with the divine or deceased recipient. Very often such statues were enclosed in rectangular shrines or wall niches whose only opening was at the front, making it natural for the statue to display frontality. Other statues were designed to be placed within an architectural setting, for instance, in front of the monumental entrance gateways to temples known as pylons, or in pillared courts, where they would be placed against or between pillars: their frontality worked perfectly within the architectural context. Statues were normally made of stone, wood, or metal. Stone statues were worked from single rectangular blocks of material and retained the compactness of the original shape. The stone between the arms and the body and between the legs in standing figures or the legs and the seat in seated ones was not normally cut away. From a practical aspect this protected the figures against breakage and psychologically gives the images a sense of strength and power, usually enhanced by a supporting back pillar. By contrast, wooden statues were carved from several pieces of wood that were pegged together to form the finished work, and metal statues were either made by wrapping sheet metal around a wooden core or cast by the lost wax process. The arms could be held away from the body and carry separate items in their hands; there is no back pillar. The effect is altogether lighter and freer than that achieved in stone, but because both perform the same function, formal wooden and metal statues still display frontality. Apart from statues representing deities, kings, and named members of the elite that can be called formal, there is another group of three-dimensional representations that depicts generic figures, frequently servants, from the nonelite population. The function of these is quite different. Many are made to be put in the tombs of the elite in order to serve the tomb owners in the afterlife. Unlike formal statues that are limited to static poses of standing, sitting, and kneeling, these figures depict a wide range of actions, such as grinding grain, baking bread, producing pots, and making music, and they are shown in appropriate poses, bending and squatting as they carry out their tasks. Paragraph 1: In order to understand ancient Egyptian art, it is vital to know as much as possible of the elite Egyptians' view of the world and the functions and contexts of the art produced for them. Without this knowledge we can appreciate only the formal content of Egyptian art, and we will fail to understand why it was produced or the concepts that shaped it and caused it to adopt its distinctive forms. In fact, a lack of understanding concerning the purposes of Egyptian art has often led it to be compared unfavorably with the art of other cultures: Why did the Egyptians not develop sculpture in which the body turned and twisted through space like classical Greek statuary? Why do the artists seem to get left and right confused? And why did they not discover the geometric perspective as European artists did in the Renaissance? The answer to such questions has nothing to do with a lack of skill or imagination on the part of Egyptian artists and everything to do with the purposes for which they were producing their art. 1. The word “vital” in the passage is closest in meaning to ○ attractive ○ essential ○ usual ○ practical 2. Paragraph 1 suggests that one reason Egyptian art is viewed less favorably than other art is that Egyptian art lacks ○ a realistic sense of human body proportion ○ a focus on distinctive forms of varying sizes ○ the originality of European art ○ the capacity to show the human body in motion 3. In paragraph 1, the author mentions all of the following as necessary in appreciating Egyptian art EXCEPT an understanding of ○ the reasons why the art was made ○ the nature of aristocratic Egyptian beliefs ○ the influences of Egyptian art on later art such as classical Greek art ○ how the art was used Paragraph 2: The majority of three-dimensional representations, whether standing, seated, or kneeling, exhibit what is called frontality: they face straight ahead, neither twisting nor turning. When such statues are viewed in isolation, out of their original context and without knowledge of their function, it is easy to criticize them for their rigid attitudes that remained unchanged for three thousand years. Frontality is, however, directly related to the functions of Egyptian statuary and the contexts in which the statues were set up. Statues were created not for their decorative effect but to play a primary role in the cults of the gods, the king, and the dead. They were designed to be put in places where these beings could manifest themselves in order to be the recipients of ritual actions. Thus it made sense to show the statue looking ahead at what was happening in front of it, so that the living performer of the ritual could interact with the divine or deceased recipient. Very often such statues were enclosed in rectangular shrines or wall niches whose only opening was at the front, making it natural for the statue to display frontality. Other statues were designed to be placed within an architectural setting, for instance, in front of the monumental entrance gateways to temples known as pylons, or in pillared courts, where they would be placed against or between pillars: their frontality worked perfectly within the architectural context. 4. According to paragraph 2, why are Egyptian statues portrayed frontality? ○ To create a psychological effect of distance and isolation ○ To allow them to fulfill their important role in ceremonies of Egyptian life ○ To provide a contrast to statues with a decorative function ○ To suggest the rigid, unchanging Egyptian philosophical attitudes 5. The word “context” in the passage is closest in meaning to ○ connection ○ influence ○ environment ○ requirement 6. The author mentions “an architectural setting” in the passage in order to ○ suggest that architecture was as important as sculpture to Egyptian artists ○ offer a further explanation for the frontal pose of Egyptian statues ○ explain how the display of statues replaced other forms of architectural decoration ○ illustrate the religious function of Egyptian statues 7. The word “they” in the passage refers to ○ statues ○ gateways ○ temples ○ pillared courts Paragraph 3: Statues were normally made of stone, wood, or metal. Stone statues were worked from single rectangular blocks of material and retained the compactness of the original shape. The stone between the arms and the body and between the legs in standing figures or the legs and the seat in seated ones was not normally cut away. From a practical aspect this protected the figures against breakage and psychologically gives the images a sense of strength and power, usually enhanced by a supporting back pillar. By contrast, wooden statues were carved from several pieces of wood that were pegged together to form the finished work, and metal statues were either made by wrapping sheet metal around a wooden core or cast by the lost wax process. The arms could be held away from the body and carry separate items in their hands; there is no back pillar. The effect is altogether lighter and freer than that achieved in stone, but because both perform the same function, formal wooden and metal statues still display frontality. 8. According to paragraph 3, why were certain areas of a stone statue left uncarved? ○ To prevent damage by providing physical stability ○ To emphasize that the material was as important as the figure itself ○ To emphasize that the figure was not meant to be a real human being ○ To provide another artist with the chance to finish the carving 9. The word “core” in the passage is closest in meaning to ○ material ○ layer ○ center ○ frame 10. According to paragraph 3, which of the following statements about wooden statues is true? ○ Wooden statues were usually larger than stone statues. ○ Wooden statues were made from a single piece of wood. ○ Wooden statues contained pieces of metal or stone attached to the front. ○ Wooden statues had a different effect on the viewer than stone statues. Paragraph 4: Apart from statues representing deities, kings, and named members of the elite that can be called formal, there is another group of three-dimensional representations that depicts generic figures, frequently servants, from the nonelite population. The function of these is quite different. Many are made to be put in the tombs of the elite in order to serve the tomb owners in the afterlife. Unlike formal statues that are limited to static poses of standing, sitting, and kneeling, these figures depict a wide range of actions, such as grinding grain, baking bread, producing pots, and making music, and they are shown in appropriate poses, bending and squatting as they carry out their tasks. 11. The word depicts in the passage is closest in meaning to ○ imagines ○ classifies ○ elevates ○ portrays 12. According to paragraph 4, what is the difference between statues that represent the Egyptian elite and statues that represent the nonelite classes? ○ Statues of the elite are included in tombs, but statues of the nonelite are not. ○ Statues of the elite are in motionless poses, while statues of the nonelite are in active poses. ○ Statues of the elite are shown standing, while statues of the nonelite are shown sitting or kneeling. ○ Statues of the elite serve an important function, while statues of the nonelite are decorative. Paragraph 4: Apart from statues representing deities, kings, and named members of the elite that can be called formal, there is another group of three-dimensional representations that depicts generic figures, frequently servants, from the nonelite population. ■The function of these is quite different. ■Many are made to be put in the tombs of the elite in order to serve the tomb owners in the afterlife. ■Unlike formal statues that are limited to static poses of standing, sitting, and kneeling, these figures depict a wide range of actions, such as grinding grain, baking bread, producing pots, and making music, and they are shown in appropriate poses, bending and squatting as they carry out their tasks. ■ 13. Look at the four squares [■] that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage. In fact, it is the action and not the figure itself that is important. Where would the sentence best fit? 14 . Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2 points. The distinctive look of ancient Egyptian sculpture was determined largely by its function. ● ● ● Answer Choices ○ The twisted forms of Egyptian statues indicate their importance in ritual actions. ○ The reason Egyptian statues are motionless is linked to their central role in cultural rituals. ○ Stone, wood, and metal statues all display the feature of frontality. ○ Statues were more often designed to be viewed in isolation rather than placed within buildings. ○ The contrasting poses used in statues of elite and nonelite Egyptians reveal their difference in social status. ○ Although the appearances of formal and generic statues differ, they share the same function. 1 vs. 2 *********************************************************************************************************
  • 【6】正确选项为快速阅读中读过内容
  • 【7】结合题目做题，要避免细节干扰
  • 【8】错误选项特徵，存在比较插入语
    • Timberline Vegetation on Mountains Paragraph 1: The transition from forest to treeless tundra on a mountain slope is often a dramatic one. Within a vertical distance of just a few tens of meters, trees disappear as a life-form and are replaced by low shrubs, herbs, and grasses. This rapid zone of transition is called the upper timberline or tree line. In many semiarid areas there is also a lower timberline where the forest passes into steppe or desert at its lower edge, usually because of a lack of moisture. 1. The word “dramatic” in the passage is closest in meaning to ○ gradual ○ complex ○ visible ○ striking 2. Where is the lower timberline mentioned in paragraph 1 likely to be found? ○ In an area that has little water ○ In an area that has little sunlight ○ Above a transition area ○ On a mountain that has on upper timberline. 3. Which of the following can be inferred from paragraph 1 about both the upper and lower timberlines? ○ Both are treeless zones. ○ Both mark forest boundaries. ○ Both are surrounded by desert areas. ○ Both suffer from a lack of moisture. Paragraph 2: The upper timberline, like the snow line, is highest in the tropics and lowest in the Polar Regions. It ranges from sea level in the Polar Regions to 4,500 meters in the dry subtropics and 3,500-4,500 meters in the moist tropics. Timberline trees are normally evergreens, suggesting that these have some advantage over deciduous trees (those that lose their leaves) in the extreme environments of the upper timberline. There are some areas, however, where broadleaf deciduous trees form the timberline. Species of birch, for example, may occur at the timberline in parts of the Himalayas. 4. Paragraph 2 supports which of the following statements about deciduous trees? ○ They cannot grow in cold climates. ○ They do not exist at the upper timberline. ○ They are less likely than evergreens to survive at the upper timberline. ○ They do not require as much moisture as evergreens do. Paragraph 3: At the upper timberline the trees begin to become twisted and deformed. This is particularly true for trees in the middle and upper latitudes, which tend to attain greater heights on ridges, whereas in the tropics the trees reach their greater heights in the valleys. This is because middle- and upper- latitude timberlines are strongly influenced by the duration and depth of the snow cover. As the snow is deeper and lasts longer in the valleys, trees tend to attain greater heights on the ridges, even though they are more exposed to high-velocity winds and poor, thin soils there. In the tropics, the valleys appear to be more favorable because they are less prone to dry out, they have less frost, and they have deeper soils. 5. The word “attain” in the passage is closest in meaning to ○ require ○ resist ○ achieve ○ endure 6. The word “they” in the passage refers to ○ valleys ○ trees ○ heights ○ ridges 7. The word “prone” in the passage is closest in meaning to ○ adapted ○ likely ○ difficult ○ resistant 8. According to paragraph 3, which of the following is true of trees in the middle and upper latitudes? ○ Tree growth is negatively affected by the snow cover in valleys. ○ Tree growth is greater in valleys than on ridges. ○ Tree growth on ridges is not affected by high-velocity winds. ○ Tree growth lasts longer in those latitudes than it does in the tropics. Paragraph 4 : There is still no universally agreed-on explanation for why there should be such a dramatic cessation of tree growth at the upper timberline. Various environmental factors may play a role. Too much snow, for example, can smother trees, and avalanches and snow creep can damage or destroy them. Late-lying snow reduces the effective growing season to the point where seedlings cannot establish themselves. Wind velocity also increases with altitude and may cause serious stress for trees, as is made evident by the deformed shapes at high altitudes. Some scientists have proposed that the presence of increasing levels of ultraviolet light with elevation may play a role, while browsing and grazing animals like the ibex may be another contributing factor. Probably the most important environmental factor is temperature, for if the growing season is too short and temperatures are too low, tree shoots and buds cannot mature sufficiently to survive the winter months. 9. Which of the sentences below best express the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? In correct choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information. ○ Because of their deformed shapes at high altitudes, trees are not likely to be seriously harmed by the strong winds typical of those altitudes. ○ As altitude increases, the velocity of winds increase, leading to a serious decrease in the number of trees found at high altitudes. ○ The deformed shapes of trees at high altitudes show that wind velocity, which increase with altitude, can cause serious hardship for trees. ○ Increased wind velocity at high altitudes deforms the shapes of trees, and this may cause serious stress for trees. 10. In paragraph 4, what is the author’s main purpose in the discussion of the dramatic cessation of tree growth at the upper timberline? ○ To argue that none of several environment factors that are believed to contribute to that phenomenon do in fact play a role in causing it. ○ To argue in support of one particular explanation of that phenomenon against several competing explanations ○ To explain why the primary environmental factor responsible for that phenomenon has not yet been identified ○ To present several environmental factors that may contribute to a satisfactory explanation of that phenomenon Paragraph 6: The most striking characteristic of the plants of the alpine zone is their low growth form. This enables them to avoid the worst rigors of high winds and permits them to make use of the higher temperatures immediately adjacent to the ground surface. In an area where low temperatures are limiting to life, the importance of the additional heat near the surface is crucial. The low growth form can also permit the plants to take advantage of the insulation provided by a winter snow cover. In the equatorial mountains the low growth form is less prevalent. 11. The word “prevalent” in the passage is closest in meaning to ○ predictable ○ widespread ○ successful ○ developed 12. According to paragraph 6, all of the following statements are true of plants in the alpine zone EXCEPT: ○ Because they are low, they are less exposed to strong winds. ○ Because they are low, the winter snow cover gives them more protection from the extreme cold. ○ In the equatorial mountains, they tend to be lower than in mountains elsewhere. ○ Their low growth form keeps them closer to the ground, where there is more heat than further up. Paragraph 5: Above the tree line there is a zone that is generally called alpine tundra. █Immediately adjacent to the timberline, the tundra consists of a fairly complete cover of low-lying shrubs, herbs, and grasses, while higher up the number and diversity of species decrease until there is much bare ground with occasional mosses and lichens and some prostrate cushion plants. █Some plants can even survive in favorable microhabitats above the snow line. The highest plants in the world occur at around 6,100 meters on Makalu in the Himalayas. █At this great height, rocks, warmed by the sun, melt small snowdrifts. █ 13. Look at the four squares [█] that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage. This explains how, for example, alpine cushion plants have been found growing at an altitude of 6,180 meters. Where would the sentence best fit? 14. Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2 points. At the timberline, whether upper or lower, there is a profound change in the growth of trees and other plants. ● ● ● Answer choices ○ Birch is one of the few species of tree that can survive in the extreme environments of the upper timberline. ○ There is no agreement among scientists as to exactly why plant growth is sharply different above and below the upper timberline. ○ The temperature at the upper timberline is probably more important in preventing tree growth than factors such as the amount of snowfall or the force of winds. ○ The geographical location of an upper timberline has an impact on both the types of trees found there and their physical characteristics. ○ High levels of ultraviolet light most likely play a greater role in determining tree growth at the upper timberline than do grazing animals such as the ibex. ○ Despite being adjacent to the timberline, the alpine tundra is an area where certain kinds of low trees can endure high winds and very low temperatures. 3、5 *********************************************************************************************************
• 10. 结构题
  • 【1】段落目的
    • ►The proportion of empty space in a rock is known as its porosity. But note that porosity is not the same as permeability, which measures the ease with which water can flow through a material; this depends on the sizes of the individual cavities and the crevices linking them. ❤ 1. What is the main purpose of paragraph 7? ○ To explain why water can flow through rock ○ To emphasize the large amount of empty space in all rock ○ To point out that a rock cannot be both porous and permeable ○ To distinguish between two related properties of rock 答案：D ************************************************************************************************************ ►Moreover, getting petroleum out of the ground and from under the sea and to the consumer can create environmental problems anywhere along the line. Pipelines carrying oil can be broken by faults or landslides, causing serious oil spills. Spillage from huge oil-carrying cargo ships, called tankers, involved in collisions or accidental groundings (such as the one off Alaska in 1989) can create oil slicks at sea. Offshore platforms may also lose oil, creating oil slicks that drift ashore and foul the beaches, harming the environment. Sometimes, the ground at an oil field may subside as oil is removed. The Wilmington field near Long Beach, California, has subsided nine meters in 50 years; protective barriers have had to be built to prevent seawater from flooding the area. Finally, the refining and burning of petroleum and its products can cause air pollution. Advancing technology and strict laws, however, are helping control some of these adverse environmental effects. ❤ 2. In paragraph 6, the author’s primary purpose is to ○ Provide examples of how oil exploration can endanger the environment ○ Describe accidents that have occurred when oil activities were in progress ○ Give an analysis of the effects of oil spills on the environment ○ Explain how technology and legislation help reduce oil spills 答案：A ************************************************************************************************************ ►Petroleum, consisting of crude oil and natural gas, seems to originate from organic matter in marine sediment. Microscopic organisms settle to the seafloor and accumulate in marine mud. The organic matter may partially decompose, using up the dissolved oxygen in the sediment. As soon as the oxygen is gone, decay stops and the remaining organic matter is preserved. ►Continued sedimentation—the process of deposits' settling on the sea bottom—buries the organic matter and subjects it to higher temperatures and pressures, which convert the organic matter to oil and gas. As muddy sediments are pressed together, the gas and small droplets of oil may be squeezed out of the mud and may move into sandy layers nearby. Over long periods of time (millions of years), accumulations of gas and oil can collect in the sandy layers. Both oil and gas are less dense than water, so they generally tend to rise upward through water-saturated rock and sediment. ❤ 3. In paragraphs 1 and 2, the author’s primary purpose is to ○ Describe how petroleum is formed ○ Explain why petroleum formation is a slow process ○ Provide evidence that a marine environment is necessary for petroleum formation ○ Show that oil commonly occurs in association with gas 答案：A ************************************************************************************************************ ►Livestock also came from outside Africa. Cattle were introduced from Asia, as probably were domestic sheep and goats. Horses were apparently introduced by the Hyksos invaders of Egypt (1780-1560 B.C.) and then spread across the Sudan to West Africa. Rock paintings in the Sahara indicate that horses and chariots were used to traverse the desert and that by 300-200 B.C., there were trade routes across the Sahara. Horses were adopted by peoples of the West African savannah, and later their powerful cavalry forces allowed them to carve out large empires. Finally, the camel was introduced around the first century A.D. This was an important innovation, because the camel’s abilities to thrive in harsh desert conditions and to carry large loads cheaply made it an effective and efficient means of transportation. The camel transformed the desert from a barrier into a still difficult, but more accessible, route of trade and communication. ►P3 Iron came from West Asia, although its routes of diffusion were somewhat different than those of agriculture. Most of Africa presents a curious case in which societies moved directly from a technology of stone to iron without passing through the intermediate stage of copper or bronze metallurgy, although some early copper-working sites have been found in West Africa. Knowledge of iron making penetrated into the forest and savannahs of West Africa at roughly the same time that iron making was reaching Europe. ❤❤❤ 4. What function does paragraph 3 serve in the organization of the passage as a whole ○ It contrasts the development of iron technology in West Asia and West Africa. ○ It discusses a non-agricultural contribution to Africa from Asia. ○ It introduces evidence that a knowledge of copper working reached Africa and Europe at the same time. ○ It compares the rates at which iron technology developed in different parts of Africa. 答案：B ************************************************************************************************************ ►The most influential proponent of the coastal migration route has been Canadian archaeologist Knut Fladmark. He theorized that with the use of watercraft, people gradually colonized unglaciated refuges and areas along the continental shelf exposed by the lower sea level. Fladmark’s hypothesis received additional support form from the fact that the greatest diversity in native American languages occurs along the west coast of the Americas, suggesting that this region has been settled the longest. ►P4 More recent geologic studies documented deglaciation and the existence of ice-free areas throughout major coastal areas of British Columbia, Canada, by 13,000 years ago. Research now indicates that sizable areas of southeastern Alaska along the inner continental shelf were not covered by ice toward the end of the last Ice Age. One study suggests that except for a 250-mile coastal area between southwestern British Columbia and Washington State, the Northwest Coast of North America was largely free of ice by approximately 16,000 years ago. Vast areas along the coast may have been deglaciated beginning around 16,000 years ago, possibly providing a coastal corridor for the movement of plants, animals, and humans sometime between 13,000 and 14,000 years ago. ❤❤ 5. The author's purpose in paragraph 4 is to ○ indicate that a number of recent geologic studies seem to provide support for the coastal hypothesis ○ indicate that coastal and inland migrations may have happened simultaneously ○ explain why humans may have reached America's northwest coast before animals and plants did ○ show that the coastal hypothesis may explain how people first reached Alaska but it cannot explain how people reached areas like modern British Columbia and Washington State 答案：A ************************************************************************************************************ ►P6. One interesting test of the Alvarez hypothesis is based on the presence of the rare-earth element iridium (Ir). Earth’s crust contains very little of this element, but most asteroids contain a lot more. Debris thrown into the atmosphere by an asteroid collision would presumably contain large amounts of iridium, and atmospheric currents would carry this material all over the globe. A search of sedimentary deposits that span the boundary between the Cretaceous and Tertiary periods shows that there is a dramatic increase in the abundance of iridium briefly and precisely at this boundary. This iridium anomaly offers strong support for the Alvarez hypothesis even though no asteroid itself has ever been recovered. ►P7. An asteroid of this size would be expected to leave an immense crater, even if the asteroid itself was disintegrated by the impact. The intense heat of the impact would produce heat-shocked quartz in many types of rock. Also, large blocks thrown aside by the impact would form secondary craters surrounding the main crater. To date, several such secondary craters have been found along Mexico’s Yucatan Peninsula, and heat-shocked quartz has been found both in Mexico and in Haiti. A location called Chicxulub, along the Yucatan coast, has been suggested as the primary impact site. ❤ 6. What is the purpose of paragraph 7 in the passage? ○ It proposes a decisive new test of the Alvarez hypothesis. ○ It presents additional supporting evidence for the Alvarez hypothesis. ○ It explains why evidence relating to the Alvarez hypothesis is hard to find. ○ It shows how recent evidence has raised doubts about the Alvarez hypothesis. 答案：B ************************************************************************************************************ ►7: About 90 percent of modern humans are right-handed: we are the only mammal with a preferential use of one hand. The part of the brain responsible for fine control and movement is located in the left cerebral hemisphere, and the findings above suggest that the human brain was already asymmetrical in its structure and function not long after 2 million years ago. Among Neanderthalers of 70,000–35,000 years ago, Marcellin Boule noted that the La Chapelle-aux-Saints individual had a left hemisphere slightly bigger than the right, and the same was found for brains of specimens from Neanderthal, Gibraltar, and La Quina. ❤❤ 7. What is the author's primary purpose in paragraph 7? ○ To illustrate the importance of studying the brain ○ To demonstrate that human beings are the only mammal to desire fine control of movement ○ To contrast the functions of the two hemispheres of the brain ○ To demonstrate that right-hand preference has existed for a long time 答案：D ************************************************************************************************************ ►A variety of documentation indicates that certain goods, once made by a family member as one of many duties, were later made by skilled artisans. Certain images depict groups of people, most likely women, involved in weaving textiles, an activity we know from later third-millennium texts to have been vital in the economy and to have been centrally administered. Also, a specialized metal-producing workshop may have been excavated in a small area at Uruk. It contained a number of channels lined by a sequence of holes, about 50 centimeters deep, all showing burn marks and filled with ashes. This has been interpreted as the remains of a workshop where molten metal was scooped up from the channel and poured into molds in the holes. Some type of mass production by specialists was involved here. ❤❤ 8. What is the purpose of paragraph 3? ○ To contrast the productivity of crafts workers in the third and fourth millennia. ○ To provide additional evidence of mass production by crafts workers. ○ To suggest that an early form of urban settlement may have existed before Uruk. ○ To contrast the development of weaving and pottery in Uruk.
    • What is the main purpose of paragraph 7
    • What function does paragraph 3 serve in the organization of the passage as a whole?
    • In paragraphs 1 and 2, the author’s primary purpose is to
  • 【2】段落结构
    • ►In addition to exploring the possible antecedents of theater, scholars have also theorized about the motives that led people to develop theater. Why did theater develop, and why was it valued after it ceased to fulfill the function of ritual? Most answers fall back on the theories about the human mind and basic human needs. One, set forth by Aristotle in the fourth century B.C., sees humans as naturally imitative—as taking pleasure in imitating persons, things, and actions and in seeing such imitations. Another, advanced in the twentieth century, suggests that humans have a gift for fantasy, through which they seek to reshape reality into more satisfying forms than those encountered in daily life. Thus, fantasy or fiction (of which drama is one form) permits people to objectify their anxieties and fears, confront them, and fulfill their hopes in fiction if not fact. The theater, then, is one tool whereby people define and understand their world or escape from unpleasant realities. ❤ 1. Which of the following best describes the organization of paragraph 5? ○ The author presents two theories for a historical phenomenon. ○ The author argues against theories expressed earlier in the passage. ○ The author argues for replacing older theories with a new one. ○ The author points out problems with two popular theories. 答案：A ************************************************************************************************************ ►Support is growing for the alternative theory that people using watercraft, possibly skin boats, moved southward from Beringia along the Gulf of Alaska and then southward along the Northwest Coast of North America possibly as early as 16,000 years ago. This route would have enabled humans to enter southern areas of the Americans prior to the melting of the continental glaciers. Until the early 1970s, most archaeologists did not consider the coast a possible migration route into the Americans because geologists originally believed that during the last Ice Age the entire Northwest Coast was covered by glacial ice. It had been assumed that the ice extended westward from the Alaskan/Canadian mountains to the very edge of the continental shelf, the flat, submerged part of the continent that extend into the ocean. This would have created a barrier of ice extending from the Alaska Peninsula, through the Gulf of Alaska and southward along the Northwest Coast of North America to what is today the state of Washington. ❤❤ 2. Paragraph 2 begins by presenting a theory and then goes on to ○ discuss why the theory was rapidly accepted but then rejected ○ present the evidence on which the theory was based ○ cite evidence that now shows that the theory is incorrect ○ explain why the theory was not initially considered plausible 答案：D ************************************************************************************************************ ►In the 1970s when the study of Australian archaeology was in an exciting phase of development, with the great antiquity of rock art becoming clear, Lesley Maynard, the archaeologist who coined the phrase “Panaramitee style,” suggested that a sequence could be determined for Australian rock art, in which a geometric style gave way to a simple figurative style (outlines of figures and animals), followed by a range of complex figurative styles that, unlike the pan-Australian geometric tradition tended to much greater regional diversity. While accepting that this sequence fits the archaeological profile of those sites, which were occupied continuously over many thousands of years , a number of writers have warned that the underlying assumption of such a sequence—a development from the simple and the geometric to the complex and naturalistic—obscures the cultural continuities in Aboriginal Australia, in which geometric symbolism remains fundamentally important. In this context the simplicity of a geometric motif may be more apparent than real. Motifs of seeming simplicity can encode complex meanings in Aboriginal Australia. And has not twentieth-century art shown that naturalism does not necessarily follow abstraction in some kind of predetermine sequence? ❤❤❤ 3. In paragraph 5, the author indicates that twentieth century art has shown that naturalism does not necessarily follow abstraction in some kind of predetermined sequence in order to ○ emphasize that it may not be possible to determine what the figures in ancient rock art represent ○ suggest a reply to those who have questioned Maynard’s interpretation of the sequence of Australian rock art ○ provide a counterexample to Maynard’s interpretation of the sequence of Australian rock art ○ indicate that twentieth century art is more advanced than ancient rock art 答案：C ************************************************************************************************************ ►Modern attitudes to Roman civilization range from the infinitely impressed to the thorough disgusted. As always, there are the power worshippers, especially among historians, who are predisposed to admire whatever is strong, who feel more attracted to the might of Rome than to the subtlety of Greece. At the same time, there is a solid body of opinion that dislikes Rome. For many, Rome is at best the imitator and the continuator of Greece on a larger scale. Greek civilization had quality; Rome, mere quantity. Greece was the inventor; Rome, the research and development division. Such indeed was the opinion of some of the more intellectual Romans.” had the Greeks held novelty in such disdain as we,” asked Horace in his Epistle, “what work of ancient date would now exist?” ❤ 4. In paragraph 4, the author develops a description of Roman civilization by ○ comparing the opinions of Roman intellectuals to Greek intellectuals ○ identifying which characteristics of roman civilization were copied from Greece ○ explaining how the differences between Roman and Greece developed as time passed ○ contrasting characteristics of Roman civilization with characteristics of Greek civilization 答案：D ******************************************************************************************************** ►Traditionally, it was believed that the transition to agriculture was the result of a worldwide population crisis. It was argued that once hunter-gatherers had occupied the whole world, the population started to grow everywhere and food became scarce; agriculture would have been a solution to this problem. We know, however, that contemporary hunter-gatherer societies control their population in a variety of ways. The idea of a world population crisis is therefore unlikely, although population pressure might have arisen in some areas. 4. Which of the following best describes the way paragraph 2 is organized? ○ A possible explanation for a phenomenon is presented and then criticized ○ Two similar ways of accounting for a puzzling fact are considered. ○ Early societies' response to a problem is contrasted with contemporary societies' response. ○ A prehistoric development is first explained in traditional terms and then in contemporary terms. 答案：A ******************************************************************************************************** ►The nature of plant life in deserts is also highly dependent on the fact that they have to adapt to the prevailing aridity. There are two general classes of vegetation: long-lived perennials, which may be succulent (water-storing) and are often dwarfed and woody, and annuals or ephemerals, which have a short life cycle and may form a fairly dense stand immediately after rain. ►The ephemeral plants evade drought. Given a year of favorable precipitation, such plants will develop vigorously and produce large numbers of flowers and fruit. This replenishes the seed content of the desert soil. The seeds then lie dormant until the next wet year, when the desert blooms again. 5. How is paragraph 2 related to paragraph 3? ○ Paragraph 2 provides a general description of desert plants, and paragraph 3 provides a scientific explanation for these observations. ○ Paragraph 2 divides desert plants into two categories, and paragraph 3 provides further information about one of these categories ○ Paragraph 2 proposes one way of dividing desert plants into categories, and paragraph 3 explains one problem with this method of classification. ○ Paragraph 2 discusses two categories of desert plants, and paragraph 3 introduces a third category of plants. 答案：B ********************************************************************************************************
    • Which of the following best describes the organization of paragraph 5?
    • Paragraph 2 begins by presenting a theory and then goes on to
  • 【3】段间关系
    • ►P2. Scientists have asked important questions about this explosion for more than a century. Why did it occur so late in the history of Earth? The origin of multicellular forms of life seems a relatively simple step compared to the origin of life itself. Why does the fossil record not document the series of evolutionary changes during the evolution of animals? Why did animal life evolve so quickly? Paleontologists continue to search the fossil record for answers to these questions. ►P3. One interpretation regarding the absence of fossils during this important 100-million-year period is that early animals were soft bodied and simply did not fossilize. Fossilization of soft-bodied animals is less likely than fossilization of hard-bodied animals, but it does occur. Conditions that promote fossilization of soft-bodied animals include very rapid covering by sediments that create an environment that discourages decomposition. In fact, fossil beds containing soft-bodied animals have been known for many years. ❤ 1. Which of the following best describes the relationship between Paragraph 2 and Paragraph 3? ○ Paragraph 2 puts forward several scientific claims, one of which is rejected in Paragraph 3 ○ Paragraph 2 poses several questions, and Paragraph 3 offers a possible answer to one of them ○ Paragraph 2 presents outdated traditional views, while Paragraph 3 presents the current scientific conclusions. ○ Paragraph 2 introduces a generalization that is illustrated by specific examples in Paragraph 3 答案：B ************************************************************************************************************ ►P1. In Britain one of the most dramatic changes of the Industrial Revolution was the harnessing of power. Until the reign of George Ⅲ (1760-1820), available sources of power for work and travel had not increased since the Middle Ages. There were three sources of power: animal or human muscles; the wind, operating on sail or windmill; and running water. Only the last of these was suited at all to the continuous operating of machines, and although waterpower abounded in Lancashire and Scotland and ran grain mills as well as textile mills, it had one great disadvantage: streams flowed where nature intended them to and water-driven factories had to be located on their banks whether or not the location was desirable for other reasons. Furthermore, even the most reliable waterpower varied with the seasons and disappeared in a drought, the new age of machinery, in short, could not have been born without a new source of both movable and constant power. ►P2. The source had long been known but not exploited. Early in the eighteenth century, a pump had come into use in which expanding steam raised a piston in a cylinder, and atmospheric pressure brought it down again when the steam condensed inside the cylinder to form a vacuum. This “atmospheric engine,” invented by Thomas Savery and vastly improved by his partner, Thomas Newcomen, embodied revolutionary principles, but it was so slow and wasteful of fuel that it could not be employed outside the coal mines for which it had been designed. In the 1760s, James Watt perfected a separate condenser for the steam, so that the cylinder did not have to be cooled at every stroke; then he devised a way to make the piston turn a wheel and thus convert reciprocating (back and forth) motion into rotary motion. He thereby transformed an inefficient pump of limited use into a steam engine of a thousand uses. The final step came when steam was introduced into the cylinder to drive the piston backward as well as forward, thereby increasing the speed of the engine and cutting its fuel consumption. ❤ 2. Which of the following best describes the relation of paragraph 2 to paragraph 1? ○ Paragraph 2 shows how the problem discussed in paragraph 1 arose. ○ Paragraph 2 explains how the problem presented in paragraph 1 came to be solved. ○ Paragraph 2 provides a more technical discussion of the problem introduced in paragraph 1. ○ Paragraph 2 shows why the problem discussed in paragraph 1 was especially important to solve. 答案：B ************************************************************************************************************ ►P3: Wildman and Niles observed that systematic reflection on teaching required a sound ability to understand classroom events in an objective manner. They describe the initial understanding in the teachers with whom they were working as being “utilitarian … and not rich or detailed enough to drive systematic reflection.” Teachers rarely have the time or opportunities to view their own or the teaching of others in an objective manner. Further observation revealed the tendency of teachers to evaluate events rather than review the contributory factors in a considered manner by, in effect, standing outside the situation. ►P4: Helping this group of teachers to revise their thinking about classroom events became central. This process took time and patience and effective trainers. The researchers estimate that the initial training of the teachers to view events objectively took between 20 and 30 hours, with the same number of hours again being required to practice the skills of reflection. ❤ 3. How is paragraph 4 related to other aspects of the discussion of reflection in the passage? ○ It describes and comments on steps taken to overcome problems identified earlier in the passage. ○ It challenges the earlier claim that teachers rarely have the time to think about their own or others' teaching. ○ It identifies advantages gained by teachers who followed the training program described earlier in the passage. ○ It explains the process used to define the principles discussed later in the passage. 答案：A ************************************************************************************************************ ►P1 For years historians have sought to identify crucial elements in the eighteenth-century rise in industry, technology, and economic power Known as the Industrial Revolution, and many give prominence to the problem of energy. Until the eighteenth century, people relied on energy derived from plants as well as animals and human muscle to provide power Increased efficiency in the use of water and wind helped with such tasks as pumping, milling, or sailing. However, by the eighteenth century, Great Britain in particular was experiencing an energy shortage. Wood, the primary source of heat for homes and industries and also used in the iron industry as processed charcoal, was diminishing in supply. Great Britain had large amounts of coal, however, there were not yet efficient means by which to produce mechanical energy or to power machinery. This was to occur with progress in the development of the steam engine. ►P2 In the late 1700s James Watt designed an efficient and commercially viable steam engine that was soon applied to a variety of industrial uses as it became cheaper to use. The engine helped solve the problem of draining coal mines of groundwater and increased the production of coal needed to power steam engines elsewhere. A rotary engine attached to the steam engine enabled shafts to be turned and machines to be driven, resulting in mills using steam power to spin and weave cotton. Since the steam engine was fired by coal, the large mills did not need to be located by rivers, as had mills that used water- driven machines. The shift to increased mechanization in cotton production is apparent in the import of raw cotton and the sale of cotton goods. Between 1760 and 1850, the amount of raw cotton imported increased 230 times. Production of British cotton goods increased sixtyfold, and cotton cloth became Great Britain's most important product, accounting for one-half of all exports. The success of the steam engine resulted in increased demands for coal, and the consequent increase in coal production was made possible as the steam-powered pumps drained water from the ever-deeper coal seams found below the water table. ❤ 4. What is the role of paragraph 2 in the passage as a whole? ○ It explains how by increasing the supply of raw materials from other countries, British industries were able to reduce costs and increase production. ○ It explains how the production of mechanical energy and its benefits spread quickly across countries that were linked commercially with Great Britain. ○ It demonstrates why developments in a single industry could not have caused the Industrial Revolution. ○ It illustrates why historians have assigned great importance to the issue of energy in the rise of the Industrial Revolution. 答案：D ************************************************************************************************************ ►The nature of plant life in deserts is also highly dependent on the fact that they have to adapt to the prevailing aridity. There are two general classes of vegetation: long-lived perennials, which may be succulent (water-storing) and are often dwarfed and woody, and annuals or ephemerals, which have a short life cycle and may form a fairly dense stand immediately after rain. ►The ephemeral plants evade drought. Given a year of favorable precipitation, such plants will develop vigorously and produce large numbers of flowers and fruit. This replenishes the seed content of the desert soil. The seeds then lie dormant until the next wet year, when the desert blooms again. ❤ 5. How is paragraph 2 related to paragraph 3? ○ Paragraph 2 provides a general description of desert plants, and paragraph 3 provides a scientific explanation for these observations. ○ Paragraph 2 divides desert plants into two categories, and paragraph 3 provides further information about one of these categories ○ Paragraph 2 proposes one way of dividing desert plants into categories, and paragraph 3 explains one problem with this method of classification. ○ Paragraph 2 discusses two categories of desert plants, and paragraph 3 introduces a third category of plants. 答案：B ************************************************************************************************************
    • Which of the following best describes the relationship between Paragraph 2 and Paragraph 3?
  • 【4】全文结构
    • ************************************************************************************************************ 11. The organization of the passage can best be described as ○ the presentation of an argument followed by the evidence for and against it ○ a description of a phenomenon followed by several possible theories about how it develops ○ the definition of a psychological term followed by a history of its usage ○ an explanation of a process followed by a discussion of its practical applications 答案：B ************************************************************************************************************ Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2 points. The ability to construct autobiographical memories—coherent narratives about events from one's past—is probably the joint product of several social and intellectual developments. ○ ○ ○ Answer Choices ○ Although children are capable of simple recognition and recall very early in life, they do not develop the capacity for autobiographical memory until the age of three or four years. ○ Verbal skills and familiarity with narrative structures probably aid in the construction of autobiographical memories. ○ Children's earliest autobiographical memories are usually about social interactions with parents. ○ Research suggests that infantile amnesia occurs in some cultures but not in others and may be linked to children's social experiences. ○ The development of autobiographical memory allows children to appreciate the fact that memories are an important part of their cultural experience. ○ Children who have acquired a concept of the self and of various mental states are generally able to talk about their own past memories.
    • The organization of the passage can best be described as
• 11. ETS数据解析
  • 【1】阅读概述
    • LIFE ON CAMPUS: READING ALL THE TIME
  • 【2】题型数字
    • - 20 分钟 /1 篇 × 3 篇 - 650 - 750 字数 / 篇 - 段落数量 : 3 段 -10 段 4-7 - 11 种题型，共计 42-43 题 1. 词汇题Vocabulary Questions： 3-5 道 / 篇 The word locomotion in the passage is closest in meaning to 与文中单词 X 意义最接近的是： ○ evolution ○ movement ○ survival ○ escape fine = minute = modest = small 2. 指代题Reference Questions： 0-1 道 / 篇【极少考核， 2011-2013 未有考题】 The word they in the passage refers to 文章中的代词X指的是 ○ applied-art objects ○ the laws of physics ○ containers ○ the sides of pots 3. 句子简化题Sentence Simplification Questions : 0-1 道 / 篇 Which of the following best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence? Incorrect answer choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information. 下面四句话中 , 哪句话能最好得表达原文中勾出句的主要意思 ? 不正确的选项将在重要方面改变原文意思或遗漏关键信息 . Large wind farms might also interfere with the flight patterns of migratory birds in certain areas, and they have killed large birds of prey (especially hawks, falcons, and eagles) that prefer to hunt along the same ridge lines that are ideal for wind turbines. ○ Hawks, falcons, and eagles prefer to hunt along ridge lines, where wind turbines can kill large numbers of migratory birds. ○ Wind turbines occasionally cause migratory birds to change their flight patterns and therefore may interfere with the areas where birds of prey prefer to hunt. ○ Some of the best locations for large wind farms are places that may cause problems for migrating birds and birds of prey. ○ Large wind farms in certain areas kill hawks, falcons, and eagles and thus might create a more ideal path for the flight of migratory birds. In addition to finding an increase of suitable browse, like huckleberry and vine maple, Arthur Einarsen, longtime game biologist in the Pacific Northwest , found quality of browse in the open areas to be substantially more nutritive. ○ Arthur Einarsen`s longtime family with the Pacific Northwest helped him discover areas where deer had an increase in suitable browse. ○ Biologist like Einarsen believe it is important to find additional open areas with suitable browse for deer to inhabit. ○ According to Einarsen, huckleberry and vine maple are examples of vegetation that may someday improve the nutrition of deer in the open areas of the Pacific Northwest. ○ Arthur Einarsen found that deforested feeding grounds provided deer with more and better food. 4. 插入句子题Insert Text Questions : 0-1 道 / 篇 Scholars offer three related but different opinions about this puzzle. ■ One opinion is that the paintings were a record of the seasonal migrations made by herds. ■ Because some paintings were made directly over others, obliterating them, it is probable that a painting’s value ended with the migration it pictured. ■ Unfortunately, this explanation fails to explain the hidden locations, unless the migrations were celebrated with secret ceremonies. ■ Look at the four squares ■ that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage. 上文中标注 ■ 的位置是如下句子可能插入的地方 All three of them have strengths and weaknesses, but none adequately answers all of the questions the paintings present. Where would the sentence best fit ? 请找出最适合这句话的位置。 5. 事实信息题 ( 细节题 ) Factual Information Questions： 3-6 道 / 篇 According to paragraph1, which of the following is true of wild beests? 根据文章第 1 段，下列关于 “ 角马 ” 的描述哪个是正确的？ ○ They eat more stem matter than zebras do. ○ They are able to digest large food particles if the food is of a high quality. ○ They tend to choose feeding areas in which the vegetation has been worn down. ○ They are likely to choose low-quality food to eat in periods when the quantity of rainfall is low. 6. 排除题Negative Factual Information Questions： 0-2 道 / 篇 According to the paragraph1, all of the following were true of American art in the late 1800’s and early 1900’s EXCEPT : 根据原文第 1 段，下列关于 19 世纪末 20 世纪初的美国艺术的描述，不正确的是？ ○ Most Americans thought art was unimportant. ○ American art generally copied European styles and traditions. ○ Most Americans considered American art inferior to European art. ○ American art was very popular with European audiences. 7. 修辞目的性题Rhetorical Purpose Questions： 0-2 道 / 篇 Why does the author discuss the bronze statues of horses created by artists in the early Italian Renaissance? 作者为什么提到意大利早期文艺复兴时期的青铜马雕像？ ○ To provide an example of a problem. ○ To argue that fine artists are unconcerned with the laws. ○ To contrast the relative sophistication of modern artists. ○ To note an exceptional piece of art. 8. 推断题Inference Questions： 0-2 道 / 篇 Which of the following can be inferred from paragraph 1 about candles before the nineteenth century? 根据原文第 1 段，关于 19 世纪之前的蜡烛能推断出什么 ○ They did not smoke when they were burned. ○ They produced a pleasant odor as they burned. ○ They were not available to all. ○ They contained sulfuric acid. 9. 结构题Structural Questions： 0-1 道 / 篇 - 段落目的： What is the main purpose of paragraph 7 What function does paragraph 3 serve in the organization of the passage as a whole? In paragraphs 1 and 2, the author’s primary purpose is to - 段落结构： Which of the following best describes the organization of paragraph 5? Paragraph 2 begins by presenting a theory and then goes on to - 段间关系： Which of the following best describes the relationship between Paragraph 2 and Paragraph 3? - 全文结构： The organization of the passage can best be described as 10. 段落小结题Prose Summary： 1 道 / 篇 An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2 points. 如下是关于本篇文章大意的一句简短概括。请从如下 6 个选项中选出3个最能代表文章主要意思的总结。本题分值2分。 这篇文章讨论了应用艺术和精细艺术之间的基本区别。 ● 1 ● 1 ● 1 11. 分类题Fill in a Table ： 0 道 / 篇（又称7选5，或9选7） Directions: Complete the table below to summarize information about the two types of art discussed in the passage. Match the appropriate statements to the types of art with which they are associates. This question is worth 3 points. 请选择和文中讨论的 2 种艺术相关的概括性信息完成表格。将艺术类型和相关陈述进行匹配。本题分值3分。 TYPES OF ARTS 艺术类型 STATEMENTS 相关描述 The Applied Arts The Fine Arts Select 3 ● 2 ● 3 ● 5 Select 2 ● 1 ● 4 【重要性分布】 - 词汇题 12 + 细节题 15 >60% - 段落六选三 + 图表 3 - 句简 3 + 句插 3 - 推断修辞排除指代 => 6
  • 【3】评分标准
    • 分数计算方法： 1. 单分值题目 + 多分值题目 2. 弹性的换算制  - 3/6 = 2 分 /1 题 - 托福每种题目难度分级： 1-3 级，难度逐级上升，分值加大。
  • 【4】题材难度
  • 【5】容错几率
    • 29 分 -3Qs
  • 【6】考试流程
    • 考试重要说明及考试流程（报到程序、考试流程、时间控制） 考试前一天准备： 1. 把考试证件再次确认一下，并妥善置放于包内。关于考试证件， 2013 年最新的规定是大陆考生只要带身份证就可以了 ( 为避免有些 BT 监考的 XE 要求，还是建议携带双证件：护照或驾照 ( 任一 ) 。 2. 关注第二天的天气状况，如果是阴雨天气，可能会影响交通，那么第二天一定要早起早出发。 3. 再确认一下去考场的路线，别找不到地方，或者弄错考场。有些学校有不同校区的，一定要确认考场是哪个校区，别跑错了。（关于考场行车路线，请阅读文件夹） 4. 晚上要睡个好觉，养好精神去考试，有助于考场注意力更集中，发挥更出色。这比你考前背 100 个单词背 10 个模版来得更有效果！ 考试当天上半场： 1. 一定要提早到达考场。建议比考试时间提早至少半小时到考场（早晨 0 9:00 点开考， 08 ： 30 必须赶到考场！）。 2. 考前要先签什么保密协议（就是抄下来保证说你不会泄露考题、不会作弊 , 不是代考之类的。总而言之就是保证人格的一些东西 - -!! ），一般都会有 sample 贴出来，照着写就可以了，签好姓名（名字拼音）和日期。注意名字要是你护照上的英文名，不是自己起的那种英文名，对于大多数中国学生来说，就是自己中文名字的汉语拼音。此外，还有一项要填，就是你要在保密协议的横线处，把上面的 I agree.... 。那段抄一遍就完事了。填完这些，你先拿着，等 check-in 时交给老师。如果你来的比较早，你可以根据自己的习惯选择排在什么位置。比如，有的人喜欢早点考，那就尽量排在前面。有的喜欢靠后，那就往后站。这点，很有学问。根据经验，早考吧，在你做阅读时，会有后面进来的同学不断对着话筒讲话的声音，这个会干扰你的注意力。不过，早进去也有好处，不会受到别人做听力时，从他们耳机中传出的听力声的干扰。 3. 存放个人物品。你把证件和保密协议交给老师，老师会仔细核对证件，然后从电脑中调出你的一些信息，再和你核对一下，一般他会问你出生年月对不对。然后就是照相。都弄好后，老师给你一把柜子钥匙，一支铅笔和三张空白的纸。准备充分的就可以将你携带的物品进行寄存了 ( 考场会给你指定存放地点 ), 但是一定不要把证件寄存 , 因为进考场的时候需要。 4. 然后是排队进考场，拍照。这时记得你只能带一张身份证进去，其他任何东西都不能带，千万别把手机带进去，也别试图把什么模版小抄之类的带进去，否则你会很惨！！！（只建议身经百战的大牛们挑战一下 : ） 5. 进入考场，考官会给你指定一台电脑就坐，这时应该核对显示器上你的照片、注册号、姓名生日是否相符。如果相符，监考人员会帮你点击屏幕上的确定，进入考试界面。通常一进入界面，会先让戴上耳机试音，在这段时间内你可以通过滑动界面右上角的 volume 滑块，调出适合你的音量 ; 然后会让你试一下麦克风是否正常，如果都正常你就可以选择右上角的 continue 开始考试。不过这之前还要有考试要求，深呼吸一下开始考试。考试顺序：阅读、听力、口语、写作。 6. 你到达考点的时间，和你排队进入机房的时间，和你实际开始做题的时间没有必然的联系。也就是说，即使你是第一个进机房的，你也可以拖到最后一个考试答题。这主要是因为考试开始有一个试耳麦的时间（就是让你 describe the city you live in ，然后系统会测试你的音量是否合格，来判断耳麦是否工作正常），你可以反复试，你懂的。。。 7. 托福机考允许考生在考试进行当中做笔记。考场将发给每位考生一只铅笔和两张专用草稿纸 ( 大方一点的考场会有三张哦 ) 。草稿纸和铅笔都可以再要。中场休息前后问老师要草稿纸。免得中途不够你还要浪费时间要，耽误考试。但也要做好坏的准备，因为有些考场的监考特别吝啬，会说你草稿纸还没用完，你会觉得他特小气，但这时请不要和他争论，否则影响心情，对考试不利。 8. 考试的第一个 section 是阅读（新规定：总共 60 分钟或 80 分钟，中间没有时间分段），一开始总是比较紧张的。请深呼吸一下，然后告诉自己，我开始做题了，我要认真做题，我要发挥出我最好的状态做题了，反复念叨几次，给自己点积极的心理暗示。 9. 听力平时练习很多人不注意把握时间，考试才发现有倒计时。听力分两个 section 每个 section 有 10 分钟的时间答题，不包括放音时间。题目中遇到要原音重现的题放音时时间也是会停止的，不用担心。 10 分钟内回答 1 篇对话两篇 lecture 的题目，如果你有掐时间模考就会发现，时间很充足！不要着急也不要故意拖，绝对可以从容完成。不要像我的学生小 A 一样，他在初体验时悲剧掉了一个 section ，他是以为时间充足第一篇对话慢慢做做了 7 分钟。说实话慢慢做这完全没必要，听力一般是听到就听到，没听到就没听到，很快就有选择，不需要思考太多。另外你时间拖得越长，后面题目就做的越不好 —— 最后一道题离听录音已经六七分钟，听到的也可能忘记了！这多可惜。所以听力完全没必要拖拖踏踏慢慢做，没有价值，反而会影响记忆。短时记忆的时限是 5 分钟左右。 5 分钟以内，你对刚刚听到的内容记忆很深刻， 5 分钟以后，就开始模糊了！ 10. 做听力的时候，有可能旁边有人开始说口语了，若感觉受到干扰，可以把耳机音量调大，或者用手捂住耳机，千万不要因此分神。 中间休息10分钟： 利用好中场休息十分钟时间。童鞋们可以选择离开机房（注意不是离开考场！），在走廊里放松一下，呼吸下新鲜空气，上个洗手间，吃点东西喝点水。也可以选择留在机房里偷听旁边别人说的口语内容，会比只用 15 ～ 20 秒的准备时间去思考该说什么有优势多了。但有的考场不允许中间休息时间呆在机房里的！不管怎样，请千万不要坐在座位上默写模版！或者在走廊里拿模版出来背，这样有被判为作弊的可能！休息时间结束，屏幕会提示你进入了下一项考试 , 同时让你试音 , 看看麦克风有没有什么异样 , 这时一定要仔细的试试 , 否则会影响后面的成绩。 考试当天下半场： 11. 在听力和阅读做完之后，应该就可以判断出本场考试是否是重复了机经。如果你对机经比较熟悉 ( 参阅[NO.01] [是什么JJ] [如何利用JJ] ) ，你甚至可以回忆出这套机经里的口语和写作题是什么。这时，请利用中间休息的十分钟时间，把独立口语的 1 、 2 题的思路理一理，心里面过一遍答案，等会说起来一定特别流利！ 12. 口语部分一定要声音大！！！即使你说的不咋滴，但声音大了就让人感觉有气势，有沟通欲望，有自信，这对于评分来说是有积极作用的。 12. 答完独立写作后 , 如果是你主动交卷，需要点击右上角的 continue ，这是屏幕上会出现两个问题，第一个是问你是否保存并发送此次考试，一定要点 YES!!! 除非确定考的实在太烂、或失去了理智会点 NO 。；第二个是问你是否允许 ETS 使用你此次考试的资料做研究用，这个就看个人意愿了，之后考试就算结束了。如果不太肯定交卷的步骤的话 , 可以举手请监考老师过来替你交。 13. 考试过程中可能会有突发状况，比如死机，网络故障等。遇到这种情况不要紧张，立即举手示意监考人员帮助重新启动考试系统。停机期间考试的计时停止。重新启动系统后将从停止时刻开始。不会影响答题记录的。如果计算机变成了板砖，反复重启均无法正常考试，则监考老师会记录下你的信息和实际情况，汇报给 ETS 准备给你免费安排一场最近的考试。（但距申请期近的同学比较麻烦，因为可能最近考试没有考位，则会顺延，这无疑会影响申请。）记住从考场上泪奔下来后一定要在上班时间联系北京 ETS 办公室，告知其详细的悲剧情况。 附： ETS 北京办公室联系方式： 如果您有任何关于托福网考网上报名的疑问，请致电教育部考试中心的托福网考全国服务热线。 电话： 010 - 82345672 办公时间：周一到周五： 08:30 – 12:00; 13:00 - 17:00 传真： [phone] 或 010-61957800 Email ：[e-mail] 托福报名及成绩查询网站：http://toefl2.etest.net.cn/cn 地址：北京市海淀区上地六街 1 号国试大厦邮编： 100085
• 12. ETS出题原则
  • IBT 阅读常考考点总结： 1. 主旨题（六选三）：段落段首句或第二句话。整片文章主旨为各段 TS （ topic sentence ）的高度总结和概述。 2. 以下考点除不涉及：词汇题，指代题，文章总结题，图表总结题外，其他类型题目均包含在内。 [1] 主题后的解释说明部分处为考点，例如：人名原则，事物首次出现的地方。 1.1 解释说明关系词： Mean to, that is, in one word; in other words; in that case; then; (or) else; otherwise; that is to say; to put it simply 1.2 提示观点关系词： Suggest, think, believe, in one’s opinion, as for somebody, consider, insist,In conclusion, in summary ,In short, lastly ,to conclude ,to sum up, finally 1.3 特殊标点：冒号、破折号、双引号等 1.4 大写人名 / 地名 / 年代 [2] 两事物或对象对比，类比，比较处是考点。当出现此类语言叙述时，必须要弄清楚两事物或几个事物间的相同点，相异点的特征分别是什么，他们之间有什么联系或者关联。时间，空间，程度或者间接转折均能构成对比或者比较其相似或相异性。 2.1 类比与对比关系词： Conversely, in contrast to, instead, on the contrary, on the other hand, whereas, while [3] 事物叙述的缺陷处所在是考点。此时要弄清缺陷与所叙述的事物不足处是什么，如果文章提出了改进方法，还必须知道改进和或弥补的方法又是什么，在众多方法中，作者到底同意或者赞同哪一个，一般来说是最后一个观点。 [4] 构成因果处是考点，两事物或者多事物间的因果顺序关系要弄清楚。 4.1 因果关系词： Because, result from, as a result, result in, consequently, hence, so, therefore, thereby ,thus for ,the reason is, leads to , cause,consequence of,induce [5] 举例，列举处是考点，尤其是同性质或者异性质处应予以特殊关注，因为它综合了第（2）个考点，而多重考点的叠加是出题几率极其高的地方。所以平时练习阅读要对此种类型考点所在处特别细读。要培养对考点的敏感性。 5.1 举例关系词： For example, for instance, in particular; particularly, such as, that is to say, Namely ...; a (good) case in point...; to illustrate [6] 特殊语言处是考点，例如：最高级，比较级所在处，各种长难复合句，高级词汇所在句子以及特殊易混的短语习语处。这个很好理解，因为IBT本就是语言能力的考试，所以ETS在语言难点处出题也是理所当然的事。 6.1 最高级 :most... 和 -est 词尾的词；排序最高级 (first) ，频率最高级 (always, never) ；程度最高级 (uttermost, foremost) ， above all ( 最重要的是 ) ；范围最高级 (all, none, any) 6.2 唯一性词汇：如 only, sole, unique 等 6.3 数字 / 变化表示对比： twice as many/much as; from 10 million to 100million ；反义词表对比 Majority v.s.Minority 6.4 变化关系词： change, increase ,rise, up, down, decease, become, alteration, unlike, until,disappear, more/less( 比较级 ), transform,no longer, no more, now, become, from...to...revise [7] 强转折处是考点，引入新观点或者反驳前所叙述的主题处是考点，其中转折的方式很多，除了传统的however, but, yet外，其他方式的转折也必须注意，尤其是一个概念向向另一个概念过渡的地方。 7.1 转折关系词： But, However, although, tough, nevertheless, in fact, yet 7.2 让步关系词： In spite of, regardless of, after all; all the same; even if; although/though/even though; however; still; despite this/ that; nevertheless; nonetheless; yet [8] 文章中起，呈，转，合的逻辑词汇或者短语处是考点，此类考点尤其针对句子插入题这种题型。 8.1 递进关系词： Indeed, Above all ,not only...but (also), what’s more, what’s worse, besides, in addition, worse still, moreover,also, besides, furthermore ,in addition, moreover 8.2 平行递进结构： rather than; not only ...but also; from...to...;either...or...; Neither...nor...; between...and...; both...and...; not....but rather..; not...but...; as well as...and, or, but, yet 8.3 条件关系词： necessary,condition,if,even if, whether, unless, otherwise, provided, supposing, in case, as [so] long as,only when ************************************************************************************* 【出题点】与【解题点】分析举例： Watt's steam engine soon showed what it could do. It liberated industry from dependence on running water. The engine eliminated water in the mines by driving efficient pumps, which made possible deeper and deeper mining. The ready availability of coal inspiredWilliam Murdoch during the 1790s todevelop the first new form of nighttime illumination to be discovered in a millennium and a half. Coal gas rivaled smoky oil lamps and flickering candles, and early in the new century, well-to-do Londoners grew accustomed to gaslit houses and even streets. Iron manufacturers which had starved for fuel while depending on charcoal also benefited from ever-increasing supplies of coal; blast furnaces with steam-powered bellows turned out more iron and steel for the new machinery. Steam became the motive force of the Industrial Revolution as coal and iron ore were the raw materials. 阅读该段落后，发现主要论述瓦特蒸汽机产生的重大作用，再根据题干信息，定位原文位置得知 WM 的发明是瓦特蒸汽机间接导致的一种结果。最终可得出 A 选项，强调瓦特蒸汽机的发明，导致了一个重大的技术进步。 19. In paragraph 3 the author mentions William Murdoch’s invention of a new form of nighttime illumination in order to 修辞 ○ indicate one of the important developments made possible by the introduction of Watt's steam engine ○ make the point that Watt's steam engine was not the only invention of importance to the Industrial Revolution ○ illustrate how important coal was as a raw material for the Industrial Revolution ○ provide an example of another eighteenth-century invention that used steam as a power source 【全篇文章分析例证】 TPO-1 Groundwater Paragraph 1: Groundwater is the word used to describe water that saturates the ground, filling all the available spaces. By far the most abundant type of groundwater is meteoric water; this is the groundwater that circulates as part of the water cycle. Ordinary meteoric water is water that has soaked into the ground from the surface, from precipitation (rain and snow) and from lakes and streams. There it remains, sometimes for long periods, before emerging at the surface again. At first thought (乍一看=at first sight) it seems incrediblethat there can be enough space in the “solid” ground underfoot to hold all this water. (1.推理题：咋一看木有很难相信，实际上有如此大的空间储存水。) 1. Which of the following can be inferred from paragraph 1 about the ground that we walk on? ○It cannot hold rainwater for long periods of time. ○It prevents most groundwater from circulating. ○It has the capacity to store large amounts of water. ○It absorbs most of the water it contains from rivers. 2. The word “incredible ” in the passage is closest in meaning to ○confusing ○comforting ○unbelievable ○interesting Paragraph 2: The necessary space is there(根据上段未句，可知the necessary space 代指的是the necessary space to store groundwater), however, in many forms. The commonest spaces are those among the particles—sand grains and tiny pebbles—of loose, unconsolidated sand and gravel. (4. 细节题 ) Beds of this material, out of sightbeneath the soil, are common. They are found wherever fast rivers carrying loads of coarse sediment once flowed. For example, as the great ice sheets that covered North America during the last ice age steadily melted away, huge volumes of water flowed from them.The water(指代传递，指代上文的huge volumes of water) was always laden with pebbles, gravel, and sand, known as (know as相当于=号) glacial outwash, that was deposited as the flow slowed down. 3. The word “out of sight ” in the passage is closest in meaning to ○far away ○hidden ○partly visible ○discovered 4. According to paragraph 2, where is groundwater usually found? ○Inside pieces of sand and gravel ○On top of beds of rock ○In fast rivers that are flowing beneath the soil ○In spaces between pieces of sediment 5. The phrase “glacial outwash ” in the passage refers to ○fast rivers ○glaciers ○the huge volumes of water created by glacial melting ○the particles carried in water from melting glaciers Paragraph 3: The same thing happens to this day, though on a smaller scale, wherever a sediment-laden river or stream emerges from a mountain valley onto relatively flat land, dropping its load as the current slows（流速减慢会沉淀下来，而 flat land 明显比 mountain valley 要慢，另 dropping… 分词结构修士 flat land ） : the water usually spreads out fanwise, depositing the sediment in the form of a smooth, fan-shaped slope. Sediments are also(注意EXCEPT题中的列举连词，) dropped where a river slows on entering a lake or the sea, the deposited sediments are on a lake floor or the seafloor at first, but will be located inland at some future date , when the sea level falls or the land rises; such beds are sometimes thousands of meters thick. 6. All of the following are mentioned in paragraph 3 as places that sediment-laden rivers can deposit their sediments EXCEPT ○A mountain valley ○Flat land ○A lake floor ○The seafloor Paragraph 4: In lowland country almost any spot on the ground may overlie (介词+动词合成词=动词介词短语lie over 置于…上) what was once the bed of a river that has since become buried by soil; if they are now below the water’s upper surface (the water table), the gravels and sands of the former riverbed, and its sandbars, will be saturated with groundwater. 7. The word “overlie” in the passage is closest in meaning to ○cover ○change ○separate ○surround Paragraph 5: So much for (课堂教师下课时一般说的话：So much for today. 今天先到这里，下课！- 文中起到过渡作用，表示总结前段，引出下文。) unconsolidated sediments. Consolidated (or cemented) sediments, too, contain millions of minute water-holding pores. This is because the gaps among the original grains are often not totally pluggedwithcementing chemicals; also, parts of the original grains may become dissolved by percolating groundwater, either while consolidation is taking place or at any time afterwards. The result is that sandstone, for example, can be as porous as the loose sand from which it was formed. 8. The phrase “So much for ” in the passage is closest in meaning to ○that is enough about ○now let us turn to ○of greater concern are ○this is related to 9. The word “plugged ” in the passage is closet in meaning to ○washed ○dragged ○filled up ○soaked through Paragraph 6: Thus a proportion of the total volume of any sediment, loose or cemented, consists of empty space. Most crystalline rocks are much more solid; a common exception is basalt, a form of solidified volcanic lava, which is sometimes full of tiny bubbles that make it very porous (10.细节题：分号之前，大多数晶体岩….，分号后，一个例外是玄武岩，….) . Paragraph 7: The proportion of empty space in a rock is known as its porosity. But note that porosity is not the same as permeability , (11.结构题：询问段落目的，第二句为转折，前P不等于后p，主要在讲特点区分。)which measures the ease with which water can flow through a material; this depends on the sizes of the individual cavities and the crevices linking them. 10. According to paragraphs 6 and 7, why is basalt unlike most crystalline forms of rock? ○It is unusually solid. ○It often has high porosity. ○It has a low proportion of empty space. ○It is highly permeable. 11. What is the main purpose of paragraph 7? ○To explain why water can flow through rock ○To emphasize the large amount of empty space in all rock ○To point out that a rock cannot be both porous and permeable ○To distinguish between two related properties of rock Paragraph 9: The relative amount of these two kinds of water varies greatly from one kind of rock or sediment to another, even though their porosities may be the same. What happens depends on pore size. If the pores are large, the waterin them will exist as drops too heavyfor surface tension to hold, and it will drain away; butif the pores are small enough, the water in them will exist as thin films, too light to overcome the force of surface tension holding them in place; then the water will be firmly held. 12. Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information. ○Surface tension is not strong enough to retain drops of water in rocks with large pores but it strong enough to hold on to thin films of water in rocks with small pores. ○Water in rocks is held in place by large pores and drains away from small size pores through surface tension. ○Small pores and large pores both interact with surface tension to determine whether a rock will hold water as heavy drops or as a thin film. ○If the force of surface tension is too weak to hold water in place as heavy drops, the water will continue to be held firmly in place as a thin film when large pores exist. Paragraph 8: Much of the water in a sample of water-saturated sediment or rock will drain from it if the sample is put in a suitable dry place. █ But some will remain, clinging to all solid surfaces. █ It is held there by the force of surface tension without which water would drain instantly from any wet surface, leaving it totally dry. █ The total volume of water in the saturated sample must therefore be thought of as consisting of water that can, and water that cannot, drain away. █ 13. Look at the four squares [█] that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage. Where would the sentence best fit? What, then, determines what proportion of the water stays and what proportion drains away? 插入句为问句： (1) 要么作为特殊疑问句期待回答，其后句讲XXX决定着哪些比例的水走，哪些比例的水留下； (2) 要么对应前句，设问一下，发人深思 14. Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2 points. Much of the ground is actually saturated with water. 主旨句：地下实际上充满着水。选项一定和本句相关，均为地下水所在的具体位置。 全篇文章共分九段，但描述地下水位置总特点则分为三大部分，段落合并出起来得出三个论点句。 ● ● ● Answer choices ○ Sediments that hold water were spread by glaciers and are still spread by rivers and streams. ○ Water is stored underground in beds of loose sand and gravel or in cemented sediment. ○ The size of a saturated rock’s pores determines how much water it will retain when the rock is put in a dry place. ○Groundwater often remains underground for a long time before it emerges again. ○Like sandstone, basalt is a crystalline rock that is very porous. ○Beds of unconsolidated sediments are typically located at inland sites that were once underwater. ***************************************************************************************************************************** IBT阅读核心解题法IBT阅读只有两种正确的做题法： 第一种叫做：直选法 — 找到原文定位句信息出处，直接选择正确答案。或单词题，指代题等直接选择答案。 第二种叫做：排除法 — 直选法不能做的时候则立即使用此法。排除法需要你阅读信息量远远大于直选法。只有你阅读到足够多的信息支持，才能够使用排除法排除错误选项，进而选出正确选项。前面已经分析过错误选项的特点了，排除法的成功使用除了建立在一个较好的阅读基本能力上外，还需要你对错误选项的各种特征和 ETS 编制这些错误选项的各类手法相当娴熟，确保你在考场上能很快识别出这些 “ 冒牌货 ” 。很多时候 ETS 是故意把正确选项做的十分隐晦，目的就是不想让你用直选法一眼看出来，而是逼迫你用排除法做题。而排除法需要建立在高强的阅读能力上。这就是 ETS 想要看到你的真实阅读实力高低。这也是为什么很多人抱怨 IBT 阅读越来越难了，题目迷惑性强，读懂文章却不会做题找不到答案等等。根本原因就在这里，很多时候你需要的是用你已掌握的信息去排除那些错误选项，而掌握信息量的大小则是你排除法能不能成功施展的大前提 —— 其实这才是 ETS 想要在你身上看到的实力。
  • 【1】正确选项设置
    • 基于原文、易于原文、同义改写【1】
    • 定位句如有实义动词：文中动词与四选项动词比对 => 验证其他信息(主语、宾语等)【2】
      • Ever since European first explored Australia, people have been trying to understand the ancient rock drawings and carvings created by the Aborigines, the original inhabitants of the continent. Early in the nineteenth century, encounters with Aboriginal rock art tended to be infrequent and open to speculative interpretation, but since the late nineteenth century, awareness of the extent and variety of Australian rock art has been growing. In the latter decades of the twentieth century there were intensified efforts to understand and record the abundance of Australian rock art. 1. According to paragraph 1, the twentieth-century approach to studying Australian rock art was different from earlier approaches because the twentieth-century approach ○ recognized that many different groups of Aborigines created Australian rock art ○ concentrated on a limited range of Aboriginal rock art ○ examined Aboriginal art from an Aboriginal rather than from a European perspective ○ focused more intensely on understanding and documenting rock art 答案：D *************************************************************************************************** In the 1970s when the study of Australian archaeology was in an exciting phase of development, with the great antiquity of rock art becoming clear Lesley Maynard the archaeologist who coined the phrase “Panaramitee style,” suggested that a sequence could be determined for Australian rock art in which a geometric style gave way to a simple figurative style that, unlike the pan-Australian geometric tradition tended to much greater regional diversity. While accepting that this sequence fits the archaeological profile of those sites, which were occupied continuously over many thousands of years a number of writers have warned that the underlying assumption of such a sequence — a development from the simple and the geometric to the complex and naturalistic — obscures the cultural continuities in Aboriginal Australia in which geometric symbolism remains fundamentally important. In this context the simplicity of a geometric motif may be more apparent than real. Motifs of seeming simplicity can encode complex meanings in Aboriginal Australia. And has not twentieth-century art shown that naturalism does not necessarily follow abstraction in some kind of predetermine sequence? 2. According to paragraph 5, Lesley Maynard made which of the following suggestions about Australian rock art? ○ There were a pattern of human figures being represented in a more complex style than animal figures. ○ Australian archaeology should concentrate on determining the sequence of styles that led up to the Panaremitee style. ○ The great antiquity of Australian rock art would probably make it impossible to determine the ages of the various styles found in rock art. ○ The geometric style of Australian rock art was replaced by increasingly complex figurative styles. 答案：D *************************************************************************************************** Paragraph 1: Petroleum, consisting of crude oil and natural gas, seems to originate from organic matter in marine sediment. Microscopic organisms settle to the seafloor and accumulate in marine mud. The organic matter may partially decompose, using up the dissolved oxygen in the sediment. As soon as the oxygen is gone, decay stops and the remaining organic matter is preserved. 3 . According to paragraph 1, which of the following is true about petroleum formation? ○ Microscopic organisms that live in mud produce crude oil and natural gas. ○ Large amounts of oxygen are needed for petroleum formation to begin. ○ Petroleum is produced when organic material in sediments combines with decaying marine organisms. ○ Petroleum formation appears to begin in marine sediments where organic matter is present. 答案：D ***************************************************************************************************
    • 文中答案位置若无动词：对应较为简单【3】
      • Livestock also came from outside Africa. Cattle were introduced from Asia, as probably were domestic sheep and goats. Horses were apparently introduced by the Hyksos invaders of Egypt (1780-1560 B.C.) and then spread across the Sudan to West Africa. Rock paintings in the Sahara indicate that horses and chariots were used to traverse the desert and that by 300-200 B.C., there were trade routes across the Sahara. Horses were adopted by peoples of the West African savannah, and later their powerful cavalry forces allowed them to carve out large empires. Finally, the camel was introduced around the first century A.D. This was an important innovation, because the camel’s abilities to thrive in harsh desert conditions and to carry large loads cheaply made it an effective and efficient means of transportation. The camel transformed the desert from a barrier into a still difficult, but more accessible, route of trade and communication. According to paragraph 2, which of the following were subjects of rock paintings in the Sahara? ○ Horses and chariots ○ Sheep and goats ○ Hyksos invaders from Egypt ○ Camels and cattle 答案：A *************************************************************************************************** Although the remarkable antiquity of Australia’s rock art is now established, the sequences and meanings of its images have been widely debated. Since the mid-1970s a reasonably stable picture has formed of the organization of Australian rock art. In order to create a sense of structure to this picture, researchers have relied on a distinction that still underlies the forms of much indigenous visual culture—a distinction between geometric and figurative elements. Simple geometric repeated patterns — circles, concentric circles, and lines—constitute the iconography (characteristic images) of the earliest rock-art sites found across Australia. The frequency with which certain simple motifs appear in these oldest sites has led rock-art researchers to adopt a descriptive term—the Panaramitee style—a label which takes its name from the extensive rock pavements at Panaramitee North in desert South Australia, which are covered with motifs pecked into the surface. Certain features of these engravings lead to the conclusion that they are of great age—geological changes had clearly happened after the designs had been made and local Aboriginal informants, when first questioned about them, seemed to know nothing of their origins. Furthermore, the designs were covered with “desert varnish” a glaze that develops on rock surfaces over thousands of years of exposure to the elements. The simple motifs found at Panaremitee are common to many rock-art sites across Australia. Indeed, sites with engravings of geometric shapes are also to be found on the island of Tasmania, which was separated from the mainland of the continent some 10,000 years ago. 7. According to paragraph 4, researchers have organized and structured Australian rock art by distinguishing between which of the following? ○ images found at Panaramitee North and images found in other parts of Australia ○ images found in a particular type of rock layer and images found in other types of rock layers ○ images that have geometric elements and images that have figurative elements ○ images that are typically found and image that are rarely found 答案：C *************************************************************************************************** In the 1970s when the study of Australian archaeology was in an exciting phase of development, with the great antiquity of rock art becoming clear Lesley Maynard the archaeologist who coined the phrase “Panaramitee style,” suggested that a sequence could be determined for Australian rock art in which a geometric style gave way to a simple figurative style that, unlike the pan-Australian geometric tradition tended to be much greater regional diversity. While accepting that this sequence fits the archaeological profile of those sites, which were occupied continuously over many thousands of years a number of writers have warned that the underlying assumption of such a sequence—a development from the simple and the geometric to the complex and naturalistic—obscures the cultural continuities in Aboriginal Australia in which geometric symbolism remains fundamentally important. In this context the simplicity of a geometric motif may be more apparent than real. Motifs of seeming simplicity can encode complex meanings in Aboriginal Australia. And has not twentieth-century art shown that naturalism does not necessarily follow abstraction in some kind of predetermine sequence? 10. According to paragraph 5, the complex figurative style differs from the geometric style in that the complex figurative style ○ varies significantly from region to region ○ is more meaningful ○ appears on only a few types of rocks ○ has changed little overtime 答案：A ***************************************************************************************************
  • 【2】题干以及答案
    • 【1】題幹在原文中的位置
      • 题干一般99%位于原文的：主句【主+謂+賓】或从句【主+谓+宾】
      • 1% 若有反例，歡迎添加
        • ******************************************************************************************************* ►As the demand for agricultural produce from both consumers and industry increased, agricultural land became more valuable and people tried to work the available land more intensively and to reclaim more land from wetlands and lakes. In order to increase production on existing land , the peasants made more use of crop rotation and, in particular, began to apply animal waste to the soil regularly, rather than leaving the fertilization process up to the grazing livestock. For the first time industrial waste, such as ash from the soap-boilers, was collected in the cities and sold in the country as artificial fertilizer. The increased yield and price of land justified reclaiming and draining even more land. ❤❤ 11. Select the TWO answer choices that, according to paragraph 4, indicate two methods people used to increase the productivity of their land. To receive credit you must select TWO answers ○ They planted different crops in different sections of the farm each year. ○ They used improved irrigation methods to increase the yield of crops. ○ They increased the use of fertilizers to supply more nutrients to plants. ○ They used new horticultural practices to produce different varieties of plants in the same section of the farm. *******************************************************************************************************
    • 【2】句內出現答案的情況
      • am/is/are/tend to/became/called/known as：定義動詞
      • which /that/when/where/what/how/whether：解釋連詞
      • 破折號 A - B、冒號 A ：B、分號A ；B ：定義符號
      • 因果、轉折、比較、並列and、條件unless：句內邏輯
        • 注意比較關係
          • more...than
          • as...as
    • 【3】句間出現答案的情況
      • 递進解釋
        • 前後指代解釋
          • this/that/it/those/these/there be....
        • 前後舉例解釋
          • for example/if/when....
        • 前後因果解釋
          • because/thus/so/in order to/for this purpose....
      • 轉折對比
        • 注意比較連詞
  • 【3】错误选项设置
    • 如 only, always, all, until, unless, almost 最高级等：多出極端
    • harder /faster /easier /more /larger /longer than....：多出比較
    • not/no/none/never/seldom/few/little/rarely/scarcely：多出否定
      • 明显否定关系
        • no, not, none, neither, nor, never等
        • too…to/neither…nor/rather than/more...than.../than.../contrary to
        • fail to/unable to/reject/remove/refuse/decrease/reduce/disappear/lack of/ignore
        • little/few/small/incomplete/absent/missing/useless
      • 隐含否定关系
        • - 否定前缀a-, ab-, anti-, counter-, de-, dis-, il-, im-, in-, ir-, mal-, mis-, non-, un-
        • - 否定后缀-less, -free (ice-free, salt-free, useless)
    • see, hear, feel => the range of visual field：縮小或擴大概念
  • 【4】过度推理原因
    • 读多了-人在自然阅读时候的障碍
      • 词汇量
      • 句法
      • 背景知识
      • 记忆力
        • 对题干的遗忘
        • 对原文句子功能的遗忘
          • 1. 前后句构成递进解释关系
          • 2. 前后句构成转折对比关系
          • 3. 前后句构成平行并列关系
        • 对形象具体信息的拼凑：跨句拼凑信息
        • 没有关注原文到选项的动词+副词（若有）
  • 【5】出题顺序问题
    • 前後題目順序出題
      • Early in his research, Kramer found that caged migratory birds became very restless at about the time they would normally have begun migration in the wild. Furthermore, he noticed that as they fluttered around in the cage, they often launched themselves in the direction of their normal migratory route. He then set up experiments with caged starlings and found that their orientation was, in fact, in the proper migratory direction except when the sky was overcast, at which times there was no clear direction to their restless movements. Kramer surmised, therefore, that they were orienting according to the position of the Sun. To test this idea, he blocked their view of the Sun and used mirrors to change its apparent position. He found that under these circumstances, the birds oriented with respect to the new "Sun." They seemed to be using the Sun as a compass to determine direction. At the time, this idea seemed preposterous. How could a bird navigate by the Sun when some of us lose our way with road maps? Obviously, more testing was in order. 3. Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information. ○ Experiments revealed that caged starlings displayed a lack of directional sense and restless movements. ○ Experiments revealed that caged starlings were unable to orient themselves in the direction of their normal migratory route. ○ Experiments revealed that the restless movement of caged starlings had no clear direction. ○ Experiments revealed that caged starlings' orientation was accurate unless the weather was overcast. 4. The word “preposterous” in the passage is closest in meaning to ○ unbelievable ○ inadequate ○ limited ○ creative 5. According to paragraph 3, why did Kramer use mirrors to change the apparent position of the Sun? ○ To test the effect of light on the birds' restlessness ○ To test whether birds were using the Sun to navigate ○ To simulate the shifting of light the birds would encounter along their regular migratory route ○ To cause the birds to migrate at a different time than they would in the wild 6. According to paragraph 3, when do caged starlings become restless? ○ When the weather is overcast ○ When they are unable to identify their normal migratory route ○ When their normal time for migration arrives ○ When mirrors are used to change the apparent position of the Sun
    • 前後題目顺序打乱
      • Early in his research, Kramer found that caged migratory birds became very restless at about the time they would normally have begun migration in the wild. Furthermore, he noticed that as they fluttered around in the cage, they often launched themselves in the direction of their normal migratory route. He then set up experiments with caged starlings and found that their orientation was, in fact, in the proper migratory direction except when the sky was overcast, at which times there was no clear direction to their restless movements. Kramer surmised, therefore, that they were orienting according to the position of the Sun. To test this idea, he blocked their view of the Sun and used mirrors to change its apparent position. He found that under these circumstances, the birds oriented with respect to the new "Sun." They seemed to be using the Sun as a compass to determine direction. At the time, this idea seemed preposterous. How could a bird navigate by the Sun when some of us lose our way with road maps? Obviously, more testing was in order. 3. Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information. ○ Experiments revealed that caged starlings displayed a lack of directional sense and restless movements. ○ Experiments revealed that caged starlings were unable to orient themselves in the direction of their normal migratory route. ○ Experiments revealed that the restless movement of caged starlings had no clear direction. ○ Experiments revealed that caged starlings' orientation was accurate unless the weather was overcast. 4. The word “preposterous” in the passage is closest in meaning to ○ unbelievable ○ inadequate ○ limited ○ creative 5. According to paragraph 3, why did Kramer use mirrors to change the apparent position of the Sun? ○ To test the effect of light on the birds' restlessness ○ To test whether birds were using the Sun to navigate ○ To simulate the shifting of light the birds would encounter along their regular migratory route ○ To cause the birds to migrate at a different time than they would in the wild 6. According to paragraph 3, when do caged starlings become restless? ○ When the weather is overcast ○ When they are unable to identify their normal migratory route ○ When their normal time for migration arrives ○ When mirrors are used to change the apparent position of the Sun
  • 【6】最多出错原因
    • 找不到段落中心
    • 错误理解题干点
      • 题干改写的问题
    • 没有找到解题点
      • 句內出現答案的情況
        • am/is/are/tend to/became/called/known as：定義動詞
        • which /that/when/where/what/how/whether：解釋連詞
        • 破折號 A - B、冒號 A ：B、分號A ；B ：定義符號
        • 因果、轉折、比較、並列and、條件unless：句內邏輯
          • 注意比較關係
            • more...than
            • as...as
      • 句間出現答案的情況
        • 递進解釋
          • 前後指代解釋
            • this/that/it/those/these/there be....
          • 前後舉例解釋
            • for example/if/when....
          • 前後因果解釋
            • because/thus/so/in order to/for this purpose....
          • 从前向后递进
            • 空间
              • 从前有座山。山里有座庙。庙里有个老和尚。老和尚在跟小和尚讲故事。
            • 时间
              • 1990. 2000. 根据时间阶段性的递进说明。
        • 轉折對比
          • 注意比較連詞
        • 平行并列
          • EXCEPT
    • 原文到答案改写
• 13. ETS改写原则
  • 托福阅读只是ETS跟我们玩的一种Wordplay（文字游戏） 但这种游戏的规则看似复杂无穷，其实道理非常简单。我把最简单，但是最重要的规则再次说明如下： 1 ：阅读选项中大多数错误选项共有的特性之一：不是原文段落中原句的正确改写。或胡乱拼凑以颠倒是非，混淆逻辑；或从语义上歪曲句意。前者是改写后混淆逻辑，但语言意义上可能正确；后者是虽然逻辑关系正确，但是语言本意被严重歪曲。我发现在 TPO15-19 这后面几套 TPO 阅读题目里， ETS 在精心设计错误的且易被混淆的选项大都使用了这种以假乱真的套路。正是 ETS 的精心设计，导致题目难度提升。再加上不少文章概念抽象，所以大家开始叫苦不迭了。但是大家完全没有必要因此而自乱阵脚。 ETS 虽然诡计多端，但是大道至简，真理往往是最简单的。那么真理是什么呢？ 2 ：正确选项永远是文章段落中提及过的概念，或者根本就是原文段落中某句话的同义改写。需要注意的是，这种改写不是句式完全的相同或者词汇完全重复的就一定是正确答案。正确答案一般经过ETS进行同义词汇的替换，或者进行句式的改写和转述。所以正确答案必须是 100% 出自原文的。绝对不是你看过原文后 intuitive （直觉上）的记忆或者判断，而是必须精确对应到原文中的一句话，然后正确答案是针对这句话的同义改写。 ETS 的改写手法很简单：使用同义词汇替换关键词汇；变换句式加大句式复杂度以迷惑考生，但是句子的意义不会改变，是原文某句话的精确的同义改写转述。后面 TPO19 真题分析上，我会详细讲述如何运用上述两个原则辨别答案选项的真伪，从而提高做题的正确率。
  • 【1】一般同义改写
    • creative ideas = original thoughts 背吧！ 1. 20 or so =20 roughly 大体上 , 大约为 … 2. a matter of speculation =supposition n. 推断 3. a solicitation of =an invitation of n. 垦求 ; 垦请 4. abandon = give up vt. 放弃 5. abandoned= left a. 被遗弃的 6. aberrant= abnormal a. 脱离常轨的 , 7. abort= quit v. 夭折 ; 中止 8. abrupt=sudden adj. 突然的 9. abruptly= suddenly ad. 突然地 ; 意外地 10. absorb =appeal v. 吸收 ; 被 … 吸引 11. absorb= learn( 学习 ) v. 吸收 12. absorb= take in v. 吸收 ; 被 … 吸引 13. abstract= not concrete a. 抽象的 ; 非实际的 14. absurd= ridiculous a. 荒谬的 ; 可笑的 15. abundance= great number n. 大量 16. abundance= large amount n. 大量 17. abundant = large amount adj. 大量的 18. abundant = affluent a. 丰富的 ; 大量的 19. abundant= ample a. 丰富的 ; 大量的 20. abundant= numerous a. 丰富的 ; 大量的 21. abundant= plentiful a. 丰富的 ; 大量的 22. abundant= substantial a. 丰富的 ; 大量的 23. abundantly= plentifully ad. 丰富地 ; 大量地 24. accelerate = speed up/get faster vi. &vt. 加速 25. access =reach v. 接近 26. accessible =easy to reach a. 易接近的 27. accessible =reachable a. 可接近的 28. accidental =unexpected a. 意外的 ; 偶然的 29. acclaimed = praisable adj. 值得赞扬的 30. accommodate= provide for v. 提供 31. accomplished =achieved a. 实现完成的 32. accomplished =skilled a. 熟练的 33. account for= explain v. 说明 34. account= description n. 说明 35. accumulate =collect v. 积累 ; 聚集 36. accumulate =pile up v. 积累 ; 聚集聚集 37. accumulate=build up 积累 38. accurate =correct a. 正确的 39. accurately= correctly ad. 正确地 40. acknowledge= recognize v. 承认 41. actually= in fact ad. 事实上 42. added =extra a. 附加的 ; 额外的 43. adept =skilled a. 熟练的 44. adequately = sufficiently adv. 足够地 45. adherent= supporter n. 拥护者 46. adherent=advocate n. 追随者，提倡者 47. adj. 大量的 48. adjacency = nearing n. 邻接 49. adjacent =nearby a. 毗连的 50. adjacent =neighboring a. 毗连的 51. adjust= modify v. 调整 ; 改变 … 以适应 52. administer = manage v. 管理 53. admire = respect vt. 敬重 54. admit= let in v. 准许进入 55. adopt= enact v. 采用 56. advance= improvement n. 发展 ; 增长 57. advent= arrival n. 出现 ; 到来 58. advent= beginning n. 出现 ; 到来 59. affair= matter n. 事件 ; 事情 60. afford= provide v. 提供 ; 给予 61. aggravate =annoy v. 使恼火 62. aggravate= increase v. 加重 ; 增剧 63. aggregate= combined a. 聚集的 ; 合计的 64. aggregate= overall a. 聚集的 ; 合计的 65. aggregation=group n. 聚合，聚集；聚集体，集合体 66. aggregations = groups n. 聚集体 , 集体 67. agile= astute a. 灵活的 ; 敏捷的 68. agile= clever a. 灵活的 ; 敏捷的 69. agile= move and act quickly a. 灵活的 ; 敏捷的 70. agile= quick and active a. 灵活的 ; 敏捷的 71. air= feeling n. 气氛 72. alarm= sound v. 警报 73. alarm= warning n. 警告 74. albeit =even though conj. 尽管；虽然 75. albeit= although conj. 尽管；虽然 76. alleged=asserted v. 宣称 77. alleged=supposed v. 假定，断言 78. allocation = distribution n. 分配 79. allow= enable v. 允许 80. allude to= refer to phrv. 提到 81. allude= suggest v. 暗示 82. ally with= link to v. 结盟 83. alter= change to v. 改变 84. amazing= remarkable/replacement a. 令人惊讶的 / 非凡的 85. ambiguous = more than one meaning 引起歧义的 , 模棱两可的 86. ambiguous =vague a. 不明确的 87. ambitious = keen/energetic adj. 渴望的 ( 做某事 ) 88. ambivalent =mixed a. 矛盾的 89. ample =spacious a. 宽敞的 90. ample= plentiful a. 充足的 ; 丰富的 91. ampliation = magnify 扩大，扩张 92. analogue to = similar to 相似的 93. ancestor = forefather/progenitor n. 祖先 94. anchor= hold in place v. 使固定 95. ancient =antique a. 古老的 96. ancient= old a. 古老的 97. annihilate =completely remove v. 消灭 98. annihilate= destroy v. 消灭 99. annihilated=destroy v. 废止 100. annually= yearly ad. 每年 101. anomaly= irregularity n. 异常的人或物 102. anonymous = nameless/incognito adj. 不具名的 103. antagonist =competitor n. 对手 ; 敌手 104. anticipate= expect v. 预期 105. antiseptic =clean a. 抗菌的 106. antithesis= opposite n. 对立面 107. antler =horn n. 鹿角 108. anxiety =worry n. 忧虑 ; 担心 109. apart from =except for phr. 除了 … 之外 110. apart from= exception phr. 除了 … 之外 111. apparatus= equipment n. 仪器 ; 设备 112. apparent =obvious a. 显然的 113. apparently= clearly ad. 显然地 114. apparently=seemingly adv. 显然地；似乎 bustling=busy adj. 忙乱的 115. appeal= attraction n. 吸引力 116. appealing =attractive a. 有吸引力的 117. appear= seem v. 似乎 118. appearance= arrival n. 出现 119. appearance= rise n. 出现 120. appearance= showing up n. 出现 121. application= use n. 应用 122. appreciable= noticeable a. 相当可观的 123. approach =method n. 方法 124. approach= move toward v. 接近 125. approximately= roughly ad. 大约地 126. architecture= structure n. 构造 127. archive= record=document v. 存档 128. archive= stock v. 存档 129. archive= store v. 存档 130. arduous= difficult a. 艰巨的 131. arid =dry a. 干旱的 132. arise = come about vi. 到来，发生 133. arise= emerge v. 出现 134. arrangement= configuration n. 安排 ; 布置 135. array=range n. 一系列 136. article= item n. 物品 137. article= object n. 物品 138. as a rule =in general phr. 通常 139. assert= declare v. 断言 ; 宣称 140. assertion= strong statement n. 断言 ; 主张 141. asset= advantage n. 资产 ; 有利条件 142. assimilate= combine v. 同化 143. assistance= help n. 帮助；协助 144. assorted= various a. 各式各样的 145. assume= believe v. 假定 ; 设想 146. assume= suppose v. 假定 ; 设想 147. assume= take on v. 承担 148. assumption= premise n. 假设 149. astonish = surprise vt. 使惊讶 150. astonishing= amazing a. 惊人的 151. astoundingly=incredibly adv. 使人震惊的 152. astute= clever a. 敏锐的 153. at random= without a definite pattern phr. 随便地 ; 任意地 154. attachment to= preference for n. 依恋 155. attain =achieve v. 达到 ; 获得 156. attainment =achievement n. 达到 ; 获得 157. attendant= accompanying a. 伴随的 158. attest to =confirm v. 证实 159. attribute =characteristic n. 特点 160. attribute to =credit with v. 归于 ; 认为 161. attribute= accredit v. 归于 ; 认为 162. attributes = characteristics n. 属性 , 特性 163. attribution =character n. 属性 164. augment= increase v. 增加 ; 提高 165. available =obtainable a. 可获得的 166. avenue =means n. 途径 ; 手段 167. avenue= method n. 途径 ; 手段 168. avid= enthusiastic a. 热衷的 169. back up =-support n. 支持，援助 170. barely = just ad. 仅仅 171. barge= boat n. 驳船 172. barrier =impediment n. 障碍 173. barrier= obstacle n. 障碍 174. battle= struggle n. 搏斗 ; 奋斗 175. be accustomed to= get used to phrv. 习惯 176. be aware of =familiar with phrv. 了解 177. be beforehand= foreordain v. 预先 178. be closer resemblance to= be more like phr. 非常相似 179. be consistent with= be compatible with phr. 一致的 180. be entitled to= have the right phrv. 有 … 权利 181. be inclined =tend v. 倾向 182. be susceptible to=be subject to 受 … 影响的 183. beckon= invite v. 招唤 ; 引诱 184. become extinct= die out phrv. 灭绝 185. being= creature n. 生命 186. beneficial =advantageous a. 有益的 187. blossom= flourish v. 兴旺 188. blossom= thrive v. 兴旺 189. boast= exaggerate v. 吹嘘 190. boast= puff v. 吹嘘 191. bombard =assault v. 炮击 ; 轰击 192. bombard =strike v. 炮击 ; 轰击 193. bombard= assail v. 炮击 ; 轰击 194. boom= expansion n. 激增 ; 爆涨 195. boon= great benefit n. 利益 196. boost= raise v. 增加 ; 提高 197. boundary= periphery n. 边界 198. branch =division n. 分支 199. breakthrough=revolution n. 突破，革命 200. breed= reproduce v. 繁殖 ; 饲养 201. brew=develop vt. 开发 202. brilliant= bright a. 光辉的 ; 明亮的 203. brittle= breakable a. 脆弱的 204. brittle= fragile a. 脆弱的 205. broad appeal =wide popularity a. 广泛的吸引力 206. broadly =generally ad. 大体上 207. broadly= extensively ad. 大体上 208. bulk = largest area n. 主体 , 绝大部分 209. bulk =major part n. 主体 210. bulk= great quantity n. 大部份 211. bulk= large part n. 大部份 212. bulk= large portion n. 大部份 213. bulk= majority n. 大部份 214. burgeon= expand v. 急速成长 215. bustling= lively a. 活跃的 216. by and large=for the most part总的来说 217. camouflage =hide v. 伪装 218. camouflage= blend with circumstances v. 伪装 219. camouflage= decorate( 装饰 ) v. 伪装 220. camouflage= disguise v. 伪装 221. cardinal= fundamental a. 基本的 222. cargo= shipment n. 船货 ; 货物 223. catastrophic=badly harmful 灾难性的 224. celebrated= famous a. 着名的 225. central= essential a. 主要的 226. certain= specified a. 指定的 227. champion=promote vt. 提升，提拔 228. chancy =risky a. 冒险的 229. channel =direct v. 引导 230. channel =guide v. 引导 231. channel =provide v. 提供帮助 232. chaotic= disorganized a. 混乱的 233. cherish =value v. 珍爱 234. chief= major a. 主要的 235. chisel =carve v. 刻 ; 凿 236. choose= opt v. 选择 237. chronic =confirmed a. 长期的 ; 不断的 238. chronic =inveterate a. 长期的 ; 不断的 239. chronic= habitual a. 长期的 ; 不断的 240. chronic= persistent a. 长期的 ; 不断的 241. chronically=constantly ad. 长期地 242. circuitous =indirect a. 迂迴的 243. circumstance= condition n. 环境 ; 情况 244. circumstance=situation n. 情况 245. cite =refer to v. 引用 246. cite= quote v. 引用 247. classic =typical a. 典型的 248. clear =visible a. 容易看见的 249. clear= apparent a. 显然的 250. cling to= attach to v. 附着 251. close= careful a. 严密的 ; 周密的 252. clue= hint n. 线索 253. cling to=hold v. 坚持 254. cluster=group n. 组，群 255. coating= cover n. 覆盖层 256. coincide with= be as the same time as v. 同时发生 257. coincide with=accord with符合；与 ... 相一致 258. coincidence=likely events相同，符合 259. collaborate= cooperate v. 合作 260. collaboration= joint effect n. 合作成果 261. collect =gather v. 收集 262. collide with =run into v. 碰撞 263. collide= hit each other v. 碰撞 264. colossal=enormous adj. 巨大的 265. commemorate =celebrate v. 庆祝 ; 纪念 266. commonly = often adv. 通常地 , 一般情况下 267. commonly=generally/normally adv. 通常地 268. compact =concise a. 紧密的 ; 简明的 269. compact= compressed( 结实的 ) a. 紧密的 ; 简明的 270. comparable= equivalent a. 可比较的 271. comparative = relative a.相当的 272. compatible = consistent adj. 协调的 , 一致的 273. compel =push v. 强迫 274. compelling= convincing a. 令人信服的 275. compelling=forcing adj. 强烈的，引人入胜的 276. compensate = make up v. 补偿 277. compensate for =balance phrv. 赔偿 ; 补偿 278. compensate= reimburse v. 赔偿 ; 补偿 279. complaint =protest v. 抗议 280. complement= add to v. 补充 281. complement= supplement n. 补充物 282. completely= totally ad. 完全地 283. complex =system n. 复合物 ; 综合体 284. complex= elaborate a. 复杂的 285. complicated =complex a. 复杂的 286. complicated =made things more difficult a. 复杂的 287. component= constituent a. 组成的 288. compose = be made up of 以 … 组成 289. composition= mixture n. 合成物 290. comprehensive= complete a. 全部的 291. comprehensive= understandable a. 能理解的 292. comprehensive=thorough adj. 全面的，彻底的 293. comprise = consist of v. 组成，构成 294. comprise =make up v. 组成 295. comprise= form v. 组成 296. compulsory=required adj. 必须的 297. concede = accept vi. &vt. 承认，接受 298. conceiving = considering v. 构想，考虑 299. concensus=agreement n. 一致 300. concern= interest v. 感兴趣 301. concise = simple adj. 简明的 302. conclusive= final a. 最后的 303. conclusive= ultimate a. 最后的 304. conducive= contributive a. 有助于 ... 的 305. configuration= arrangement n. 布局 ; 结构 306. configuration= form n. 佈局 ; 结构 307. confine =limit/boundary v. 限制 308. confined to=limited to v. 仅限于 309. confined=limited adj. 有限的 310. confined=restricted v. 限制 311. confront= face v. 面临 312. congeal= solidify v. 使凝结 313. congregate=gather vt. vi （使）集合，聚集 314. consecutive= successive a. 连续的 315. consequence =importance n. 结果 ; 重要性 316. consequence= result n. 结果 ; 重要性 317. consequent =resulting a. 作为结果的 318. consequent= later a. 随后的 319. consequent= resultant a. 作为结果的 320. consequential= significant a. 重要的 321. consequently= therefore ad. 因此 322. consequently= thus ad. 因此 323. consequently=as a result结果，因此 324. conserve= save v. 保存 325. consider =think about v. 考虑 ; 认为认为 326. consider =think as v. 考虑 ; 认为 327. consider =view as v. 考虑 ; 认为 328. considerable = large amount of 大量的 , 可观的 329. considerable= substantial/significant a. 相当大的 330. considerablely=greatly adv. 相当大地 331. consist of =compose of v. 由 … 组成 332. consistent= regular a. 一致的 333. consistent=uniform adj. 始终如一的 334. consistently= regularly ad. 一致地 335. conspicuous= notable a. 明显的 336. constant =stable a. 固定的 ; 不变的 337. constantly =always ad. 经常 ; 不断地 338. constellation =collection n. 一系列 ; 一群 339. constellation =combination n. 一系列 ; 一群 340. constitute = comprise/consist of v. 组成 , 构成 341. constitute=make up vt. 组成，构成；建立 342. constitution= component n. 构造 343. constrain =restrict v. 限制 344. constraint= limit n. 限制 345. constraint= restriction n. 限制 346. consume= eat up v. 消耗 ; 吃 ; 喝吃 ; 喝 347. consume=use completely耗尽 348. consumed= used up v. 消耗 349. contains=includes v. 包含 350. contemplate= consider v. 沉思 351. contemporary=modern adj. 现代的 352. contention = claim n. 主张 353. contentious= disputed a. 好争吵的 354. contiguous=neighboring adj. 临近的 355. continual= constant a. 不间断的 ; 连续的 356. continued = constant adj. 继续的 , 延续的 357. continuous =uninterrupted a. 连续的 ; 持续的 358. continuous=ongoing adj. 不断前进的 359. contour=outline vt. 画轮廓 360. contrive= create v. 发明 361. contrive= invent v. 发明 362. controversy = conflict/ disagreement n. 分歧，冲突 363. conventional= customary a. 习惯的 ; 惯例的 364. conventional= traditional a. 习惯的 ; 惯例的 365. converging= concentrating a. 收缩的 ; 会聚的 366. convert =transform v. 使转变 367. convert into= change to v. 转变成 368. convey = communicate vt.& vi. 传达 369. convict =doom( 判决 ) v. 宣判 370. convict =sentence v. 宣判 371. convict= condemn v. 宣判 372. conviction =strong belief n. 坚定的信念 373. conviction= belief n. 相信 ; 信念 374. convince=persuade vt. 劝说，说服 375. cope with= deal with phrv. 应付 ; 处理 376. cope with= handle phrv. 应付 ; 处理 377. copious= plentiful a. 丰富的 ; 大量的 378. core =center n. 核心 ; 要点 379. correlate=match v. 相关，关联 380. correspondence= harmony n. 一致 381. correspondingly = accordingly adv. 相应地 382. corroborate= confirm v. 证实 ; 确证 383. costly= expensive a. 贵重的 ; 昂贵的 384. counsel =advise v. 忠告 385. counter of= in the opposite of a. 相反的 386. counter= oppose v. 反对 387. counterpart= equivalent( 同等物 ) n. 复本 ; 副本 388. counterpart= similitude( 类似物 ) n. 复本 ; 副本 389. counterpart= version( 版本 ) n. 复本 ; 副本 390. countervail =compensate v. 抵销 ; 对抗 391. countervail= oppose v. 抵销 ; 对抗 392. countless= innumerable a.数量很多的 393. couple =associate v. 与 … 联系起来 394. couple with=together with把 … 连同在一起 395. covered= included a. 隐蔽的 ; 有盖的 396. crawl =move v. 爬行 ; 移动 397. create= invent v. 创作 ; 产生 398. creative= inventive a. 创造的 399. crest= peak n. 顶峰 400. crisis=disturbance n. 危机，混乱 401. critical =crucial a. 关键的 402. critical= essential a. 关键的 403. criticize =debate( 争论 ; 辩论 ) v. 批评 ; 责备 404. crucial= important a. 重要的 405. crucially= decisively ad. 关键地 406. crude = unsophisticated adj. 简单的，纯朴的 407. crushed =ground a. 碾碎了的 408. cuing = hint/clue n. 线索，暗示 409. culminate = climax vt. &vi. 到达顶点 410. culminate in=peak达到顶点；以 … 告终 411. culmination = high point n. 顶点 412. cumbersome awkward a. 笨重的 ; 麻烦的 413. cumbersome= clumsy a. 笨重的 ; 麻烦的 414. cumbersome= unwieldy a. 笨重的 ; 麻烦的 415. curb= control v. 控制 ; 遏止 416. current =present a. 现在的 417. cushioned=protect 保护 418. dam= block v. 筑坝 ; 控制 419. dangle= hang v. 悬摆 ; 吊 420. daring =bold a. 大胆的 421. debate= argue v. 辩论 ; 争论 422. decimate= destroy v. 大量毁灭 423. decimation= destruction n. 大量毁灭 424. decorating = ornamental adj. 装饰的 , 美化的 425. deficient=inadequate adj, 不足的 426. deflect = redirect vt. 改变方向 427. degree =extent n. 程度 428. degree= measure n. 程度 429. delicate= dainty a. 易碎的 ; 精美的 430. delight= please v. 使高兴 431. delight= pleasure n. 高兴 ; 愉快 432. deluxe= lavish a. 奢华的 433. demand= need n. 需要 ; 需求 434. demise =extinction n. 死亡 435. demography= population n. 人口统计 436. dense= crowded a. 稠密的 ; 密集的 437. dense= thick a. 稠密的 ; 密集的 438. depend= rely on v. 依赖 ; 依靠依靠 439. dependable= reliable a. 可信赖的 440. depict= describe v. 描述 441. depict= portray v. 描写 ; 描绘 442. deplete=exhaust vt. 耗尽，用尽 443. depletion= drain n. 消耗 ; 用尽 444. deposit =accumulate v. 沉积 445. deposit= lay down v. 放下 ; 放置 446. derive= arise v. 源于 ; 导出 447. desiccated=dry adj. 干的 448. design =create v. 设计 449. designate = assign vt. 指派，指定 450. designate= identify v. 命名 ; 指定 451. designation = identification n. 称号 , 名字 452. despite= even though 尽管 453. detected=identified vt. 认出，识别 454. determine=figure out vt. 决定；判决 455. detractor= critic( 批评者 ) n. 诽谤者 ; 恶意批评者 456. detrimental =harmful a. 有害的 ; 不利的 457. deviate= digress v. 偏离 458. deviation= departure n. 背离 459. devise= create v. 设计 ; 发明 460. devoid of = short of 缺乏 … 461. devoid of= lack of a. 缺乏的 462. devoid of= scant of a. 缺乏的 463. devoid of= without(prep.) a. 缺乏的 464. devoted =dedicated a. 虔诚的 ; 专心致志的 465. devoted to =concentrated on a. 虔诚的 ; 专心致志的 466. devour = eat vt. 吞食 467. dictate= determine v. 口授 ; 命令 468. dictate= order v. 命令 469. differential = uneven adj. 不一致的 , 有差别的 470. differential= uneven a. 差别的 ; 独特的 471. diffuse = disperse/ spread out vi.& vt. 散开，扩散 472. diffuse =travel v. 扩散 ; 散布 473. diffuse= spread(out) v. 扩散 ; 散布 474. dilemma=problem n. 困境；进退两难 475. diligent= careful a. 勤奋的 476. diligently= carefully ad. 勤奋地 477. dilute= reduce v. 稀释 ; 使薄弱 478. dim= decrease v. 变暗淡 479. dim=weak adj. 暗淡的，弱的 480. dimension=aspect n. [ 数 ] 维；尺寸；次元 481. dimension=size n. 尺寸 482. disassemble =break up v. 拆开 483. disassemble= break apart v. 拆开 484. disband =dismiss v. 解散 ; 遣散 485. discard= throw away v. 摒弃 ; 丢弃 486. discard= throw up v. 摒弃 ; 丢弃丢弃 487. discernible = noticeable a. 可感知到，可注意到的 488. discernible= discriminating a. 可辨别的 489. discernible= noticeable a. 可辨别的 490. discharge= release v. 释放 491. discipline = punish vt. 处罚 492. discrete=separate adj. 分开的 493. disentangle =disband v. 解开 494. disguise = hidden 隐藏，掩饰 495. disgust= distaste v. 厌恶 496. disintegrate =fall apart v. 分解 ; 碎裂 497. disintegrate= break apart v. 分解 ; 碎裂 498. disintegrate= tear apart v. 分解 ; 碎裂 499. dismantle =demolish v. 拆开 ; 拆除 500. dismiss = reject vt. 拒绝掉 501. disorder= anarchy n. 混乱 502. dispensable= not necessary a. 非必要的 503. dispersal =distribution n. 散布 ; 驱散 504. dispersal=spread n. 传播，散布 505. dispersed =scatter vi. 分散 506. displace= move out of position v. 迫使 ( 人 ) 离开 507. disposition= temperament n. 性格 ; 性情 508. dispute =argument n. 争论 ; 争执 509. dispute= contention n. 争论 ; 争执 510. dissipate= disperse v. 驱散 511. dissipated =dispersed a. 分散的 512. dissuade =discourage v. 劝阻 513. distant=far adj. 遥远的 514. distinct = separate adj. 分开的 , 不同的 515. distinct= clear and recognizable a. 清楚的 ; 明确的 516. distinction= difference n. 差别 517. distinction= excellence n. 优秀 ; 卓越 518. distinction= honor n. 荣誉 519. distinctive= characteristic a. 有特色的 520. distinctly = clearly adv. 清楚地 , 明确地 1 521. distinguish= notice from the difference v. 区别 ; 识别 522. distribute= spread v. 分配 ; 散布 523. distribution =geographic range n. 分布区域 524. distribution= dispersion n. 散布 525. disturb= upset v. 打乱；扰乱 526. diverse= distinct a. 不同的 527. diverse=various adj. 不同的 528. diversification= emergence of many varieties n. 多样化 529. diversify=vary vt. 使多样化 530. diversity =variety n. 多样性 531. divert = deflect vt. 使偏离 532. divest =deprive v. 剥夺 533. divest =get rid of v. 剥夺 534. doctrine=principle n. 原则 535. domestic= home a. 家庭的 ; 国内的 536. dormant= hibernated a. 休眠的 ; 不活动的 537. dormant= inactive a. 休眠的 ; 不活动的 538. dramatically = noticeably adv. 显著地 539. dramatically= greatly ad. 戏剧性地 540. drastic= extreme a. 激烈的 ; 极端的 541. drastically =obviously ad. 大大地 ; 彻底地 542. drastically =severely( 严重地 ) ad. 大大地 ; 彻底地 543. drive = incentive n. 动机 544. dual =double a. 双的 ; 双重的 545. duplicate= copy v. 复制 546. duplicate= repeat n. 复本 547. durable= lasting a. 经久的 ; 持久的 548. earn= acquire v. 赚得 ; 赢得 549. ease= facilitate( 使容易 ) v. 使减轻 ; 使缓和 550. eccentric =strange a. 古怪的 ; 反常的 551. eccentric= erratic a. 古怪的 ; 反常的 552. edible = eatable adj. 可食用的 553. efface= eliminate v. 消去 554. elaborate =detailed a. 精巧的 ; 详尽的 555. elaborate= dainty a. 精巧的 ; 详尽的 556. elapsed =passed a. 过去的 ; 经过的 557. element =weather condition n. （恶劣的）天气 558. elevate=raise vt. 举起，提升 559. eliminate= remove v. 排除 ; 消除 560. elite=excellent person n. 精英；精华 561. elusive =difficult to catch a. 难懂的 ; 难捉摸的 562. emanate= emerge v. 散发 ; 产生 563. embark on=start v. 从事 ( 着手 ) 564. embed =enclose v. 插入 ; 植入 565. embed= implant v. 插入 ; 植入 566. embed= insert v. 插入 ; 植入 567. emergence = rise n. 出现，露头 568. emergence= appearance n. 出现 569. emergency =crisis n. 紧急情况 570. emergent =developing a. 新兴的 571. employ= use v. 利用 572. enable =allow v. 使能够 573. enactment= establishment n. 制定 574. encapsulate= state briefly v. 概述 575. encounter=meet vt. 遭遇，邂逅 576. encourage= stimulate v. 激励；刺激 577. end=purpose n. 目的 578. endangered= not abundant a. 濒临绝种的 579. endeavor= enterprise n. 努力 580. endorse=support n. 认可，支持 581. endow= bestow v. 捐赠 582. enduring = lasting adj . 持久的 583. enduring=withstanding adj. 耐心的，持久的 584. engulf= swallow v. 吞没 585. engulfed=swallow vt. 吞咽 586. enhance= improve v. 提高 ; 增强 587. enhance= intensify v. 提高 ; 增强 588. enjoy =experience v. 经历 589. enlist= obtain v. 谋取（支持、赞助等） 590. enormous = huge adj. 巨大的 591. enormous = large adj. 巨大的 592. enormous= great a. 巨大的 593. enormous=very large adj. 庞大的，巨大的 594. enrich= enhance v. 使富足 595. ensue= result v. 因 … 产生 596. ensuing= subsequent a. 接着发生的 597. ensure= guarantee v. 保证 ; 担保 598. entail=l involve v. 牵涉 599. enthusiastic= eager a. 热情的 600. entirely=wholly adv. 完全地，彻底地 601. environment= setting n. 环境 602. envision=imagine vt. 想像 603. ephemeral =short-lived a. 短暂的 604. ephemeral =transient a. 短暂的 605. episode= event n. 事件 606. epitomize = exemplify vt. 是 … 的典型，概括 607. equilibrium= balance n. 平衡 608. era =period n. 时代 ; 年代 609. eradicate= remove completely v. 根除 ; 消灭 610. erect =build v. 建立 611. erratic= irregular a. 不稳定的 ; 古怪的 612. erratic= unpredictable a. 不稳定的 ; 古怪的 613. erroneous = wrong adj. 错误的 614. escalate= extend v. 逐步扩大 615. essential= crucial a. 极重要的 616. essential=required adj. 必须的 617. essentially= fundamentally adv. 本质上，根本 618. established =qualified a. 已制定的 619. establishment =formation( 构成 ) n. 建立 ; 创立 620. estimate= projection n. 估计 621. estimation =evaluation n. 估计 622. euphoric= extremely happy a. 心情愉快的 623. evaluate= judge v. 评价 624. eventual= later a. 最后的 625. eventual=final adj. 最终的 626. eventually= finally adv. 最后，终于 627. eventually= later ad. 最后 628. eventually= ultimately ad. 最后 629. eventually=in the end adv. 最后，终于 630. ever-shifting = constant changing 持续变化 631. evidence= proof n. 证据 632. evident =obvious a. 明显的 633. evident= apparent a. 明显的 634. evoke =create in the mind v. 唤起 ; 引起 635. evoke= arouse v. 唤起 ; 引起 636. evoke= draw v. 唤起 ; 引起 637. evoke= promote v. 唤起 ; 引起 638. evoke= stimulate v. 唤起 ; 引起 639. evoke=produce v. 唤起 ; 引起 640. evolve=develop vt. 发展，进化 641. exaggerate =overstate v. 夸张 ; 夸大 642. excavate =dig out v. 挖掘 643. excavation =dug-out n. 挖掘 644. exceed =beyond above v. 超越 ; 胜过胜过 645. exceed= surpass v. 超越 ; 胜过 646. exceedingly =extremely ad. 极其 ; 非常 647. exceptionally = unusually adv. 例外地 , 异常地 648. excess =go beyond n. 超越 ; 胜过 649. exclusively= only ad. 专门地 ; 独占地 650. exclusively=solely adv. 唯一地 651. excrete= expel v. 排泄 ; 分泌 652. execute = perform v. 执行 653. exercise =use v. 运用 654. exert=utilize vt. 运用，发挥 655. exhausted= tired a. 精疲力竭的 656. exhausted= used up a. 耗尽的 ; 用完的 657. exhibit =demonstrate v. 展示 ; 陈列 658. exhibit =display v. 展示 ; 陈列 659. expand =increase v. 展开 ; 增长 660. expand= stretch v. 展开 ; 增长 661. expanse= area n. 一大片区域 662. expansive= large a. 广阔的 663. expediency= advantage( 优势 ; 利益 ) n. 方便；利己 664. expediency= convenience n. 方便 ; 利己 665. expedient= fitting a. 权宜的 ; 方便的 666. expend= use v. 耗尽 667. explicit =obvious a. 明确的 ; 清楚的 668. explicitly= clear ad. 明确地 669. exploit= make use of v. 利用 670. exploit= take advantage of v. 利用 671. exploit= utilize v. 利用 672. explore= investigate v. 探测 ; 探索 673. expose to= subject to ( 遭受 ) v. 使经历 674. express= communicate v. 表达 675. extant =remaining a. 现存的 ; 尚存的 676. extant= existing a. 现存的 ; 尚存的 677. extant= not extinct a. 现存的 ; 尚存的 678. extend= reach v. 延伸 679. extend= stretch v. 延伸 680. extensive = substantial adj. 大量的 681. extensive=broad adj. 广泛的；大量的；广阔的 682. extensive=large adj. 广泛的，大量的 683. extol =praise v. 赞美 684. extraneous= from outside a. 无关的 ; 外来的 685. extraneous= inessential a. 无关的 ; 外来的 686. extraordinary= exceptional a. 异常的 687. exude= give off v. 渗出 ; 发散 688. exude= release v. 渗出 ; 发散 689. fabricate= produce v. 制造 690. facet=aspect n. 方面 691. fair = significant adj. 非常的 692. faithful = loyal adj. 忠诚的 693. far-reaching= broad a. 深远的 ; 广泛的 694. far-reaching= extensive a. 深远的 ; 广泛的 695. fascinating= extremely attractive a. 迷人的 696. fashion= make v. 形成 ; 造 697. fashion= way n. 样子 ; 方式 698. fashionable =popular a. 流行的 ; 时尚的 699. feasible= achievable a. 可实行的 700. feasible= practical a. 可实行的 701. feasible—probable adj. 可能的 702. feast= eating n. 盛宴 703. ferry= transport n. 渡轮 704. fertile= productive a. 肥沃的 ; 多产的 705. fertile= reproductive a. 肥沃的 ; 多产的 706. figure out =map( 详细规划 ) phr. 计算出 ; 解决 707. figuring out = mapping 计划出 708. finding= discovery n. 发现 709. first and foremost =above all phr. 首先 ; 首要地 710. fixed = firm 坚固的 711. flake =fragment n. 小薄片 712. flattery= praise n. 恭维 713. flee= run away from v. 逃走 714. flexible= adaptable a. 易适应的 715. float =upward rise phrv. 浮起 716. float= stay on the top v. 漂浮 717. flourish =prosper v. 繁荣 ; 兴旺 718. flourish= thrive v. 繁荣 ; 兴旺 719. flourishing= prosperous a. 繁荣的 720. flow= movement n. 流动 721. fluctuate= change v. 变动 722. fluctuation= variation n. 变动 ; 起伏 723. focal= point centre area n. 焦点 724. focus=concentrate vt. 使集中 725. follow= track v. 跟随 726. for instance= for example phr. 例如 727. forage =search for food v. 觅食 728. forage= feed n. 饲料 729. foremost=important adj. 重要的 730. formidable =excessive a. 巨大的 731. formulate = form/ devise vt. 构想，规划 732. foster =promote the development of v. 培养 ; 促进 733. foster= encourage v. 鼓励 734. foster= urge v. 培养 ; 促进 735. foul= pollute v. 污染 736. fragment= break up v. 使成碎片 737. fragmentation= break n. 破裂 738. fragmentize= break up v. 使成碎片 739. frankly =openly ad. 坦白地 740. frankly= sincerely ad. 真诚地 741. freestanding = separate adj. 独立式的 742. friction= conflict n. 争执 ; 不合 743. frigid=cold adj. 寒冷的 744. function= operation n. 效用 ; 作用 745. function= utility n. 效用 ; 作用 746. fundamental =basic a. 基础的 747. funds= money n. 资金 748. furthermore = in addition 此外 749. furthermore= in addition ad. 此外 750. furthermore=moreover adv. 此外；而且 751. gap= opening n. 缺口 ; 裂口 752. gear =adjust v. 使适合 753. generate= produce v. 产生 754. genuine=true adj. 真实的，真正的；诚恳的 755. genuinely =actually ad. 真诚地 756. gesture=movement n. 姿势，动过 757. get accustomed to= become used to phrv. 习惯 758. giant=huge adj. 巨大的 759. give rise to= produce phrv. 引起 760. given =particular a. 规定的 ; 特定的 761. govern= control v. 统治 ; 管理 762. govern= regulate v. 统治 ; 管理 763. grasp =understand v. 领会 ; 理解 764. groom =make up v. 装扮 ; 使整洁使整洁 765. groom= clean v. 装扮 ; 使整洁 766. groundless =unfounded a. 无根据的 767. grounds =reasons n. 根据 ; 理由 768. groundwork= base n. 基础 769. groundwork= basis n. 基础 770. groundwork= foundation n. 基础 771. grudging= unenthusiastic a. 勉强的 772. guarantee= ensure v. 保证 ; 担保 773. hairline=slight adj. 细小的，纤细的 774. hallmark= characteristic n. 戳记，标志 775. halt=stop vi. 停止，终止 776. hamper =district v. 防碍 ; 束缚 777. hamper =make difficulty v. 防碍 ; 束缚 778. hamper= restrict v. 防碍 ; 束缚 779. handy= convenient a. 便利的 ; 灵活的 780. haphazard= random a. 随意的 781. harness = put into use vt. 治理 , 利用 782. harness= use v. 利用 783. harness= utilize v. 利用 784. harsh= drastic a. 严厉的 ; 严酷的 785. hasten = speed up vi.&vt. 加速，加快 786. hasty= hurried a. 匆匆的 ; 急忙的 787. haul= pull v. 拉 788. have nothing to do with= in no relation to phrv. 不相干 789. havoc= destruction n. 浩劫 790. hazard =danger n. 危险 791. heed= notice v. 留心 ; 注意 792. heighten= increase v. 增加 ; 提高 793. heir= inheritor n. 继承人 ; 后继者 794. hence= therefore ad. 因此 795. heritage =legacy n. 遗产 ; 传统 796. heritage= tradition n. 遗产 ; 传统 797. heterogeneous= varied a. 由不同种类组成的 798. hide= conceal v. 隐藏 799. hinder = hamper v. 妨碍 , 阻碍 800. hinder= interfere with v. 妨碍 801. hint= clue n. 暗示 ; 迹象 802. hint= implication n. 暗示 ; 迹象 803. hint= indication n. 暗示 ; 迹象 804. hint= lead n. 暗示 ; 迹象 805. hire= employ v. 雇用 806. hitherto=previously adv. 先前的 807. hobby= pastime n. 嗜好 808. hold =support v. 支撑 ; 保持 809. hold= keep up v. 支撑 ; 保持保持 810. hollow= an empty space n. 中空 811. homogeneous =uniform a. 同种的 812. host of =great number n. 大量 813. however =yet conj. 然而 814. hub= center n. 中心 815. huge= large a. 巨大的 816. hurdle =fence v. 用篱笆围 817. hypothetical =supposed a. 假设的 ; 假定的 818. ice sheet= glacier( 冰河 ) n. 冰原 819. identical= the same a. 同样的 820. idiosyncrasies =peculiarity n. 特性 821. ignite= set on fire v. 点燃 822. illuminate=bright adj. 明亮的 823. illusion= impression( 印象 ) n. 错觉 ; 幻像 824. imitate = familiarity with vt. 仿照 825. immediately= closest ad. 接近 ; 紧接着 826. immense = enormous adj. 极大的，巨大的 827. immense = very big adj. 极大的 , 巨大的 828. immense= great a. 巨大的 829. immense= huge a. 巨大的 830. immense= vast a. 巨大的 831. immensely= extremely ad. 非常 832. immigration= movement n. 移居 833. immobile= fixed a. 固定的 ; 静止的 834. immobility= absence of motion n. 固定 ; 静止 835. immoral= improper a. 不道德的 836. immoral= indecent a. 不道德的 837. impermeable =impervious a. 不能渗透的 838. impermeable= impenetrable a. 不能渗透的 839. impetus= incentive n. 刺激 ; 促进 840. impetus= stimulus v. 刺激 ; 促进 841. implausible= unbelievable a. 难以置信的 842. implement = put into action v. 执行 843. implement= tool n. 工具 844. implement=carry out vt. 实施，执行 845. imply= indicate v. 意味 846. imposing= impressive a. 给人深刻印象的 847. imprecise= inexact a. 不精确的 848. improbable= unlikely a. 不像会发生的 849. in fact= actually phr. 事实上 850. in great demand =in popularity phr. 普遍 851. in respect to= in term of phr. 就 … 而言 852. in tandem = together adv. 协力地，协同地 853. in the long run = eventually 归根到底 , 终究 854. inaccessible= unreachable a. 难接近的 855. inadvertently =without knowing ad. 非故意地 856. inadvertently= unintentionally ad. 非故意地 857. inaugurate =introduce vt. 开创 858. inauspicious= unfavorable a. 不吉利的 859. incentive=motive n. 动机；刺激 860. inception=beginning n. 起初 861. incidentally= by the way ad. 顺便一提 862. inclement =unfavorable a. ( 气候 ) 严酷的 863. inconceivable= unimaginable a. 难以置信的 864. inconclusive= without result( 毫无结果 ) a. 不确定的 865. incorporate= include v. 包含 866. incorporate= merge v. 吸收 ; 併入 867. incursion= invasion n. 入侵 868. indicate= demonstrate v. 指示 ; 指出 869. indications = signs n. 指示 . 迹象 870. indigenous =native a. 本土的 ; 土生土长的 871. indiscriminately = at random adj. 随机的 872. indispensable =essential a. 不可缺少的 873. indispensable= necessary a. 不可缺少的 874. indispensable= needed a. 不可缺少的 875. indispensable= required a. 不可缺少的 876. indispensable= significant( 重要的 ) a. 必不可少的 877. indispensable= vital a. 不可缺少的 878. indistinct=not clear adj. 模糊的，不清楚的 879. induce = bring about vt. 引起 , 导致 880. induce =bring v. 引起 881. induce =cause v. 引起 882. induced = caused 引起 883. inducement=incentive n. 诱因，刺激物 884. ineffectively= without any result ad. 无效地 885. inert= motionless a. 迟缓的 ; 惰性的 886. inert= motiveless a. 迟缓的 ; 惰性的 887. inevitable= unavoidable a. 不可避免的 888. inference= conclusion n. 推断的结果 889. infirm= weak a. 不坚定的 ; 衰弱的 890. inflate= expand v. 膨胀 ; 扩大 891. inflicting=bring about/ impose v. 使承受 892. infrastructure= foundation n. 基础建设 893. ingenious= very clever a. 心灵手巧的 894. ingenuity= cleverness n. 心灵手巧 ; 独创性 895. ingenuity= creativeness n. 心灵手巧 ; 独创性 896. ingenuity= inventiveness n. 心灵手巧 ; 独创性 897. ingenuity= resourcefulness n. 心灵手巧 ; 独创性 898. inherent= essential a. 内在的 ; 固有的 899. inherent= in characteristic of a. 与生俱来的 900. inherent= instinctive a. 与生俱来的 901. inherent= internal a. 内在的 ; 固有的 902. inherently =essentially ad. 固有地 903. inhibit = decrease vt. 抑制，使 … 减小 904. inhibit =hinder v. 约束 ; 抑制 905. inhospitable = unfavorable adj. 不适宜的，不友好的 906. inhospitable= adverse a. 冷淡的 ; 不适宜的 907. inhospitable= unfavorable a. 冷淡的 ; 不适宜的 908. initial = in the beginning n. 最初的 909. initial= first a. 最初的 910. initialing=beginning v. 开始；创建 911. initially =originally ad. 最初 ; 开头 912. initiate =start v. 开始 ; 创始 913. initiate= begin v. 开始 ; 创始 914. innovation =new n. 革新 ; 创新 915. innovative= new a. 创新的 916. inordinate= excessive a. 过度的 917. insight into=perceive洞察 918. insistent = persistent adj. 坚持的 , 持续的 919. install= put in place v.放置，安置 920. instant= moment n. 片刻 ; 瞬间 921. instantaneous= immediate a. 即刻的 922. instigate= incite v. 唆使 ; 煽动 923. institute = establish vt. 建立 , 开始 924. instructive= informative v. 富有教育意义的 925. insufficient= inadequate a. 不足的 926. intact= untouched a. 完好的 927. intact=complete adj. 完整的 928. intangible =nonmaterial a. 无形的 929. intangible= immaterial a. 无形的 930. integal=essential adj. 不可或缺的 931. integral= essential a. 构成整体所需要的 932. intense =strong a. 强烈的 933. intentionally= deliberately ad. 有意地 ; 故意地 934. intercourse=exchange n. 交流 935. intermediate= in-between a./n. 中间的 ; 媒介 936. intermingle=interact vt. 使混合；使搀和 937. intimate =close a. 亲密的 938. intricate =carefully shaped a. 复杂的 939. intricate= complex a. 复杂的 940. intrigue= interest v. 引发 … 兴趣 941. intriguing= fascinating a. 迷人的 942. intrinsic= essential a. 本质的 ; 内在的 943. intrinsic= inherent a. 本质的 ; 内在的 944. intrusive= invasive a. 侵入的 945. invade= move into v. 入侵 ; 侵犯 946. invaluable= highly useful a. 极宝贵的 947. invariably= always ad. 始终如一地 ; 一贯地 948. invent =devise v. 发明 949. inviolable =allowing no attack a. 不可违背的 950. inviolable= without exception a. 不可违背的 951. invoke =appeal v. 垦求 , 祈求 952. irrecoverable =permanent a. 不能挽回的 953. isolated= separated a. 孤立的 ; 分离的 954. jettison= release v. 抛弃 955. jointly = combined adv. 联合地 956. jolt= shock v. 震动 ; 震惊 957. judge= estimate v. 评判 958. junction =connection n. 连接 ; 接合 959. juncture =connection n. 连接 ; 接合 960. justified= right a. 正当的 961. justify= prove v. 证明 ... 是正当的 962. justly = rightly adv. 公正地，恰当地 963. keep tune to=maintain 保持 964. key= significant a. 重要的 ; 关键的 965. key=critical adj. 关键的 966. lading= cargo n. 货物 967. lading= shipment n. 货物 968. landscape= scenery n. 风景 ; 景色 969. lap=delay n. 落后 970. large= extensive a. 大的 ; 大量的 971. largely =mostly ad. 大部分 ; 主要地 972. lateral = side adj. 侧边的 , 侧面的 973. launch= initial v. 发起 ; 发动 974. launch= initiate v. 发起 ; 发动 975. launch= start v. 发起 ; 发动 976. lax=careless adj. 马马虎虎的；不严谨的 977. legitimacy= authority n. 合法性 978. legitimately= properly ad. 正当地 ; 合法地 979. leisure= free time n. 闲暇 980. leisurely= slowly a. 悠闲的 ; 从容不迫地 981. lethal =deadly a. 致命的 982. lethal= fateful a. 致命的 983. liberal =extensive a. 宽大的 984. liken= to compare v. 比较 985. likewise= similarly ad. 同样地 986. linger= stroll v. 徘徊 ; 漫步 987. linger= wander v. 徘徊 ; 漫步 988. link= connect v. 连接 989. link= consist of v. 连接 ; 结合 990. link= put together v. 连接 ; 结合结合 991. listening =advertent a. 留神听的 992. little short miraculous = amazing but it is impossible 不可思议 993. livelihood= means of support n. 生活 ; 生计 994. locale= place n. 现场 ; 场所 995. locate= find v. 找出 996. lucrative= profitable a. 有利益的 997. luxuriant= thriving a. 茂盛的 998. magnify= enlarge v. 放大 999. magnify=increase v. 放大，加大 1000. magnitude = size n. 量级 1001. magnitude =amount n. 量 ; 大小 1002. magnitude =extent n. 巨大 ; 广大 1003. maintain= continue v. 维持 ; 使继续 1004. majestic= magnificent a. 壮观的 1005. make their way= travel phrv. 前进 1006. malleable =pliable a. 有延展性的 ; 可塑的 1007. manage = be able 能够做 …, 办理 1008. mandatory =obligatory a. 强制的 ; 义务的 1009. mandatory =required a. 强制的 ; 义务的 1010. manifest= reveal v. 表明 ; 显现 1011. manipulate= control v. 操纵 1012. marked =considerable a. 显着的 1013. marked= significant adj. 明显的，显著的 1014. markedly= distinctly ad. 显着地 1015. markedly=noticeably adv. 显著地 1016. marvelously=remarkably adv. 引人注目地 1017. mask =cover v. 遮避 ; 掩护 ; 伪装 1018. mask= disguise v. 遮避 ; 掩护 ; 伪装 1019. massive= enormous a. 巨大的 1020. massive= huge a. 巨大的 1021. mastery= control n. 控制 1022. materialize=come into being 产生，形成 1023. matter= issue n. 问题 ; 事件 1024. mature = developed adj. 成熟的 1025. mature=get older adj. 成熟的 1026. maximum =greatest size n. 最大量 1027. mean= average n. 平均值 1028. mechanism=means n. 机制，原理 1029. mere subsistence=minimize survival最低的维持生存 1030. merely =no more than ad. 仅仅 1031. merely =only ad. 仅仅 1032. merely= simply ad. 仅仅 1033. merge= blend v. 合併 ; 融合 1034. merge= combine v. 合併 ; 融合 1035. merit=worth n. 价值 1036. meticulously= carefully ad. 小心地 1037. microbe= germ n. 微生物 ; 细菌 1038. milestone= significant event n. 里程碑 ; 划时代的事件 1039. milky way =galaxy n. 银河 1040. mimic= copy v. 模仿 1041. mimic= imitate v. 模仿 1042. miniature= small a. 微型的 1043. minuscule= tiny a. 微型的 1044. minute = very small adj. 极小的，极少的 1045. minute =very small a. 微小的 1046. minute= tiny a. 微小的 1047. minute=small adj. 少的 1048. minutely= finely ad. 详细地 ; 精密地 1049. minutely= in detail ad. 详细地 ; 精密地 1050. mirror= reflect v. 反映 ; 反射 1051. misconception= wrong idea n. 误解 1052. misleading= erroneous a. 使人误解的 1053. misleading= inaccurate a. 使人误解的 1054. misleading=unreliable adj. 令人误解的 1055. misunderstanding= FALSE idea n. 误解 1056. misunderstanding= wrong idea n. 误解 1057. mock= pretend v. 模仿 1058. moderate=temperate adj. 温和的 1059. modes=manner n. 模式；方法 1060. modest =limited( 有限的 ) a. 适度的 1061. modest =small adj. 谦逊的 1062. modest= not too large ( 不大的 ) a. 适度的 1063. modestly = humbly adv. 谦虚地 1064. modification =alteration n. 修改 ; 改变 1065. modify=change vt. 修改，更改 1066. momentous= significant a. 重要的 1067. monitor= observe v. 监控 ; 监视 1068. monopolize= dominate( 支配 ) v. 独占；垄断 1069. monopoly in = domination n. 垄断，统治 1070. monotone= tedious a. 单调的 ; 乏味的 1071. monotonous= boring a. 单调的 ; 无聊的 1072. monumental = giant adj. 巨大的 1073. monumental = significant adj. 非常的，重大的 1074. moreover =additionally ad. 此外 1075. moreover= in addition ad. 此外 1076. motif= pattern n. 图案 1077. mount =grow v. 增长 1078. mount= climb v. 登上 1079. mount= increase v. 增长 1080. mundane= material a. 世俗的 ; 平凡的 1081. mundane= ordinary a. 世俗的 ; 平凡的 1082. mutually exclusive=contradictory adj. 矛盾的 1083. myriad= countless a. 大量的 ; 无数的 1084. myriad= innumerable a. 大量的 ; 无数的 1085. myriad= numerous a. 大量的 ; 无数的 1086. mysteriously = not to know adj. 难以理解的 1087. narrow= limit v. 使变窄 1088. nature= character n. 天性 ; 本质 1089. nearly= almost ad. 几乎 ; 差不多 1090. necessary= required a. 必要的 1091. needless to say= obvious phr. 不用说 1092. nevertheless= however ad. 然而 ; 尽管 1093. nevertheless= in spite of ad. 然而 ; 尽管 1094. nocturnal =nighttime a. 夜间的 1095. notable= important a. 显着的 ; 重要的 1096. notable= outstanding a. 显着的 ; 重要的 1097. notably=especially adv. 明显地 1098. note =record v. 记录 1099. noticeable= obvious a. 显而易见的 1100. notion=idea n. 概念，想法 1101. notwithstanding= despite prep. 虽然 ; 尽管 1102. notwithstanding=-nevertheless conj. 虽然 1103. novel = new adj. 新的 1104. now and then=occasionally adv. 偶尔 1105. objective= purpose n. 目标 1106. oblige – require vt. 规定 1107. oblige= force v. 强迫 1108. obscure =conceal v. 使变暗 ; 遮掩 1109. obscure =unclear a. 模煳的 1110. obscure= hide v. 使模煳 1111. obscure= not clear a. 模煳的 1112. obsession with fixation on n. 痴迷 ; 迷恋 1113. obtain= acquire v. 取得 ; 获得 1114. obvious= evident a. 明显的 1115. obviously = clearly. adv. 明显的 1116. occasion= event n. 重大活动 1117. occasionally once in a while adv.偶尔地 1118. of legitimacy= lawful a. 合法的 1119. of likelihood= probable a. 可能的 1120. offset= balance v. 补偿 ; 抵销 1121. offset= compensate v. 补偿 ; 抵销 1122. offset= make up v. 补偿 ; 抵销抵销 1123. offset=counterbalance vt. 抵消 1124. old male= aged male n. 老人 1125. omit =neglect v. 遗漏 ; 删去 1126. omit= exclude v. 遗漏 ; 删去 1127. on the contrary= on the other hand phr. 恰恰相反 1128. on the contrary= whereas( 然而 ; 反之 ) phr. 恰恰相反 1129. on the whole= in general ph. 大体上 1130. on the whole=mainly主要地 1131. ongoing =current a. 进行的 1132. onset =start n. 开始 1133. onset= beginning n. 开始 1134. opaque =impenetrable a. 难理解的 1135. optimal most advantageous a. 最佳的 1136. optimal=ideal adj. 最佳的；最理想的 1137. option =choice n. 选项 ; 选择 1138. orchestrate= stage-manage v. 精心安排 1139. orientation =perspective n. 观点 1140. orientation= introduction n. 介绍 1141. originally= at the first ad. 起初 1142. originate from= come into existence from 来源于 1143. ornament= decorate v. 装饰 1144. ornamental =decorative a. 装饰的 1145. ornamentation= decoration n. 装饰 1146. ostentatious = showy adj. 好夸耀的 , 炫耀的 1147. outbreak =sudden increase v. 爆发 ; 突然发生 1148. outcome= result n. 结果 1149. outermost= farthermost away a. 最远的 1150. overlook=ignore vt. 忽略 1151. overview= summary n. 概要 1152. overwhelming= powerful a. 压倒性的 1153. owing to=because of因为 1154. pace=speed n. 速度 1155. pacify =assuage v. 使平静 1156. paradox= contrary n. 相反 ; 矛盾 1157. paradoxically= seemingly contradictory ad. 似非而是地 1158. parcel out =distribute phrv. 把 ... 分成几份 ; 分配 1159. pare away= remove v. 修掉 ; 削减削减 1160. particularly = especially adv. 尤其 , 特别 1161. partly =in some degree ad. 部份地 1162. patch =area n. 小块土地 1163. patch =spot n. 斑点 1164. peak = top n. 尖端 , 最高点 v. 达到顶端 1165. peak =highest point n. 高峰（期） 1166. peak= maximum n. 高峰（期） 1167. peak= time of the greatest period n. 高峰（期） 1168. peak=summit/climax n. 顶点 1169. peculiar= strange a. 奇怪的 ; 独特的 1170. penetrate =enter v. 穿入 ; 穿透 1171. perceptible =noticeable a. 可感知的 1172. perceptible= appreciable a. 可感知的 1173. peril= danger n. 危险 1174. perilous= dangerous a. 危险的 1175. perilous= hazardous a. 危险的 1176. perilous= risky a. 危险的 1177. perilous= toxic a. 危险的 1178. periodically= from time to time ad. 周期性地 1179. periodically= regularly ad. 周期性地 1180. perishable =easy to spoil a. 易腐坏的 1181. permanent = forever 永久的 1182. permanent =lasting a. 永恒的 1183. permeate =penetrate v. 渗透 ; 弥漫 1184. permit= allow v. 允许 1185. perpetual =constant a. 永久的 ; 连续的 1186. perpetuate = maintain/ immortalize vt. 使 … 永存 1187. persist =continue v. 坚持 ; 持续 1188. persist= last v. 坚持 ; 持续 1189. persistence =continuing , 持续 1190. persistent= long lasting a. 耐久的 1191. personality= character n. 个性 ; 性格 1192. pertinent =relevant a. 相关的 1193. pervasive= widespread a. 普遍的 1194. phenomena[pl.] =events n. 现象 1195. phenomenal= extraordinary a. 异常的 1196. phenomenon= observable fact n. 现象 1197. phenomenon= occurrence n. 现象 1198. piecing =joining n. 接合 1199. pigment= color n. 色素 1200. pigmentation= coloring n. （生物的）天然颜色 1201. pigmentation= dye n. 染色 1202. pinnacle =high point n. 顶点 ; 顶峰 1203. pinpoint =clearly identify v. 准确地解释或说明 1204. pinpoint =describe precisely v. 准确地解释或说明 1205. pinpoint =precise a. 精确的 1206. pioneer = initiate vt. 开拓，开始 1207. plague=cause problems n. 麻烦 1208. plausible =believable a. 貌似有理的 1209. plausible =paradoxical a. 似是而非的 1210. plausible= apparently reasonable and valid adj. 看上去合理的 1211. pledge= promise n. 保证 ; 誓言 1212. plumage= feather n. 羽毛 1213. pocketbook= affordable a. 负担得起的 1214. popular= broad appeal a. 流行的 ; 广泛的 1215. popular= widespread a. 流行的 ; 广泛的 1216. pore =space( 空间 ) n. 毛孔 ; 细孔 1217. pore= hole n. 毛孔 ; 细孔 1218. portable -can be carried adj. 手提的，便携式的 1219. portion= constituent n. 一部分 1220. portion= part n. 一部分 1221. portions=parts n. 部分 1222. pose =present v. 摆姿势 ; 展现 1223. pose= place v. 摆姿势 ; 展现 1224. posit =assume v. 断定 ; 假定 1225. posit =propose v. 断定 ; 假定 1226. posit= suggest v. 断定 ; 假定 1227. postulate= hypotheses v. 假定 1228. postulate=presume v. 假定 1229. potent =powerful a. 有力的 1230. potential =possible a. 潜在的 ; 可能的 1231. potential= capability adj. 可能的 1232. potential=latent adj. 潜在的 1233. practically= nearly ad. 几乎 ; 差不多 1234. pragmatic = practical adj. 实际的 1235. precarious =insecure a. 不稳定的 ; 危险的 1236. precede =be beyond v. 高于 ; 超出 1237. precede= come before v. 在 … 之前 1238. precious =valuable a. 宝贵的 1239. precipitate =bring about v. 使 … 突然发生 1240. precise = exact adj. 准确的，精确的 1241. precision =accuracy n. 精确 ; 正确 1242. preclude= rule out v. 排除 ; 阻止阻止 1243. predicament =difficult situation n. 尴尬的处境 ; 困境 1244. predicament =serious situation n. 尴尬的处境 ; 困境 1245. prediction =prophecy n. 预言 1246. predominant =very noticeable a. 占优势的 1247. predominant= most aggressive a. 占优势的 1248. predominant= principal a. 占优势的 1249. predominantly = principally adv. 主要地 1250. predominantly= primitively ad. 占优势地 1251. predominately =mainly ad. 主要地 1252. preeminent = important adj. 杰出的，有地位的 1253. preeminent =foremost a. 卓越的 ; 显着的 1254. premise= assume v. 假定 ; 前提 1255. preoccupation with= concentration on phr. 专注于 1256. preordain =ordain v. 预定 ; 注定 1257. preordain= appoint v. 预定 ; 注定 1258. preordain= foreordain v. 预定 ; 註定 1259. preponderance = majority n. 数量优势 1260. prerequisite =requirement n. 必要条件 1261. prerequisite= something needed to happen n. 必要条件 1262. prerequisite= something required n. 必要条件 1263. preserve= protect v. 保存 ; 保护 1264. preserve= retain v. 保存 ; 保护 1265. preserve= save v. 保存 ; 保护 1266. presumable= probably a. 可推测的 ; 可能有的 1267. presumable= supposable adj. 可能有的，可推测的 1268. presumably=probably adv. 大概 1269. prevail = dominate v. 占优势，主流 1270. prevailing= dominant a. 占优势的 1271. prevailing= popular a. 流行的 1272. prevalent =common a. 普遍的 ; 流行的 1273. prevalent =prevailing a. 普遍的 ; 流行的 1274. previous= past a. 先前的 ; 以往的 1275. previously= before ad. 以前 ; 早先 1276. primarily= mainly ad. 主要地 1277. primary= dominant a. 主要的 1278. prime=main adj. 主要的 1279. primitive= early a. 原始的 1280. primitive=basic and simple adj. 简单的，粗糙的 1281. principal =essential a. 主要的 1282. principal= major a. 主要的 1283. principle= rule n. 原则 1284. principle= standard n. 原则 1285. prior =previous a. 在先的 ; 在前的 1286. priority= ranking preference n. 优先 1287. pristine= pure a. 清新的 ; 纯朴的 1288. prized= valued a. 有价值的 1289. probe =explore v. 探查 ; 探测 1290. process= purify( 提纯 ; 精炼 ) v. 加工 1291. procure =acquire v. 获得 ; 取得 1292. procure =obtain v. 获得 ; 取得 1293. profound= far-reaching a. 深远的 1294. profound=deep adj. 深的 1295. programmed= determined a. 计划 … 的 1296. progressively = gradually adv. 逐步地 , 渐渐地 1297. prohibitive= unaffordable a. 抑止的 1298. projection= estimate n. 推测 ; 估计 1299. projection=prediction n. 预测，推断，设想 1300. proliferating=multiplying vi. 繁殖 1301. proliferation= increase n. 增产 ; 增加 1302. prolifically= abundantly ad. 多产地 1303. prolong =extend v. 延长 1304. prolong=lengthy adj. 过长的 1305. prominent =eminent a. 显着的 1306. prominent =principal a. 卓越的 ; 重要的 1307. prominent= outstanding a. 卓越的 ; 重要的 1308. prominent=important adj. 突出的，重要的 1309. promote= encourage v. 促进 ; 增长 1310. promote=enhance vt. 促进；提升；推销；发扬 1311. prompt=cause n. 催促；激励；怂恿；提醒 1312. pronounced =definite a. 明显的 ; 显著的 1313. pronounced= clear a. 明显的 ; 显著的 1314. pronounced= notable a. 明显的 ; 显著的 1315. propagate= multiply v. 繁殖 1316. propagate= reproduce v. 繁殖 1317. propel =push v. 推进 ; 激励 1318. property =characteristic n. 特性 ; 属性 1319. property= quality n. 特性 ; 属性 1320. proponent= supporter n. 拥护者 1321. proposal = suggestion n. 提议 , 建议 1322. proposal=idea n. 提议，建议 1323. prosper =succeed v. 成功 ; 兴旺 1324. prosperity= well being n.幸福生活 1325. prosperous= wealthy a. 富有的 ; 繁盛的 1326. prototype =model n. 原型 1327. protrude =project v. 伸出 ; 凸出 1328. protrude =stick out v. 伸出 ; 凸出凸出 1329. protrude= extend v. 伸出 ; 凸出 1330. provided=if conj. 如果 1331. provoke= elicit v. 激起 ; 导致 1332. prowess =ambition( 雄心 ) n. 英勇 1333. prowess= expertise n. 非凡的技能 1334. proximity =nearness n. 接近 1335. proximity to= close to n. 邻近 ; 靠近 1336. proximity= closeness n. 接近 1337. purpose = suggest vt. 提议 , 打算 1338. pursue =chase v. 追求 ; 追赶 1339. quarters= residences n. 住处 1340. radical =drastic a. 彻底的 ; 极端的 1341. radical =extreme a. 彻底的 ; 极端的 1342. radical =fundamental a. 根本的 1343. radically = extremely adv. 极端的，非常地 1344. radically =completely a. 根本地 1345. raise to= cause to/ come about v. 引起 ; 使出现 1346. ramification =consequence n. 结果 ; 衍生物 1347. ramification= branch n. 分枝 ; 分派 1348. random = chance 偶然的 , 随机的 1349. range= vary v. 变化 ; 变动 1350. rare =scarce a. 稀有的 ; 罕见的 1351. rare=unusual adj. 稀有的 1352. rate= classify v. 评价 ; 分等 1353. rather than= instead of phr. 而不是 1354. rational = sensible/logical adj. 理性的，合理的 1355. ravage=destroy n. 毁坏 1356. readily =easily ad. 容易地 1357. ready= receptive( 能接纳的 ) a. 甘心的 ; 情愿的 1358. realm= area n. 领域 1359. reasonable=sufficient a. 合理的，足够的，充分的 1360. rebellion= revolt n. 反抗 ; 叛乱 1361. rebound= recovery n. 重新振作 1362. receptacle= receiver n. 容器 1363. receptivity to =openness to phr. 接受 1364. recharge= refill v. 再充填 1365. reconcile = compromise v. 和解 1366. recur= repeat v. 反覆出现 1367. refine= improve v. 精炼 1368. refined =decent a. 精致的 1369. refined =with high quality a. 精緻的 1370. refined=improved adj. 精炼的 1371. refreshing= unusual a. 别具一格的 1372. refuge= safety n. 庇护，庇护所 1373. refuse= garbage n. 垃圾 1374. regardless =without considering ad. 无论如何 1375. regenerate=renew vt. 新生，再生 1376. regrettable=unfortunate adj. 不幸的，令人遗憾的 1377. regulate =adjust v. 调整 ; 调节 1378. regulate =control v. 管理 ; 控制 1379. reinforce= strengthen v. 加强 1380. relative= comparative a. 比较的 1381. relatively =comparatively ad. 相对地 ; 对比地 1382. relatively =oppositely ad. 相对地 ; 对比地 1383. relatively= correspondingly ad. 相对地 ; 对比地 1384. relevant= applicable adj. 有关的 ; 恰当的 1385. relic =remain n. 遗物 ; 遗迹 1386. relic= remnant n. 遗物 ; 遗迹 1387. reluctance=unwillingness n. 不情愿，不愿意 1388. reluctant= disinclined a. 不情愿的 1389. remarkable =notable a. 非凡的 ; 卓越的 1390. remarkable= incredible a. 非凡的 ; 卓越的 1391. remarkably=surprisingly adv. 显著地；非常地 1392. remedy =cure v. 治疗 1393. remnant = residue/ remains n. 剩余，残渣 1394. remnant =remaining a. 残留的 1395. remnant= remains n. 残余 1396. remnant=left-over n. 剩余 1397. remote= distant a. 遥远的 1398. remote=isolated( 孤立的 ) a. 遥远的 1399. render= make v. 使得 1400. rendering= presentation n. 演奏 ; 表演 1401. renowned= famous a. 有名的 1402. repercussion= effect n. 回响 ; 影响 1403. replenish = refill 补上 , 补充 1404. replenish = restore vt. 补充，装满 1405. replicas= copies n. 复制品 1406. repudiate= reject v. 否定 ; 驳斥 1407. reputation= fame n. 名声 1408. resembling=approximating vt. 类似，近似 1409. reserve =save v. 保存 ; 保留 1410. resident= inhabitant n. 居民 1411. residual =remaining a. 残留的 1412. resilient =easy to recover a. 迅速恢复的 1413. resilient= quick to recover a. 迅速恢复的 1414. respective=particular adj. 每个的，各个的 1415. respectively = separately adv. 分别地 , 各自地 1416. restricted= limited a. 受限制的 1417. resume = start again vt. 重新开始 1418. retain = maintain vt. 保留 , 保持 1419. retain= keep v. 保持 ; 保留 1420. retreat= recede v. 撤煺 1421. retrieve= bring back v. 找回 1422. retrospect = look back n. 回顾，回想 1423. reveal =manifest v. 展现 ; 揭露 1424. reveal =show v. 展现 ; 揭露 1425. reveal= make known v. 展现 ; 揭露 1426. revenues= income n. 税收 1427. revival =restoration n. 恢复 ; 再生 1428. revival =resuscitation n. 恢复 ; 再生 1429. revive=recover v. 重新，重演 1430. revolution= dramatic change n. 彻底改革 1431. revolutionize =change dramatically v. 彻底改革 1432. rigidly= strictly ad. 严厉地 1433. rigorous= demanding a. 严厉的 1434. rigorous= harsh a. 严厉的 1435. rigors=difficulties n. 困难，严格 1436. rise= emerge v. 出现 1437. risk =danger n. 危险 1438. ritual =ceremonial n. 仪式 1439. rival =compete v. 竞争 ; 对抗 1440. roam= wander v. 漫游 1441. robust= healthy a. 强壮的 ; 结实的 1442. role =function n. 作用 1443. rotate= turn v. 转动 1444. roughly = almost adv. 大致地 , 差不多 1445. roughly= approximately ad. 大约地 1446. roundabout= circuitous a. 迂回的 1447. route= path n. 路径；途径 1448. routinely commonly ad. 常规地 1449. rudiment= basic n. 基础 1450. rudimentary =primitive a. 根本的 1451. rudimentary= basic a. 根本的 1452. rupture= burst v. 破裂 1453. sacred= holy a. 神圣的 1454. sample= example n. 样本 ; 例子 1455. satisfied =fulfilled a. 令人满意的 1456. save for =except for prep. 除 … 之外 1457. scale= magnitude n. 大小 ; 等级 1458. scant= minimal a. 少量的 1459. scanty=thin adj. 缺乏的 ; 稀疏的 1460. scatter = diffuse/disperse vi.&vt. 散开，分散 1461. scatter =distribute v. 使分散 1462. scatter= disperse v. 使分散 1463. scenario =situation n. 情形 1464. scented =fragrant a. 有气味的 1465. scope =extent n. 范围 ; 程度 1466. scope =horizon n. 范围 ; 程度 1467. scorching= exceedingly hot a. 酷热的 1468. score =a large number of n. 大量的 ; 许多的 1469. scorn= despise v. 轻蔑 ; 嘲笑 1470. scrap= fragment n. 碎片 1471. screen =filter v. 过滤 1472. scrutinize= examine v. 详细审查 1473. scrutiny =examination n. 详细审查 1474. sculpt= shape v. 雕刻 ; 造型 1475. secrete= produce v. 分泌 1476. sedentary= settled a. 久坐的 ; 固定的 1477. seek=attempt vt. 试图，企图 1478. seething =active a. 激昂的 1479. seething= excited a. 激昂的 1480. segment= portion n. 部分 ; 片断 1481. seize= take v. 抓住 1482. seldom= rare a. 很少的 1483. sensational= extraordinary adj. 轰动的 1484. separate =different a. 各别的 ; 不同的 1485. sequence = series n. 一连串 , 顺序 , 连续 1486. sequent = later/ following adj. 接着，后来的 1487. serene= calm a. 平静的 1488. serene= silent a. 平静的 1489. set in= motion start phrv. 开动 1490. set off= begin phrv. 出发 ; 动身 ; 引起 1491. setback=failure n. 挫折，失败 1492. settle =inhabit v. 定居 ; 安顿 1493. severe=harsh a. 严厉的 ; 严酷的 1494. severed=cut off 切断 1495. severity=seriousness n. 严格，严肃 1496. shallow= not deep a. 浅的 1497. shatter= destroy v. 打碎 1498. sheer= absolute a. 完全的 1499. shield =protect v. 保护 1500. shift =change v. 转换 ; 转移 1501. shift= move v. 转换 ; 转移 1502. shiver= tremor v. 发抖 ; 打颤 1503. shortage = limitation n. 不足 , 有限的 1504. showcase= display v. 陈列 1505. shrink= contract v. 缩水 ; 收缩 1506. shy away from =avoid phrv. 回避；躲避 1507. signature = identifying mark n. 识别记号 , 签名 1508. significance=importance n. 重要性 1509. significant =considerable a. 重大的 1510. significant =meaningful a. 重大的 1511. significant= important a. 重大的 1512. simulated= artificial a. 假装的 ; 仿造的 1513. simultaneously= at the same time ad. 同时地 1514. singularly =particularly ad. 非常 ; 特别 1515. sink= descend v. 下沉 ; 下陷 1516. sink= drop to the bottom v. 下沉 ; 下陷 1517. sink= pass out of sight v. 下沉 ; 下陷 1518. site= locate v. 选址 ; 设置 1519. size up= reckon up to v. 估计 1520. size up= measure v. 估计 1521. skeptical =doubting a. 怀疑的 ; 多疑的 1522. skeptical= suspected a. 怀疑的 ; 多疑的 1523. skeptical=doubtful adj. 怀疑的 1524. slight= small a. 轻微的 ; 少量的 1525. slightly= somewhat ad. 稍微地 1526. slope =incline v. 倾斜 1527. snaking = winding adj. 蜿蜒的 1528. snap= break v. 断裂 1529. so far= until present phr. 目前为止 1530. so far= up to now phr. 目前为止 1531. so far= up to present phr. 目前为止 1532. soak =absorb v. 吸收 1533. sole= only a. 单独的 ; 唯一的 1534. sole= unique a. 单独的 ; 唯一的 1535. solicit= request v. 垦求 ; 请求 1536. solitary= alone a. 单独的 ; 独自的 1537. sophisticated =complex a. 精致的 ; 复杂的 1538. sophisticated =refined a. 精致的 ; 复杂的 1539. sophisticated= elaborated a. 精致的 ; 复杂的 1540. sophistication= technology n. 工艺 1541. sort= kind n. 品种 ; 种类 1542. sort= type n. 品种 ; 种类 1543. sought-after =desired a. 广受欢迎的 1544. source =origin n. 来源 1545. span =period n. 一段时间 1546. span=extend over v. 持续，延续 1547. spark= set off v. 触发 1548. sparse = thiny distributed adj. 稀疏的 1549. sparse =not rich a. 稀少的 ; 零星的 1550. spawn= create v. 产卵 ; 产生 1551. spawn= produce v. 产卵 ; 产生 1552. speak of =indicate phrv. 提及 1553. speciation= evolution( 演化 ) n. 物种形成 1554. specific= particular a. 特殊的 ; 特定的 1555. specifically=specially adv. 特别地；明确地 1556. specify= state v. 详细說明 1557. spectacular= impressive a. 引人入胜的 1558. spectator= beholder n. 目击者 1559. spectator= human viewer n. 目击者 1560. spectator= viewer n. 目击者 1561. spectrum= range n. 范围 ; 系列 1562. speed= increase the rate of v. 加速 1563. spell= period of time n. 一段时间 1564. sphere= area n. 范围 ; 领域 1565. splendid=magnificent adj. 辉煌的；灿烂的 1566. splendor= magnificence n. 光彩 ; 壮丽 1567. split= divided a. 裂开的；分离的 1568. sponsor = support vt. 赞助；发起 1569. spontaneous =impulsive a. 自发的 ; 非计划安排的 1570. spontaneous= instinctive a. 自发的 ; 非计划安排的 1571. spontaneous= unplanned a. 自发的 ; 非计划安排的 1572. spontaneously=automatically adv. 自发地；自然地； 1573. sporadic= intermittent a. 偶尔发生的 1574. sporadic= irregular a. 偶尔发生的 1575. sporadically= occasionally ad. 偶尔 1576. spot= catch v. 看见 ; 发现 1577. spot= identify v. 看见 ; 发现 1578. spot= see v. 看见 ; 发现 1579. spottily =occasionally ad. 缺乏连续性 1580. spread= distribute v. 散布 1581. spur =stimulate v. 刺激 1582. spur of the moment=without planning 没有计划 1583. stabilize= hold in place v. 使稳定 1584. staggering= overwhelming a. 巨大的 1585. stagnation — inactivity n. 不景气，停滞 1586. staple= important a. 主要的 1587. staunch =strong a. 坚定的 ; 可靠的 1588. staunch= loyal a. 坚定的 ; 可靠的 1589. steadfast= firm a. 坚定的 ; 固定的 1590. steady = stable adj. 稳定的 1591. stealthily= silently ad. 悄悄地 1592. stem= arise v. 起源于 1593. stimulate= cause v. 刺激 ; 促使 1594. stimulate= prompt v. 刺激 ; 促使 1595. stipulate = require vt. 规定，要求 1596. stockpile= store up v. 储备 ; 贮存贮存 1597. strategy=plan n. 战略，策略 1598. strictly= only ad. 仅仅 1599. stride= step n. 大步 ; 阔步 1600. strike= come into/ contract with v. 撞击 ; 冲击 1601. striking= dramatic a. 惊人的 1602. string= series n. 一系列 1603. stringent =strict a. 严厉的 1604. strip =remove v. 剥去 1605. stunning=astounding adj. 使人震惊的 1606. sturdy =strong a. 结实的 ; 强壮的 1607. stylus= pen n. 钢笔 1608. subject to= vulnerable to a. 易受 … 影响的 1609. subjected to= dominated by v. 控制 1610. subsequent = ensuing adj. 之后的，接着 1611. subsequent =later a. 后来的 ; 随后的 1612. subsequent= ensuing a. 后来的 ; 随后的 1613. subsequent=following in time 在 … 之后 1614. subsequently = later adv. 后来 , 接着 1615. subsidiary =less important a. 次要的 1616. substantial = large amount/considerable 1617. substantial =essential a. 重大的 ; 真实的 1618. substantial =sturdy a. 坚固的 1619. substantial= actual a. 重大的 ; 真实的 1620. substantial= significant a. 重大的 ; 真实的 1621. substantial=enough adj. 重大的，重要的 1622. substantially =importantly ad. 重大地 1623. substantiate =confirm v. 证明 ; 证实 1624. substitute =replacement n. 代替物 1625. substitute= replace v. 代替 1626. subtle = small adj. 微小的 1627. succession =series n. 一系列 1628. successive=continuous adj. 连续的 1629. successively=one after another adv. 相继的 1630. sue=raise a legal action against vt. 控告 1631. suitable =appropriate a. 合适的 1632. suited =appropriated a. 合适的 1633. sumptuous= luxurious a. 奢侈的 ; 豪华的 1634. sunk= down to the bottom a. 下陷的 1635. supersede=replace v. 取代，代替 1636. supplant= replace v. 代替 ; 1637. supplant= substitute v. 代替 ; 取代 1638. supplement = addition n. 增补 1639. supplemental=additional adj. 额外的 1640. suppress =stop by force v. 制止 ; 镇压 1641. surmise= assumption v. 推测 ; 猜测 1642. surmise= guess v. 推测 ; 猜测 1643. surmise= infer v. 推测 ; 猜测 1644. surplus =extra a. 过剩的 1645. surplus= excess a. 过剩的 1646. surveillance= careful observation n. 监视 ; 检查 1647. susceptible to =prone to a. 易受 … 影响的 1648. susceptible to=be subject to 容易受到 … 的影响 1649. suspect= believe v. 猜想 ; 疑有 1650. suspect= doubt v. 猜想 ; 疑有 1651. suspend = float vt. 悬浮 1652. suspend =hang v. 悬挂 1653. sustain =support v. 支撑 ; 支持 1654. sustain= persist v. 支持 1655. sustainable = endurable adj. 持久的 1656. sustenance= food n. 生计 ; 食物 1657. sustenance= life n. 生计 ; 食物 1658. sustenance= living n. 生计 ; 食物 1659. swell =enlargement n. 增大 ; 肿胀 1660. swell =expand v. 增大 ; 肿胀 1661. swiftly =quickly ad. 迅速地 1662. symmetric= balance a. 对称的 ; 均衡的 1663. synthesis= combination n. 合成 1664. tactic = strategy n. 策略，方法 1665. tactual= textural a. 触觉的 1666. tailspin= total confusion n. 混乱 ; 失控 1667. take place= occur phrv. 发生 1668. take= require v. 需要 1669. tame= domesticate v. 驯服 ; 驯化 1670. tangible =material a. 有形的 ; 实际的 1671. tangible =physical a. 有形的 ; 实际的 1672. tangible=real/ concrete adj. 实在的，有形的 1673. tantalizing =anxious a. 非常着急的 1674. taper= diminish v. 逐渐变小 1675. task= work n. 任务 1676. technique= method n. 手段 ; 方法 1677. teem with= be full of phrv. 充满 ; 遍布 1678. tempting= appealing a. 吸引人的 ; 诱人的 1679. tenacity=stability n. 固执 1680. tend= care for v. 趋于 ; 照料 1681. tendency= inclination n. 倾向 1682. tenet= belief n. 原则 ; 信条 1683. tenet= principle n. 原则 ; 信条 1684. tension =pressure n. 紧张 1685. tenuous = weak a. 脆弱的，无力的 1686. terminal= final a. 末端的 ; 终点的 1687. terminated by = finished by 结束 , 终结 1688. terrain= tract( 大片土地 ) n. 地形 ; 地势 1689. testify= give evidence v. 作证 1690. therefore =consequently ad. 因此 1691. therefore= in that purpose ad. 因此 1692. thorough=complete adj. 彻底的；十分的；周密的 1693. thoroughly= completely ad. 完全地 ; 彻底 1694. threaten= endanger v. 危及 1695. threshold = limitation n. 局限，界限 1696. threshold =limit n. 界限 ; 起始点 1697. thrill=excitement n. 兴奋 1698. through= by prep. 通过 1699. throughout=during the period 始终 1700. thus= consequently ad. 因此 1701. thus=therefore adv. 因此 1702. tie =connection n. 连接 ; 关系 1703. tie= relation n. 连接 ; 关系 1704. timid= fearful a. 胆怯的 1705. to be sure=certainly adv. 必定 1706. to some extent = with limitations 有一点 , 不多 1707. toil= work v. 辛勤劳动 1708. tolerate= endure v. 忍受 1709. toxic= poisonous a. 有毒的 1710. track =follow v. 跟踪 ; 追踪 1711. track =observe( 观察 ; 观测 ) v. 跟踪 ; 追踪 1712. tracts(of land)= area n. 大片土地 1713. transfer= move v. 转移 ; 转变 1714. transform= deform v. 转变 1715. transformation =shuffle n. 转化 ; 转换 1716. transformation= change n. 转化 ; 转换 1717. transformation= conversion n. 转化 ; 转换 1718. transformation= rotation n. 转化 ; 转换 1719. transforming =changing n. 转化 ; 转换 1720. transitory =short-lived a. 短暂的 1721. transitory= ephemeral a. 短暂的 1722. transitory= temporary a. 短暂的 1723. transitory= transient a. 短暂的 1724. trappings= decorations n. 装饰 1725. trauma= damage n. 损伤 ; 精神创伤 1726. traumatic = upsetting adj. 痛苦的 1727. traverse= cross v. 横过 ; 穿过 1728. tremendous =enormous adj. 极大的，巨大的 1729. trend= movement n. 趋势 ; 走向 1730. trend= tendency n. 趋势 ; 走向 1731. tricky= difficult a. 狡猾的 ; 棘手的 1732. trigger= initiate v. 触发 ; 引发 1733. trigger= start v. 触发 ; 引发 1734. truism= it was evidence that n. 不言而喻的道理 1735. turbulent= agitated a. 激动的 1736. turn= change to v. 使变成 1737. typical= ordinary a. 平常的 1738. ubiquitous= common a. 到处存在的 1739. ultimate=in the end adj. 最终的 1740. ultimately =finally ad. 最终 1741. ultimately= eventually ad. 最终 1742. unadorned= not decorative a. 未装饰的 1743. unambiguous = clear adj. 清楚的，明确的 1744. unanimity =total agreement n. 一致同意 1745. unconsolidated = loose adj. 松散的 1746. undergo= experience v. 经历 ; 经受 1747. underlie = on the basis of 引起 , 构成 … 的基础 1748. underlying= inner a. 潜在的 ; 隐含的 1749. underpinning= foundation n. 基础 ; 支柱 ; 支撑 1750. underpinning= support n. 基础 ; 支柱 ; 支撑 1751. underrate =undervalue v. 低估 ; 看轻 1752. underrate= underestimate v. 低估 ; 看轻 1753. underscore =stress v. 强调 1754. underscore=emphasize vt. 强调 1755. undertake= attempt( 努力 ; 尝试 ) v. 承担 ; 担任 1756. undertaking =enterprise n. 事业 ; 企业 1757. uneasy= unstable a. 不稳定的 1758. uniform= without variation a. 统一的 ; 一致的 1759. uniformly = consistently adv. 一致地，一贯地 1760. uniformly =consistently ad. 一致地 1761. uniformly= evenly ad. 一致地 1762. unintendedly =occasionally( 偶然地 ) ad. 非计画中 1763. uninterrupted = steady adj. 连续的，稳定的 1764. unique = distinctive adj. 特有的 , 与众不同的 1765. unique to= only found in a. 特有的 1766. unique= distinct a. 特有的 1767. unique= sole( 唯一的 ) a. 特有的 1768. universally =without exception ad. 在各种情况下 1769. unleash= release v. 释放 1770. unprecedented =novel a. 空前的 1771. unprecedented =unique a. 空前的 1772. unprecedented= initial a. 空前的 1773. unprecedented= new a. 空前的 1774. unprecedented=unexampled adj. 史无前例的 1775. unqualified =complete a. 不合格的 ; 无条件的 1776. unreceptive =unresponsive a. 接受能力差的 1777. unresolved =undecided a. 未解决的 1778. unrestricted =unlimited a. 没有限制的 1779. unsophisticated =simple a. 简单的 1780. unsuitable= inappropriate a. 不适合的 1781. unsurpassed =superior a. 非常卓越的 1782. unwieldy= cumbersome a. 笨重的 1783. urbane =cultivated a. 文雅的 1784. utilitarian= functional a. 实用的 1785. utilitarian= practical a. 实用的 1786. utterly= completely ad. 完全 1787. vagary= uncertainty n. 难以预测的变化 1788. vaguely= slightly a. 模煳的 1789. vanish= disappear v. 消失 1790. variability= tendency to change n. 可变性 ; 反覆不定 1791. variation =difference n. 变更 ; 变化 1792. varied= different a. 不相同的 1793. vast =extended a. 辽阔的 1794. vast= extensive a. 辽阔的 1795. vast= immense a. 巨大的 1796. vast= large number a. 大量的 1797. vast=huge adj. 巨大的 1798. vastly= greatly ad. 巨大地 1799. vehicle =means n. 手段 ; 工具 1800. vehicle= method n. 手段 ; 工具 1801. vehicle= way n. 手段 ; 工具 1802. versatile= adaptable a. 多才多艺的 1803. versatile=competent /all-around adj. 万能的综合的 1804. via= by means of prep. 经过 ; 凭藉 1805. via= by the way of prep. 经过 ; 凭藉 1806. viability = ability to exist 生存能力 1807. vial= bottle n. 小瓶 1808. vibrant= vivid a. 生气勃勃的 1809. vicinity = neighborhood n. 邻近 , 附近 1810. vigor= energy a. 生气勃勃的 1811. vigorous = active adj, 活跃的 , 精力充沛的 1812. vigorous= energetic a. 精力旺盛的 1813. vigorous= strong a. 精力旺盛的 1814. virtually = nearly adv. 实际上 , 差不多 1815. virtually =almost ad. 差不多 1816. virtually =nearly ad. 差不多 1817. virtually= actually ad. 事实上地 1818. virtually= in fact ad. 事实上地 1819. virtue=merit n. 优点 1820. visual barrier= obstacle to view phr. 视觉阻碍 1821. vital = critical adj. 重要的 , 关键的 1822. vital=essential adj. 必不可少的 1823. vivid= bright a. 鲜明的 1824. volume =quantity n. 数额 1825. vulnerable =open to attack a. 易受伤害的 1826. vulnerable= open to break a. 易受伤害的 1827. vulnerable= susceptible a. 易受伤害的 1828. vulnerable= weak a. 易受伤害的 1829. wanting= inadequate a. 不够好的 1830. warrant =authorize v. 授权 1831. warrant =justify v. 使正当 1832. wary= cautious a. 小心的 ; 谨慎的 1833. way= station stop n. （长途旅行的）小站 1834. whatever= in any case ad. 不管怎样 1835. whereas= however conj. 然而 1836. whereby= through a process in which conj. 凭藉 ; 如何 1837. while= although conj. 虽然 1838. whole=entire adj. 整体的，全部的 1839. wholly =completely ad. 完全地 ; 全部 1840. wield= exert v. 行使 1841. with respect of= in terms of( 就 … 而言 ) phr. 关于 1842. within= inside ad. 在里面 1843. withstand= resist v. 承受 ; 经受住 1844. withstand= tolerate v. 承受 ; 经受住 1845. witness =observe v. 目击 1846. yearly= annual a. 一年的 1847. yearning= longing a. 思念的 ; 渴望的 1848. yet= however conj. 然而 1849. yield= produce v. 产生 ; 提供 1850. yield= provide v. 产生 ; 提供 1851. zenith= peak n. 顶点 2013 年新增内容 1. fluctuate = vary vi. 变化 , 波动 2. rupture = break v. 裂开 , 破裂 3. revered = honored adj. 崇敬的 4. supplementary = additional adj. 增补的 5. had priority = had advantages 有优势 6. uniformly = completely adv. 全部 , 一致地 7. prerequisite = requirement n. 必要条件 , 先决条件 8. exceeding = go beyond 非常 9. proper = appropriate adj. 合适的 , 恰当的
  • 【2】词性语序改写
    • creative ideas = thoughts of creativity
  • 【3】反义句式改写
    • Many older theories implicitly deprecated the navigational abilities and overall cultural creativity of the Pacific islanders. For example, British anthropologists G. Elliot Smith and W. J. Perry assumed that only Egyptians would have been skilled enough to navigate and colonize the Pacific. They inferred that the Egyptians even crossed the Pacific to found the great civilizations of the New World (North and South America). 1. According to Paragraph2, which of the following led some early researchers to believe that the Pacific islanders originally came from Egypt? ○ Egyptians were known to have founded other great civilizations. ○ Sailors from other parts of the world were believed to lack the skills needed to travel across the ocean. ○ Linguistic, archaeological, and biological data connected the islands to Egypt. ○ Egyptian accounts claimed responsibility for colonizing the Pacific as well as the Americas. *************************************************************************************** 2. Since the laws of physics, not some arbitrary decision, have determined the general form of applied-art objects, they follow basic patterns, so much so that functional forms can vary only within certain limits . ○ Functional applied-art objects cannot vary much from the basic patterns determined by the laws of physics. ○ The function of applied-art objects is determined by basic patterns in the laws of physics. ○ Since functional applied-art objects vary only within certain limits, arbitrary decisions cannot have determined their general form. ○ The general form of applied-art objects is limited by some arbitrary decision that is not determined by the laws of physics. *************************************************************************************** Though it may be difficult to imagine from a later perspective, a strain of critical opinion in the 1920s predicted that sound film would be a technical novelty that would soon fade from sight, just as had many previous attempts, dating well back before the First World War, to link images with recorded sound. These critics were making a common assumption—that the technological inadequacies of earlier efforts (poor synchronization, weak sound amplification, fragile sound recordings) would invariably occur again . To be sure, their evaluation of the technical flaws in 1920 s sound experiments was not so far off the mark, yet they neglected to take into account important new forces in the motion picture field that, in a sense, would not take no for an answer. 3. According to paragraph 4, which of the following is true about the technical problems of early sound films? ○ Linking images with recorded sound was a larger obstacle than weak sound amplification or fragile sound recordings. ○ Sound films in the 1920s were unable to solve the technical flaws found in sound films before the First World War. ○ Technical inadequacies occurred less frequently in early sound films than critics suggested. ○ Critics assumed that it would be impossible to overcome the technical difficulties experienced with earlier sound films. *************************************************************************************** More basic than the cultural issues is the matter of motivation. Becoming a reflective practitioner requires extra work (Jaworski, 1993) and has only vaguely defined goals with, perhaps, little initially perceivable reward and the threat of vulnerability. Few have directly questioned what might lead a teacher to want to become reflective. Apparently, the most obvious reason for teachers to work toward reflective practice is that teacher educators think it is a good thing. There appear to be many unexplored matters about the motivation to reflect-for example, the value of externally motivated reflection as opposed to that of teachers who might reflect by habit. 4. According to paragraph 6, teachers may be discouraged from reflecting because ○ it is not generally supported by teacher educators ○ the benefits of reflection may not be apparent immediately ○ it is impossible to teach and reflect on one's teaching at the same time ○ they have often failed in their attempts to become reflective practitioners *************************************************************************************** Wind power is most economical in areas with steady winds. In areas where the wind dies down, backup electricity from a utility company or from an energy storage system becomes necessary. Backup power could also be provided by linking wind farms with a solar cell, with conventional or pumped-storage hydropower, or with efficient natural-gas-burning turbines. Some drawbacks to wind farms include visual pollution and noise, although these can be overcome by improving their design and locating them in isolated areas. 5. Based on the information in paragraph 3 and paragraph 4, what can be inferred about the states of North Dakota, South Dakota, and Texas mentioned at the end of paragraph 1? ○ They rely largely on coal-fired power plants. ○ They contain remote areas where the winds rarely die down. ○ Over 1 percent of the electricity in these states is produced by wind farms. ○ Wind farms in these states are being expanded to meet the power needs of the United States. *************************************************************************************** Even development in architecture has been the result of major technological changes, materials and methods of construction are integral parts of the design of architecture structures. In earlier times it was necessary to design structural systems suitable for the materials that were available, such as wood, stone, brick.Today technology has progressed to the point where it is possible to invent new building materials to suit the type of structure desired. Enormous changes in materials and techniques of construction within the last few generations have made it possible to enclose space with much greater ease and speed and with a minimum of material. Progress in this area can be measured by the difference in weight between buildings built now and those of comparable size built one hundred ago. 6. According to paragraph 4, which of the following is true about materials used in the construction of buildings? ○ Because new building materials are hard to find, construction techniques have changed very little from past generations. ○ The availability of suitable building materials no longer limits the types of structures that may be built. ○ The primary building materials that are available today are wood, stone, and brick. ○ Architects in earlier times did not have enough building materials to enclose large spaces. *************************************************************************************** Deserts contain large amounts of groundwater when compared to the amounts they hold in surface stores such as lakes and rivers. But only a small fraction of groundwater enters the hydrological cycle-feeding the flows of streams, maintaining lake levels, and being recharged (or refilled) through surface flows and rainwater. In recent years, groundwater has become an increasingly important source of freshwater for desert dwellers. The United Nations Environment Programme and the World Bank have funded attempts to survey the groundwater resources of arid lands and to develop appropriate extraction techniques. Such programs are much needed because in many arid lands there is only a vague idea of the extent of groundwater resources. It is known, however, that the distribution of groundwater is uneven, and that much of it lies at great depths. 7. Paragraph 5 supports all of the following statements about the groundwater in deserts EXCEPT: ○ The groundwater is consistently found just below the surface ( 错误选项) ○ A small part of the groundwater helps maintain lake levels ( 排除选项) ○ Most of the groundwater is not recharged through surface water(排除选项) ○ The groundwater is increasingly used as a source of freshwater( 排除选项) *************************************************************************************** Paragraph 4: These characteristics make Spartina a valuable component of the estuaries where it occurs naturally. The plant functions as a stabilizer and a sediment trap and as a nursery area for estuarine fish and shellfish. Once established, a stand of Spartina begins to trap sediment, changing the substrate elevation, and eventually the stand evolves into a high marsh system where Spartina is gradually displaced by higher-elevation, brackish-water species. As elevation increases, narrow, deep channels of water form throughout the marsh. Along the east coast Spartina is considered valuable for its ability to prevent erosion and marshland deterioration; it is also used for coastal restoration projects and the creation of new wetland sites. 8. According to paragraph 4, in its natural habitats, Spanina helps estuaries by ○ controlling marshland decline ○ decreasing the substrate elevation ○ reducing the brackishness of the water ○ increasing the flow of water into the estuary *************************************************************************************** Paragraph1: In the Mesa Verde area of the ancient North American Southwest, living patterns changed in the thirteenth century , with large numbers of people moving into large communal dwellings called pueblos, often constructed at the edges of canyons, especially on the sides of cliffs . Abandoning small extended-family households to move into these large pueblos with dozens if not hundreds of other people was probably traumatic. Few of the cultural traditions and rules that today allow us to deal with dense populations existed for these people accustomed to household autonomy and the ability to move around the landscape almost at will. And besides the awkwardness of having to share walls with neighbors, living in aggregated pueblos introduced other problems. For people in cliff dwellings, hauling water, wood, and food to their homes was a major chore. The stress on local resources, especially in the firewood needed for daily cooking and warmth, was particularly intense, and conditions in aggregated pueblos were not very hygienic. 9. According to paragraph 1, before the thirteenth century the people of southwestern North America lived in households that 题干到原文排除选项 ○ shared daily chores with neighboring households ○ occupied dwellings that were built into the sides of cliffs ○ were largely free to conduct their lives as they pleased ○ enforced common standards of behavior and cooperative conduct within their communities *************************************************************************************** The political institutions of the four countries posed no significant barriers to industrialization or economic growth. The nineteenth century passed relatively peacefully for these countries, with progressive democratization taking place in all of them. They were reasonably well governed, without notable corruption or grandiose state projects, although in all of them the government gave some aid to railways, and in Sweden the state built the main lines. As small countries dependent on foreign markets, they followed a liberal trade policy in the main, though a protectionist movement developed in Sweden. In Denmark and Sweden agricultural reforms took place gradually from the late eighteenth century through the first half of the nineteenth, resulting in a new class of peasant landowners with a definite market orientation. 10. According to paragraph 5, each of the following contributed positively to the industrialization of the Netherlands and Scandinavia EXCEPT ○ generally liberal trade policies ○ huge projects undertaken by the state ○ relatively uncorrupt governments ○ relatively little social or political disruption *************************************************************************************** Third, primary groups are fundamental because they serve as powerful instruments for social control. Their members command and dispense many of the rewards that are so vital to us and that make our lives seem worthwhile. Should the use of rewards fail, members can frequently win by rejecting or threatening to ostracize those who deviate from the primary group's norms. For instance, some social groups employ shunning (a person can remain in the community, but others are forbidden to interact with the person) as a device to bring into line individuals whose behavior goes beyond that allowed by the particular group. Even more important, primary groups define social reality for us by structuring our experiences. By providing us with definitions of situations, they elicit from our behavior that conforms to group-devised meanings. Primary groups, then, serve both as carriers of social norms and as enforcers of them. 11. According to paragraph 7, why would a social group use shunning? ○ To enforce practice of the kinds of behavior acceptable to the group ○ To discourage offending individuals from remaining in the group ○ To commend and reward the behavior of the other members of the group ○ To decide which behavioral norms should be passed on to the next generation *************************************************************************************** →Plant communities assemble themselves flexibly, and their particular structure depends on the specific history of the area. Ecologists use the term “succession” to refer to the changes that happen in plant communities and ecosystems over time. The first community in a succession is called a pioneer community, while the long-lived community at the end of succession is called aclimaxcommunity.Pioneer and successional plant communities are said to change over periods from 1 to 500 years. These changes — in plant numbers and the mix of species — are cumulative. Climax communities themselves change but over periods of time greater than about 500 years. 12. According to paragraph 1, which of the following is NOT true of climax communities? ○ They occur at the end of a succession. ○ They last longer than any other type of community. ○ The numbers of plants in them and the mix of species do not change. ○ They remain stable for at least 500 years at a time. *************************************************************************************** Paragraph 4: Two additional techniques of studying infant perception have come into vogue. The first is the habituation-dishabituation technique, in which a single stimulus is presented repeatedly to the infant until there is a measurable decline (habituation) in whatever attending behavior is being observed. At that point a new stimulus is presented, and any recovery (dishabituation) in responsiveness is recorded. If the infant fails to dishabituate and continues to show habituation with the new stimulus, it is assumed that the baby is unable to perceive the new stimulus as different. The habituation-dishabituation paradigm has been used most extensively with studies of auditory and olfactory perception in infants. The second technique relies on evoked potentials, which are electrical brain responses that may be related to a particular stimulus because of where they originate. Changes in the electrical pattern of the brain indicate that the stimulus is getting through to the infant's central nervous system and eliciting some form of response. 13. According to paragraph 4, which of the following leads to the conclusion that infants are able to differentiate between stimuli in a habituation-dishabituation study? ○ Dishabituation occurs with the introduction of a new stimulus. ○ Electrical responses in the infant's brain decline with each new stimulus. ○ Habituation is continued with the introduction of a new stimulus. ○ The infant displays little change in electrical brain responses. ***************************************************************************************
  • 【4】概括具体改写
    • Wildman and Niles observed that systematic reflection on teaching required a sound ability to understand classroom events in an objective manner. They describe the initial understanding in the teachers with whom they were working as being "utilitarian...and not rich or detailed enough to drive systematic reflection." Teachers rarely have the time or opportunities to view their own or the teaching of others in an objective manner . Further observation revealed the tendency of teachers to evaluate events rather than review the contributory factors in a considered manner by, in effect, standing outside the situation. 1. According to paragraph 3, what did the teachers working with Wildman and Niles often fail to do when they attempted to practice reflection? ○ Correctly calculate the amount of time needed for reflection ○ Provide sufficiently detailed descriptions of the methods they used to help them reflect ○ Examine thoughtfully the possible causes of events in their classrooms ○ Establish realistic goals for themselves in practicing reflection ********************************************************************************************** Only recently have investigators considered using these plants to clean up soil and waste sites that have been contaminated by toxic levels of heavy metals – an environmentally friendly approach known as phytoremediation. This scenario begins with the planting of hyper accumulating species in the target area, such as an abandoned mine or an irrigation pond contaminated by runoff. Toxic minerals would first be absorbed by roots but later relocated to the stem and leaves. A harvest of the shoots would remove the toxic compounds off site to be burned or composted to recover the metal for industrial uses. After several years of cultivation and harvest, the site would be restored at a cost much lower than the price of excavation and reburial, the standard practice for remediation of contaminated soils. For examples, in field trials, the plant alpine pennycress removed zinc and cadmium from soils near a zinc smelter, and Indian mustard, native to Pakistan and India, has been effective in reducing levels of selenium salts by 50 percent in contaminated soils. 2. Why does the author mention Indian mustard ? ○ To warn about possible risks involved in phytoremediation ○ To help illustrate the potential of phytoremediation ○ To show that hyper accumulating plants grow in many regions of the world ○ To explain how zinc contamination can be reduced. ********************************************************************************************** 3. Contrary to the arguments of some that much of the pacific was settled by Polynesians accidentally marooned after being lost and adrift, it seems reasonable that this feat was accomplished by deliberate colonization expeditions that set out fully stocked with food and domesticated plants and animals . ○ Some people have argued that the Pacific was settled by traders who became lost while transporting domesticated plants and animals. ○ The original Polynesian settlers were probably marooned on the islands, but they may have been joined later by carefully prepared colonization expeditions. ○ Although it seems reasonable to believe that colonization expeditions would set out fully stocked, this is contradicted by much of the evidence. ○ The settlement of the Pacific islands was probably intentional and well planned rather than accidental as some people have proposed. ********************************************************************************************** Paragraph 4: Cities, then, are warmer than the surrounding rural areas, and together they produce a phenomenon known as the urban heat island. Heat islands develop best under particular conditions associated with light winds, but they can form almost any time. The precise configuration of a heat island depends on several factors. For example, the wind can make a heat island stretch in the direction it blows. When a heat island is well developed, variations can be extreme; in winter, busy streets in cities can be 1.7 ℃ warmer than the side streets. Areas near traffic lights can be similarly warmer than the areas between them because of the effect of cars standing in traffic instead of moving. The maximum differences in temperature between neighboring urban and rural environments is called the heat-island intensity for that region. In general, the larger the city, the greater its heat-island intensity. The actual level of intensity depends on such factors as the physical layout, population density, and productive activities of a metropolis . 4. Paragraph 4 supports the idea that a city’s heat-island intensity would increase if ○ the city went into an economic decline and lost population ○ the city’s economy shifted from heavy industry to health care and education ○ there was an upward trend in the average age of the city’s residents ○ repair work on the streets slowed traffic throughout the city ********************************************************************************************** Sociologists have built on the distinction between expressive and instrumental ties to distinguish between two types of groups: primary and secondary. A primary group involves two or more people who enjoy a direct, intimate, cohesive relationship with one another. Expressive ties predominate in primary groups; we view the people as ends in themselves and valuable in their own right. A secondary group entails two or more people who are involved in an impersonal relationship and have come together for a specific, practical purpose. Instrumental ties predominate in secondary groups; we perceive people as means to ends rather than as ends in their own right. Sometimes primary group relationships evolve out of secondary group relationships. This happens in many work settings. People on the job often develop close relationships with coworkers as they come to share gripes, jokes, gossip, and satisfactions. 5. Which of the following can be inferred from the author's claim in paragraph 3 that primary group relationships sometimes evolve out of secondary group relationships? ○ Secondary group relationships begin by being primary group relationships. ○ A secondary group relationship that is highly visible quickly becomes a primary group relationship. ○ Sociologists believe that only primary group relationships are important to society. ○ Even in secondary groups, frequent communication serves to bring people into close relationships. ********************************************************************************************** In order to understand ancient Egyptian art, it is vital to know as much as possible of the elite Egyptians' view of the world and the functions and contexts of the art produced for them. Without this knowledge we can appreciate only the formal content of Egyptian art, and we will fail to understand why it was produced or the concepts that shaped it and caused it to adopt its distinctive forms. In fact, a lack of understanding concerning the purposes of Egyptian art has often led it to be compared unfavorably with the art of other cultures: Why did the Egyptians not develop sculpture in which the body turned and twisted through space like classical Greek statuary ? Why do the artists seem to get left and right confused? And why did they not discover the geometric perspective as European artists did in the Renaissance? The answer to such questions has nothing to do with a lack of skill or imagination on the part of Egyptian artists and everything to do with the purposes for which they were producing their art. 6. Paragraph 1 suggests that one reason Egyptian art is viewed less favorably than other art is that Egyptian art lacks ○ a realistic sense of human body proportion ○ a focus on distinctive forms of varying sizes ○ the originality of European art ○ the capacity to show the human body in motion 7. ■Exhibitors, however, wanted to maximize their profits, which they could do more readily by projecting a handful of films to hundreds of customers at a time (rather than one at a time) and by charging 25 to 50 cents admission. ■About a year after the opening of the first Kinetoscope parlor in 1894, showmen such as Louis and Auguste Lumiere, Thomas Armat and Charles Francis Jenkins, and Orville and Woodville Latham (with the assistance of Edison's former assistant, William Dickson) perfected projection devices. ■These early projection devices were used in vaudeville theaters, legitimate theaters, local town halls, makeshift storefront theaters, fairgrounds, and amusement parks to show films to a mass audience. ■ When this widespread use of projection technology began to hurt his Kinetoscope business, Edison acquired a projector developed by Armat and introduced it as “Edison’s latest marvel, the Vitascope." ********************************************************************************************** Paragraph 1: In the study of perceptual abilities of infants, a number of techniques are used to determine infants' responses to various stimuli. Because they cannot verbalize or fill out questionnaires, indirect techniques of naturalistic observation are used as the primary means of determining what infants can see, hear, feel, and so forth. Each of these methods compares an infant's state prior to the introduction of a stimulus with its state during or immediately following the stimulus. The difference between the two measures provides the researcher with an indication of the level and duration of the response to the stimulus. For example, if a uniformly moving pattern of some sort is passed across the visual field of a neonate (newborn), repetitive following movements of the eye occur. The occurrence of these eye movements provides evidence that the moving pattern is perceived at some level by the newborn. Similarly, changes in the infant's general level of motor activity —turning the head, blinking the eyes, crying, and so forth — have been used by researchers as visual indicators of the infant's perceptual abilities. 8. Paragraph 1 indicates that researchers use indirect methods primarily to observe the ○ range of motor activity in neonates ○ frequency and duration of various stimuli ○ change in an infant's state following the introduction of a stimulus ○ range of an infant's visual field **********************************************************************************************
  • 【5】题干原文改写
    • 正面影响： importance/positive/potential/benefit/help/make...possible 负面影响： what…fail to do/discourage/difficulty of…/ what…worry about/ ...doubt…/ question 一般对象：单个对象 A ；两个对象关系 relationship of A & B
  • 【6】选项设置干扰
    • Each soldier received his pay, but in regions without a developed economy there was initially little on which it could be spent. The pool of excess cash rapidly stimulated a thriving economy outside fort gates.Some of the demand for the services and goods was no doubt fulfilled by people drawn from far afield , but some local people certainly became entwined in this new economy. There was informal marriage with soldiers, who until AD 197 were not legally entitled to wed, and whole new communities grew up near the forts. These settlements acted like small towns, becoming centers for the artisan and trading populations. 1. According to paragraph 3, how did the soldiers meet their needs for goods and services? ○ Their needs were met by the army, and all of their economic transactions took place within the fort. ○ Most of their needs were met by traveling tradespeople who visit the forts. ○ During their days off, soldiers traveled to distant towns to make purchases. ○ They bought what they needed from the artisans and traders in nearby towns. ********************************************************************************************** 2. What can be inferred from paragraph 5 about the less colorful birds and animals that inhabit the forest? ○ These species are less able to see color. and therefore they communicate with one another using nonvisual signals. ○ These species generally live in less densely wooded environments than more colorful birds and animals do. ○ The cries of these species do not carry as well over distances as the cries of more colorful birds and animals. ○ These species depend more on nonvisual signals for communication because they are less visible in their environment.
• 14. 复杂语句速读
  • 【1】区分重要次要信息
    • 1. 一个句子的重要信息
      • 1. 句子核心为动词
        • 一、动词为句子核心判读 - 1. 时态+ 情态 时态：现在时、过去时、将来时、完成时 情态：can, could, may, might, shall, should, must, have to, will, would... - 2. 副词表达动词程度 When it comes to physiology, the leatherback turtle is, in some ways, more like a reptilian whale than a turtle. It swims farther into the cold of the northern and southern oceans than any other sea turtle, and it deals with the chilly waters in a way unique among reptiles. 2. What can be inferred about whales from paragraph 1? ○They are considered by some to be reptiles. ○Their bodies are built in a way that helps them manage extremely cold temperatures. ○They are distantly related to leatherback turtles. ○They can swim farther than leatherback turtles. - 3. 主被动 - (1) 主动动词+by => 方式：我用笔写字 - (2) 被动动词+by => 因果：墙上被人写上了字 - (3) 分词结构=> 动词分身出来修饰名词，表达名词的动态美( 主动进行/ 被动发生) 。 现在进行和过去发生 v-ing（doing） v-ed （done） - 4. 动词本身：积极动词/ 消极动词（肯定和否定关系） - 5. 动词表达逻辑：因果/ 比较 因果关系动词： be due to/base on/result from /result in/arise from /give rise to/permit/enable/allow/lead to/make/stimulate/push/fuel/motivate/let/promote/be responsible for/determine/derive from /come from /stem from /originate from , initiate from , be attributable to, attribute to, reflect, present, demonstrate, show, suggest, imply…. 注：动词之后+from 后面均表示原因 比较关系动词： be + 比较级/最高级: A is greater than B be similar to 相同 is same as 相同 二、连词： 逻辑连词：因果/ 转折/ 比较/ 并列/ 递进 解释连词：which/that/when/where 三、and 对称结构= mirror N and N V and V that....and that.... 介词and 介词 the G shall .... by the P, for the P and from the P not only.... but also.... as....as => ...., much as because A.... as because B. from A to/into/up to/onto... B 四、“界”词词结构： [1] 名词+ 界词+ 名词=> 形容词结构 [2] 动词+ 界词+ 名词=> 副词结构 Some of the world’s finest stone architecture can be seen in the ruins of the ancient Inca city of Machu Picchu high in the eastern Andes Mountains of Peru.
      • 2. 逻辑关系的词类
        • 连词包括逻辑连词（因果、转折、比较、递进）和解释连词（引导词which/that/when/where ） 托福常用连词： (1) 表层次 first, firstly, to begin with, further, in the first place second, secondly, to start with, still, furthermore third, thirdly, what is more, last, last but not least also, and then, next, besides and equally important, too, moreover besides, in addition, finally (2) 表让步转折 although, though, yet, but, despite, even, nevertheless, even though, for all that, notwithstanding, however, in spite of, otherwise, still, regardless, granted, naturally, even so, after all (3) 表对比关系 by contrast, in contrast, on the contrary, whereas, instead, …than…while…. (4) 表因果关系 therefore, consequently, because of, for the reason, thus, hence, due to, owing to, so accordingly, thanks to, on this account, since, in this way, as, for, as a result, as a consequence (5) 表递进关系 furthermore, moreover, likewise, what is more, besides, also, not only...but also…, too, in addition (6) 表举例关系 for example, for instance, for one thing, that is, to illustrate, as an illustration, a case in point (7) 表解释关系 as a matter of fact, frankly speaking, in this case, namely, in other words, or (8) 表总结: 读文章 in summary, in a word, thus, as has been said, in brief, in conclusion, altogether, in other words, to conclude, in fact, finally, in simpler terms, indeed, in short, in particular, that is, of course, on the whole, to put it differently, namely, in all, therefore, to summarize
      • 3. 句子之间的关系
        • 句子的基本结构包括主语、谓语和宾语三部分，大多数句子至少有一个主要意思，通常可从主语和谓语中找出来。 1. 主语（subject)，通常是一个名词或名词词组，它表明了一个句子中主要的人或物； 2. 动词或动词词组（verb或verb phrase) 则说明人或物的行为的发生、完成以及可能的想法和感受。句子中可能还包含主语和谓语的其他信息。 Example: The American economy, though weakened, still grew significantly in the past few years. 分析： - 句子的中心意思是economy grew significantly - 主语American economy，表明句子的叙述对象； - though weakened是关于economy的附加信息； - 谓语动词词组still grew significantly说明了主语的行为发生； - in the past few years增加了更多的信息 在有多种意思的较长句子里，主要意思并不总是那么明显。例如： Extensive information networks continue to grow both inside and outside business organizations and require better writing skills from a growing number of American workers. 两个关键问题有助于确定主要意思： (1)句子主要针对谁或针对什么？判定主语（主体） (2)主体是什么或发生了什么事情？判定谓语动词（短语） 在前面的句子中： (1)主体：extensive information networks (2)谓语动词：continues to grow 和requires greater writing skills (3)主要意思：information networks continue to grow and require better
    • 2. 造成理解困难的因素
      • 1. 含有冗长引导说明的句子
        • Less than a year after announcing they had found evidence of the missing piece of matter essential to understanding the universe, scientists this week are expected to proclaim the discovery of the elusive subatomic particle, the "quark." If you search for an understanding of problems related to depletion of ozone layer, or crystalline structures in rocks, or materials for superconductors, or metabolisms and the respirations, or the effects of medications on the body, chemistry is there .
      • 2. 被一堆破折号隔开的句子
        • Reports about the production of atomic fission from uranium written by famed mathematician Albert Einstein -- who regarded the development of atomic warfare as the perversion of his life efforts -- alerted the US government to potential military uses .
      • 3. 许多短句共同构成的句子
        • Currently, a heated debate is under way between advocates of retaining our drug laws and their opponents , who believe that crimminalization has failed and encourage adoption of a policy of decriminalization combined with the intensified emphasis on all education and therapy. Other researchers have found that disapproval of the marriage by friends and familyis an important indicator of instability ahead , since this disapproval represents not only a prediction by people who know the couple but also a vote of non-confidence from those who could have helped bind the couple together. 当一个句子尤为复杂时，换一种方式作释义（paraphrasing)，例如上面的句子 可以复述为： "Researchers have found that a marriage is unstable when those who know the couple disapprove of the union."
      • 4. 含有代词指代关系的句子
        • 代词是用子代替名词位置的词，比如 he, she, they, them。它们可以用于代替其他词使用，也会令人感到混乱： Example: More materialistic than the boomers but less so than the generation of the Reagan era, they see a real need for social reform but worry that the escalation of the national debt may make it impossible to implement needed changes. Although the law is often slow to catch up with changing mores (customs), it usually does catch up with them in democratic societies because the legislators . . , change the laws to suit the voters' new goals and desires.
    • 3. 阅读难句的具体方法
      • 1. 鉴别中心含义
        • Example： In a study published Tuesday in Proceedings of (he National Academy of Sciences, researchers at Duke University report that the skulls of Neanderthals and of some other early higher primates show they may have had the nerve complex needed to control the subtle and varied movement of the tongue require for speech. The simple, often grunt-like puffs of air which we call words may be used by the writer with such skill that they can bring to a reader，who cannot even hear whatever tone of voice the writer would give them, a form and sense that will move him. A short, gaunt figure, with a smooth, tight, blacK-as-coal skin，large prominent jaws, thin, uneven lips whose sole function seemed to be the production of sneers, a broad nose with slightly flaring nostrils, small, bloodshot eyes which never cried, small, close-set ears, and a wide, prominent forehead—such were my father's features.
      • 2. 辨析附加信息是怎样与中心意思关联或修饰中心意思的
      • 3. 对句子作释义，必要时可以分割成多个句子
  • 【2】句子结构处理方法
    • 1. what - why- how
      • 汉语与英文结构大有不同： (1) 汉语中，冗长的修辞结构一般前置： 莫非你是玉树临风、风流倜傥、英俊潇洒、才高八斗、貌似潘安、号称一朵梨花压海棠、人送绰号玉面小飞龙的唐伯虎 ? (2) 英文里，冗长的修辞结构采用后置 Are you saying that you are Mr. Tang, 。。。 the one who is brilliantly good-looking with a well proportioned figure, incomparable to all man, and highly praised as the gorgeous You-Know-Who? 因为夜已这样深，轻轻我想问一声，是否还要我再等。 轻轻我想问一声，是否还要我再等，因为夜已这样深。 是否还要我再等，轻轻我想问一声，因为夜已这样深。 站在米国人角度，带着米国人的思维看问题： 米国人习惯先说What后说Why和How 中国：中国北京市朝阳区建外大街建外 SOHO A 座 503 => 集体主义 503 A 座，建外 SOHO ，建外大街 30 号，朝阳区，北京市，中国 => 个人主义 Barak Obama, the White House, 1600 Pennsylvania Avenue. NW, Washington, DC 20500, the USA
    • 2. 母句子句-主与从
      • 1. 以连词连接的句子均为从句 ，全句中有且仅有一个主句（句前无连词的完整句）。 Parental sentence 母句 = 主句 Child sentence 子句 DNA 母，连子 1 ，连子 2 ，连子 3. A, because B, even if C, when D, if E. Because A, B. 连子 1 ，母，连子 2 ，连子 3. 加连词句子的即为从句 脐带 = 》连词【连词包括逻辑连词 （因果、转折、比较、并列）和解释连词（引导词which/that/when/where …. ）】 连词的一般位置：句首或句中 题干 →主句 解释关系 ↑√ 选项 →解释关系 ↑ 从句句内出答案、句间出答案 A. B. C. D. 三大标点符号，起到解释连词的作用： 破折号：A - B 冒号：A : B 分号：A ; B 句间：递进解释【前后构成指代关系、举例关系、逻辑关系- 因果、转折、比较、并列、否定】/转折对比 主句和最主要的从句：一般来说，越靠前的从句越重要 + 表示逻辑关系的从句（因果、转折、比较、并列） 一句话中什么最重要？ —— 大 V ，动词最重要！ Since the laws of physics, not some arbitrary decision, have determined the general form of applied-art objects, they follow basic patterns, so much so that functional forms can vary only within certain limits. ○ The function of applied-art objects is determined by basic patterns in the laws of physics. ○ Since functional applied-art objects vary only within certain limits, arbitrary decisions cannot have determined their general form. ○ The general form of applied-art objects is limited by some arbitrary decision that is not determined by the laws of physics. ○ Functional applied-art objects cannot vary much from the basic patterns determined by the laws of physics. The structure of the backbone shows, however, that Ambulocetus swam like modern whales by moving the rear portion of its body up and down, even though a fluke was missing. The images produced by the camera obscura,a boxlike device that used a pinhole or lens to throw an image onto a ground-glass screen or a piece of white paper, were already familiar—the device had been much employed by topographical artists like the Italian painter Canaletto in his detailed views of the city of Venice. PS. 注意 —— and/or ( 并列前后同等地位 ) 【 1 】 A, and although B, C. = Although A & B, C. 【 2 】 A, and because B, C. = Because A & B, C. 所以上述结构中， A 和 B 均为从句，主句为 C. 她很漂亮，并且即使家里非常富有，这个屌丝男还是离开了她。 即使她很漂亮，并且家里非常富有，这个屌丝男还是离开了她。 Only the last of these was suited at all to the continuous operating of machines, and although waterpower abounded in Lancashire and Scotland and ran grain mills as well as textile mills, it had one great disadvantage: streams flowed where nature intended them to and water-driven factories had to be located on their banks whether or not the location was desirable for other reasons. ○Running water was the best power source for factories since it could keep machines operating continuously but since it was abundant only in Lancashire and Scotland, most mills and factories that were located elsewhere could not be water driven. ○The disadvantage of using waterpower is that streams do not necessarily flow in places that are the most suitable for factories which explains why so many water—powered grain and textile mills were located in undesirable places ○Since machines could be operated continuously only where running water was abundant, grain and textile mills as well as other factories tended to be located only in Lancashire and Scotland . ○Running water was the only source of power that was suitable for the continuous operation of machines, but to make use of it factories had to be located where the water was, regardless of whether such locations made sense otherwise. In the 1970s when the study of Australian archaeology was in an exciting phase of development, with the great antiquity of rock art becoming clear, Lesley Maynard, the archaeologist who coined the phrase “Panaramitee style,” suggested that a sequence could be determined for Australian rock art, in which a geometric style gave way to a simple figurative style (outlines of figures and animals), followed by a range of complex figurative styles that, unlike the pan-Australian geometric tradition, tended to be much greater regional diversity. Inequalities of wealth and rank certainly exist, and have probably existed in most pastoralist societies, but except in periods of military conquest, they are normally too slight to generate the stable, hereditary hierarchies that are usually implied by the use of the term class. While accepting that this sequence fits the archaeological profile of those sites, which were occupied continuously over many thousands of years, a number of writers have warned that the underlying assumption of such a sequence—a development from the simple and the geometric to the complex and naturalistic—obscures the cultural continuities in Aboriginal Australia, in which geometric symbolism remains fundamentally important. ►Statues were normally made of stone, wood, or metal. Stone statues were worked from single rectangular blocks of material and retained the compactness of the original shape. The stone between the arms and the body and between the legs in standing figures or the legs and the seat in seated ones was not normally cut away. From a practical aspect this protected the figures against breakage and psychologically gives the images a sense of strength and power, usually enhanced by a supporting back pillar. By contrast, wooden statues were carved from several pieces of wood that were pegged together to form the finished work, and metal statues were either made by wrapping sheet metal around a wooden core or cast by the lost wax process. The arms could be held away from the body and carry separate items in their hands; there is no back pillar. The effect is altogether lighter and freer than that achieved in stone, but because both perform the same function, formal wooden and metal statues still display frontality. ❤❤ 12. According to paragraph 3, why were certain areas of a stone statue left uncarved ? ○ To prevent damage by providing physical stability ○ To emphasize that the material was as important as the figure itself ○ To emphasize that the figure was not meant to be a real human being ○ To provide another artist with the chance to finish the carving 主句主谓宾从句主谓宾 ❤❤❤ 13. According to paragraph 3, which of the following statements about wooden statues is true? ○ Wooden statues were usually larger than stone statues. ○ Wooden statues were made from a single piece of wood. ○ Wooden statues contained pieces of metal or stone attached to the front. ○ Wooden statues had a different effect on the viewer than stone statues. 答案：D 2. 连词包括逻辑连词（因果、转折、比较、並列）和解释连词（引导词 which/that/when/where ）。 常用连词分类： (1) 表层次 first, firstly, to begin with, further, in the first place second, secondly, to start with, still, furthermore third, thirdly, what is more, last, last but not least also, and then, next, besides and equally important, too, moreover besides, in addition, finally, naturally (2) 表让步转折 although, though, yet, but, despite, even, nevertheless, even though, for all that, notwithstanding, however, in spite of, otherwise, still, regardless, granted, even so, after all (3) 表对比关系 by contrast, in contrast, on the contrary, whereas, instead, …than…while…. (4) 表因果关系 therefore, consequently, because of, for the reason, thus, hence, due to, owing to, so accordingly, thanks to, on this account, since, in this way, as, for, as a result, as a consequence (5) 表递进关系 furthermore, moreover, likewise, what is more, besides, also, not only...but also…, too, in addition , beyond (6) 表举例关系 for example, for instance, for one thing, that is, to illustrate, as an illustration, a case in point (7) 表解释关系 as a matter of fact, frankly speaking, in this case, namely, in other words, or (8) 表总结总结 : 读文章 in summary, in a word, thus, as has been said, in brief, in conclusion, altogether, in other words, to conclude, in fact, finally, in simpler terms, indeed, in short, in particular, that is, of course, on the whole, to put it differently, namely, in all, therefore, to summarize
    • 3. 平行结构-找对称
      • 一、平行对称结构：像一面镜子的结构，前后对称 1. and/or 对称结构，and/or 前后名词单复数、动词单复数/ 时态、从句均要一致（....that.... and that....） (1) 词的并列 - A or B; A and B 处理方法 : 找一个认识的词来读 - such as B,C,D 处理方法 : 找一个认识的词来读 1. However, unlike cases of sea otters and pinnipeds.... 2. ....seals , sea lion, and walruses, whose limbs are functional both on land and at sea.... 3. It should be obvious that cetaceans-whales, porpoises, and dolphins-are mammals.... 4. encouraged……, and instigated…. 5. We are from the people, by the people, and for the people. (2) 结构并列：标准对称结构，跳读并列之间的内容。 1. Inequalities of gender have also existed in pastoralist societies, but they seem to have been softened by the absence of steep hierarchies of wealth in most communities, and also by the requirement that women acquire most of the skills of men, including, often, their military skills. ○ Despite the fact that wealth is relatively evenly distributed in pastoral societies, gender inequality still exists because only men can acquire military skills and social status. ○ Inequalities of gender existed in pastoralist societies until most communities began to require women to possess the same skills as men and take part in the military. ○ Inequalities of gender in pastoralist societies were caused by steep hierarchies of wealth and differences in military training between men and women. ○ In pastoral societies, gender inequality is comparatively mild because wealth is relatively evenly distributed and women have to learn most of the same skills that men do. 2. The explanation is that the Maya excavated depressions, or modified natural depressions, and then plugged up leaks in the karst by plastering the bottoms of the depressions in order to create reservoirs, which collected rain from large plastered catchment basins andstored it for use in the dry season. ○ Southern Maya populations obtained the water they needed for the dry season by collecting and storing rainwater in sealed depressions. ○ The Maya are credited with creating methods for modifying natural rainwater and storing it. ○ Leaks in the karst caused difficulties in the creation of reservoirs, which were needed to store water for the dry season. ○ Southern Mayans were more successful at collecting rain than storing it during dry seasons. 3. Therefore, when observational assessment is used as a technique for studying infant perceptual abilities, care must be taken not to overgeneralize from the data or to rely on one or two studies as conclusive evidence of a particular perceptual ability of the infant . ○ Researchers using observational assessment techniques on infants must not overgeneralize and must base their conclusions on data from many studies. ○ On the basis of the data from one or two studies, it seems that some infants develop a particular perceptual ability not observed in others. ○ To use data from one or two studies on infant's perceptual abilities, it is necessary to use techniques that will provide conclusive evidence. ○ When researchers fail to make generalizations from their studies, their observed data is often inconclusive. 4. In its grand and impressive terminals and stations, architects recreatedhistoric Roman templesandpublic baths, French chateaus and Italian bell towers, edificesthat people used as stages for many of everyday life’s high emotions: meeting and parting, waiting and worrying, planning new starts or coming home. 5. They made available kinds of popular music heard previously only limited geographical areas or by specific ethnic and social groups – especially the blues, gospel songs, and jazz of African Americans and the traditional music of the southern Appalachian Mountains and other rural areas of the southern and western United States. prelude 下集预告 foreplay 前戏 = warm-up 6. A few art collectors James Bowdoin III of Boston, William Byrd of Virginian, and the Aliens and Hamiltons of Philadelphia introduced European art traditions to those colonists privileged to visit their galleries, especially aspiring artists, and established in their respective communities the idea of the value of art and the need for institutions devoted to its encouragement. 7. It was in the cities that the elements that can be associated with modern capitalism first appeared – the use of moneyandcommercial paper in place of barter , open competition in place of social deferenceandhierarchy, with an attendant rise in social disorder , andthe appearance of factories using coal or water power in place of independent craftspeople working with hand tools. A in place of B = B give way to A = A is replaced by B 8. The history of clinical nutrition, or 即 the study of the relationship between health and how the body takes in and utilizes food substances, can be divided into four distinct eras: the first began in the nineteenth century and extended into the early twentieth century when it was recognized for the first time that food contained constituents that were essential for human function and that different foods provided different amounts of these essential agents. 9. However, for many years, physicists thought that atoms and molecules always were much more likely to emit light spontaneously and that stimulated emission thus always would be much weaker. 10. The people had no agriculture but, over thousands of years, had developed techniques and equipment to exploit their environment, basing their economy on fishing in streams and coastal waters that teemed with salmon, halibut, and other varieties of fish, gatheringabalone, mussels, clams, and other shellfish from the rocky coastline, hunting land and sea mammals, and collecting wild plant foods. 11. Unlike modern industrial potters, prehistoric artisans created each of their pieces individually, using the simplest technology but demonstrating remarkable skill in making and adorning their vessels. 12. Demonstrations of infants’ and toddlers' long-term memory have involved their repeating motor activities that they had seen or done earlier, such as reaching in the dark for objects , putting a bottle in a doll’s mouth , or pulling apart two pieces of a toy . 2. 其他重要的平行结构： (1)….not only....but also.... raw material crude oil (2) ....(much) as (because).... as (because) B (3) ....not only....but also.... (4) ....not....but…. (5) ....neither....nor.... (6) ....either....or.... (7) ....both....and.... (8) ....more....than....
    • 4. 分词结构-动态美
      • 问题的关键：什么是【分】词？ What - Why - How 这要从词类的相互修饰关系谈起，我们从小至今就受到无数英语老师的教导： (1) 形 + 容词 => 修饰名词 => 来表达名词的【静态】（这一点很重要，但是很奇怪，学校老师都木有说！） 比如： - black hawk （黑鹰） - white board （白板） - cute girl （乖乖女） - smart phone （智能手机） (2) 副词 => 修饰动词 / 形容词 => 来表达动词 / 形容词的 => 【动态】（这一点也很重要，但是很奇怪，学校老师也都木有说！）不能单独使用的词，去掉不影响整句话语法结构，即为副词。 主= 副 She is beautiful. 表语 She is beautifully. X She is running rapidly. 系动词 I think therefore I am . 我思故我在（存在）。 Being is reasonable. 存在即有理。 有 = 存在 = 是 比如： - disappeared abruptly （突然溜了） slowly/surprisingly - talk aimlessly/intentionally （漫谈） …. 重点来了，【分词】为何物呢？别急！各位客官接着看！【动态形容词】 在实际生活中，很多时候名词都需要被一种词修饰，以此来表达【名词的动态】，比方说： - 正在微笑的姑娘 a smiling girl The smiling girl is 。。。。 - 令人紧张的剧情 a surprising episode - 身经百战的勇士 an experienced worrier - 喋喋不休的妻子 a nagging wife - 饱经风霜的面容 a weather-beaten face - …. 自己接龙啦！ The girl to be married is…. 子弹在飞 A bullet is flying. A Flying Bullet a falling angel a fallen angel rolling leaves in the wind This is an important issue. This is a greatly important and urgent issue. X This is an issue of great importance and emergency. what-why-how 在汉语中这些标着下划线的内容都是 + 白勺【的】，也就是说都是形容词，但是有动态的作用。很不幸地，在英语中形容词作为唯一修饰名词的词类，只能用于表达名词的静态，那么英语面临着词穷地囧境。而重新造出一批新词来修饰名词以表达动态，会使得英语地词汇量暴增，也是万万不可行的。但注意啦！世界地进步是建立在懒人地基础上地！词穷了怎么办？懒得重新造词，那么干脆借词。不就是表示名词的【动态】嘛！把动词借过来修饰名词不得了！慢着？动词修饰名词，那不就成了【谓 + 宾】了嘛！？不着急，语言学家有办法，只要把动词变成【 v-ing/v-ed/being v-ed 】不得了嘛！变化后，又不给它们配上【系动词】，就直接变成了： - a smiling cat - a crying baby - a nagging wives - a heavily beaten puppy - an exciting puppy - …. 自己接龙啦！ 当然上面的【单个分词】当做形容词修饰名词表示动态，除了可以放到名词前面之外，如果【分词引导一堆东西】太长了，可以放到名词之后起到【后置形容词】的作用。【英文语句超喜欢使用分词结构！因为这样可以使得句子变得生龙活虎，动态十足，让读者读起来感觉纸上内容跃然而出。】 All I can see is your jaw going up and down. [BIG BANG THEORY] 时间顺序 - 动词 1. Catharine captivated by his charm found her falling love with Damon. [Novel] 2. Catharine who was captivated by his charm found her falling love with Damon. [Novel] 3. Catharine who was captivated by his charm and found her falling love with Damon. [Novel] X 简约原则 直观原则 The breeze streaming through the open car windows made Laura Kucera's long blond hair dance as she pulled up at her friend Sara Tello's house. [Novel] Then Laura noticed a white pickup ( 皮卡 ) coming down the street. [Novel] rolling over the street sliding over the street rushing down the street The owner of a small publishing company plans to lease a new office space that has floor-to-ceiling windows and no internal walls, arguing that the new space will enhance worker productivity. Walking along the beach at dawn,you can enjoy the beautiful sunrise. Having found the cause,the doctors were able to treat the disease and cure it. Being asked to give a performance,he couldn't very well refuse. “No, I won't ride with( 共乘一辆车 ) servicemen( 大兵 )‐ ,”said my casually seditious father, as he slowed down( 减速 ) and peered at( 瞄了一眼 ) a soldier and then resumed his full cruising speed( 踩一脚油门 ), while I, patriotically offended( 我的爱国荣誉感被老爸的行径整跪了 ), watched the stunned ( 目瞪口呆的 ) defender of my freedoms( 这位国民自由的守护者 - 暗指大兵 ) kicking at his duffle bag( 帆布行囊 ) and getting smaller and smaller( 消失在视野中 ) as planet Pontiac( 庞蒂亚克 - 通用旗下名车，美国人都知道的，就像美国人常吃的中餐中的便当 —— 寄语饼一样，我们也不很熟悉 ) continued its fuming orbit( 加速前行 )—— 这里用行星 planet 比喻汽车，用 orbit ，比喻车行驶的路径 . In Ohio 在俄亥俄 , our road sometimes moved right alongside the turnpike 高速公路 and we could see the new cars, with their outlandish fins 银光闪闪 , 分词结构 —— passing us as regularly as cards being dealt off the top of an endless deck 汽车呼啸而过，就像在玩儿斗地主时，牌扔出去，在桌上飞速划出一般，奔驰向远处 . 再来几个 Eric 的英语语法启蒙读物中的句子 —— 《当代美国短文赏读 —— 案件写真》，越往后读，越感到分词结构会给人带来不寒而栗的动态感哦！（占个沙发 yilu ：背景知识扫盲一下吧 ~ 下面的句子中选自于一篇短文： Norma Hutchinson 的 Left for Dead 一文，内容是 Video Store 店老板 Sallee ，晚上打烊时候被三个暴徒抢劫，被拳打脚踢并被砍、被捅数刀后的英勇求生的故事。文中分词结构使用暴多，使得文章语言具备非常大的生动性，读起来让人沉浸其中而又产生不寒而栗的感觉。） 1. Shocked into the reality of what was happening , Sallee strained( 挣扎 ) at his bonds( 绳索 ), trying to turn away ( 躲开 ) from the slashing knife( 砍刀 ) . 2. Sallee yanked ( 用力挣脱 ) his hands apart repeatedly until the cloth binding ( 绑 ) them gave away ( 松开 ). 3. He grabbed blindly ( 乱抓 ) for the knife but caught its edge ( 刀刃 ), slashing ( 划到 ) three fingers and almost severing ( 割断 ) one . 补充： grab a bite （随便吃点东西） He grabbed a bite and went to school. 4. Sallee tried to get to his knees, but the man wielding ( 挥动 ) the knife pined him down( 摁在地上 ), alternately ( 轮番 ) slicing ( 刀砍 ) his throat and burying ( 刺入 ) the knife in his back and chest . 5. Their victim, lying on the floor , would bleed to death before anyone found him. 这样一看，太残暴了！结构一下很明白！很爽吧！再默默读一下这一句，并深深地让它存在在你深深的脑海里： 分词是【动词分身】出来，并【变化形式：v-ing/v-ed/being v-ed/to be done】，用于修饰【名词】为的是表达【名词的动态美】，有另外一个名字，叫做【动态形容词】。 我们接着再看两个好玩儿的例句，再次品味加深理解置于，再讲讲英文中【逗号】的真实作用： 1. The princess, being kissed by the monster/beast, is turning into a frog. The princess being kissed by the monster/beast is turning into a frog. The prince being spelled/cursed by the witch/wizard is turning into a frog. 2. I love the girl escaping from the arms of man. √ I love the girl, escaping from the arms of man. × 《基督山伯爵》是通俗历史小说，法国著名作家大仲马（ 1802-1870 ）的代表作。法老号大副唐泰斯受船长委托，为波拿巴党人送了一封信，遭到两个卑鄙小人和法官的陷害，被打入死牢。狱友法里亚神甫向他传授各种知识，并在临终前把埋于基督山岛上的一批宝藏秘密告诉了他。唐泰斯越狱后找到了宝藏，成为巨富。从此名基督山伯爵，经过精心策划，报答了恩人，惩罚了仇人。充满浪漫的传奇色彩，章章奇特新颖，引人入胜。 如果上面第二句话变成这样子滴： I love the girl escaping from the man . 那么， (1) 语法还正确吗？ (2) 句子含义还是跟以前一样的吗？ 对第一个问题，我们的回答是 YES ！语法上是没问题的！ 但是对于第二个问题，我们的回答是 NO ，含义改变了。 那么我们先研究一下【逗号的作用】。在英文中，逗号的作用有两个： - 第一：隔开修饰内容 - 第二：提醒句子结构关系 那么在第一个句子中， The princess, being kissed by the monster is turning into a frog. 无论有无逗号，【 being kissed by the monster 】都是来修饰前面的【 The princess 】的。那么加上逗号，是作者的善意提醒，如果去掉逗号，句子语法及语义都正确，无可厚非。 但是到了第二个句子，如果加上了逗号【 I love the girl, escaping from the man . 】那么其中【 the girl 】就和【 escaping from the man 】隔开了，那么【 escaping from the man 】不修饰【 the girl 】了，反而修饰的是【 I 】，那么原来的语义【我爱这个从那个男人那儿逃走的女孩。】就变成了【从那个男人那儿逃走的我，爱那个女孩。】好基友变成了异性恋的深意，溢于言表啊！所以大家对逗号要保持敏感哦！不加逗号，直接修饰，加上逗号，则修饰前面的其他名词，具体要看分词结构和前面名词能不能搭了。 With question such as these clearly before them, the scientists aboard the Glomar Challenger processed to the Mediterranean to search for the answers. On August 23, 1970, they recovered a sample. The sample consisted of pebbles of gypsum and fragments of volcanic rock. Not a single pebble was found that might have indicated that the pebbles came from the nearby continent. In the days following, samples of solid gypsum were repeatedly brought on deck as drilling operations penetrated the seafloor. Furthermore, the gypsum was found to possess peculiarities of composition and structure that suggested it had formed on desert flats. Sediment above and below the gypsum layer contained tiny marine fossils, indicating open-ocean conditions. As they drilled into the central and deepest part of the Mediterranean basin, the scientists took solid, shiny, crystalline salt from the core barrel. Interbedded with the salt were thin layers of what appeared to be windblown silt. 4. Which of the following can be inferred from paragraph 3 about the solid gypsum layer? ○ It did not contain any marine fossil. ○ It had formed in open-ocean conditions. ○ It had once been soft, deep-sea mud. ○ It contained sediment from nearby deserts. 接下来的一段时间，研究一下下列句子吧！ Unlike in the Americas, where metallurgy was a very late and limited development, Africans had iron from a relatively early date, developing ingenious furnaces to produce the high heat needed for production and to control the amount of air that reached the carbon and iron ore necessary for making iron. ○ While American iron makers developed the latest furnaces, African iron makers continued using earlier techniques. ○ Africans produced iron much earlier than Americans, inventing technologically sophisticated heating systems. ○ Iron making developed earlier in Africa than in the Americas because of the ready availability of carbon and iron ore. ○ Both Africa and the Americas developed the capacity for making iron early, but African metallurgy developed at a slower rate. Many plants and animals disappear abruptly from the fossil record as one moves from layers of rock documenting the end of the Cretaceous ( 白垩纪 ) up into rocks representing the beginning of the Cenozoic 新生代 (the era after the Mesozoic 中生代 ) . 那么，除了【 v-ing 分词结构】之外，还有【 v-ed 分词结构】，这个是大多数孩子们比较头疼的，因为好多人都分不清楚哪个是真正的谓语动词了！因为有些词的过去式和过去分词样子长得一模一样！比如以下变化： - bite bit bitten - 不规则变化，容易辨认真正的谓语动词 - choose chose chosen - 不规则变化，容易辨认真正的谓语动词 - take took taken - 不规则变化，容易辨认真正的谓语动词 - kiss kissed kissed - 规则变化，不容易辨认真正的谓语动词 - walk walked walked - 规则变化，不容易辨认真正的谓语动词 有分词结构影响下，找到真正的谓语动词的方法真的狠简单 —— 【 ……v-ed + 介词 ……v + 名词 …. 】如果分析句子的时候，发现第一个动词为【过去式 + 介词】，则接着向后寻找动词 ( 不论时态，不论是否跟介词 ) ，找到的第二个动词为真正的谓语动词，之前的全部作为分词结构。 仔细琢磨以下句子的结构吧！（ PS. 划线部分为分词结构） 一、下列句子主要为分词结构 The simple motifs found at Panaramitee are common to many rock-art sites across Australia. Changes in lake level not explained by river flows plus exchanges with the atmosphere must be due to the net difference between what seeps into the lake from the groundwater and what leaks into the groundwater. The images produced by the camera obscura,a boxlike device that used a pinhole or lens to throw an image onto a ground-glass screen or a piece of white paper, were already familiar—the device had been much employed by topographical artists like the Italian painter Canaletto in his detailed views of the city of Venice. Unfortunately, the cost of water obtained through any of these schemes would increase pumping costs at least tenfold, making the cost of irrigated agricultural products from the region uncompetitive on the national and international markets . 表示原因和结果的时候。 Unfortunately, the cost of water which is obtained through any of these schemes would increase pumping costs at least tenfold, making the cost of irrigated agricultural products from the region uncompetitive on the national and international markets . Fortunately, such efforts made by the university through all of these projects would sharpen graduates’ competitive edge to the best, encouraging them to sooner familiarize and adapt to their future workplace. According to the passage, each of the following statements comparing terrestrial planets with Jovian planets is true EXCEPT: The principal seagoing ship used throughout the Middle Ages was the galley, a long, low ship fitted with sails but driven primarily by oars. The same thing happens to this day, though on a smaller scale, wherever a sediment-laden river or stream emerges from a mountain valley onto relatively flat land, dropping its load as the current slows: the water usually spreads out fanwise, depositing the sediment in the form of a smooth, fan-shaped slope. It should be noted, however, that the pure opportunist or pure competitor is rare in nature, as most species fall between the extremes of a continuum, exhibiting a blend of some opportunistic and some competitive characteristics . The Ogallala aquifer is a sandstone formation that underlies some 583,000 square kilometers of land extending from northwestern Texas to southern South Dakota . A massive oak claims its ground for 200 years or more, outcompeting all other would-be canopy trees by casting a dense shade and drawing up any free water in the soil . Such a quantity of material would have blocked the sunlight completely from reaching the surface, plunging Earth into a period of cold and darkness that lasted at least several months . Following each mass extinction, there is a sudden evolutionary burst as new species develop to fill the ecological niches opened by the event . Earth is a target in a cosmic shooting gallery, subjected to random violent events that were unsuspected a few decades ago. …v-ed by…, v-ed in…, and v-ed on… …v-ed by…, v-ed in… , v-ed( 谓语动词 )… want to do. subject to doing . All visitors shall subject to the regulation of the camp He shall be responsible for her falling . her fallen corrupt I want to go to school. I want to( 方向 / 趋势 ) + 动词 go to school . The explosion is also calculated to have produced vast quantities of nitric acid and melted rock that sprayed out over much of Earth, starting widespread fires that must have consumed most terrestrial forests and grassland . The companies building the canals to transport coal needed surveyors to help them find the coal deposits worth mining as well as to determine the best courses for the canals. The onrushing water arising from these flash floods likely also formed the odd teardrop-shaped “islands” (resembling the miniature versions seen in the wet sand of our beaches at low tide ) that have been found on the plains close to the ends of the outflow channels. Judging from the width and depth of the channels , the flow rates must have been truly enormous―perhaps as much as a hundred times greater than the 105 tons per second carried by the great Amazon river . Fladmark's hypothesis received additional support from the fact that the greatest diversity in Native American languages occurs along the west coast of the Americans, suggesting that this region has been settled the longest . Vast areas along the coast may have been deglaciated beginning around16, 000 years ago, possibly providing a coastal corridor for the movement of plants, animals, and humans sometime between 13,000 and 14,000 years ago . The coastal hypothesis has gained increasing support in recent years because the remains of large land animals, such as caribou and brown bears, have been found in southeastern Alaska dating between 10,000 and 12,500 years ago . The fungi absorb moisture and mineral salts from the rocks, passing these on in waste products that nourish algae . The increased pressures of expanding populations have led to the removal of woody plants so that many cities and towns are surrounded by large areas completely lacking in trees and shrubs . The impact of raindrops on the loose soil tends to transfer fine clay particles into the tiniest soil spaces, sealing them and producing a surface that allows very little water penetration. In the phonograph parlors, customers listened to recordings through individual ear tubes, moving from one machine to the next to hear different recorded speeches or pieces of music. Lichens helped to speed the decomposition of the hard rock surfaces, preparing a soft bed of soil that was abundantly supplied with minerals that had been carried in the molten rock from the bowels of Earth. It has long been accepted that the Americas were colonized by a migration of peoples from Asia, slowly traveling across a land bridge called Beringia (now the Bering Strait between northeastern Asia and Alaska) during the last Ice Age . The first water craft theory about the migration was that around 11,000-12,000 years ago there was an ice-free corridor stretching from eastern Beringia to the areas of North America south of the great northern glaciers. The Audubon Society and other conservation groups, concerned over what they perceive as the serious threat to the environment posed by the policies of the government , are preparing for a major political effort. 二、下列句子主要为 v-ed 分词结构 Unfortunately, the cost of water obtained through any of these schemes would increase pumping costs at least tenfold, making the cost of irrigated agricultural products from the region uncompetitive on the national and international markets . Earth is a target in a cosmic shooting gallery, subjected to random violent events that were unsuspected a few decades ago . But the myths that have grown up around the rites may continue as part of the group’s oral tradition and may even come to be acted out under conditions divorced from these rites . Another, advanced in the twentieth century , suggests that humans have a gift for fantasy, through which they seek to reshape reality into more satisfying forms than those encountered in daily life. To take an extreme example, farmlands dominated by a single crop are so unstable that one year of bad weather or the invasion of a single pest can destroy the entire crop. The destruction caused by the volcanic explosion of Mount St. Helens, in the northwestern United States , for example, pales in comparison to the destruction caused by humans . At the other extreme are “competitors,” almost all of whose resources are invested in building a huge body, with a bare minimum allocated to reproduction . In 1994 there were nearly 20,000 wind turbines worldwide, most grouped in clusters called wind farms that collectively produced 3,000 megawatts of electricity. When the well reaches a pool, oil usually rises up the well because of its density difference with water beneath it or because of the pressure of expanding gas trapped above it . The explosion lifted about 100 trillion tons of dust into the atmosphere, as can be determined by measuring the thickness of the sediment layer formed when this dust settled to the surface . 更多例句请参考长难句 400 句 但我们在写作中尤其要知道的是，分词结构的用法很劲爆！ The tuna swam in the river. The tuna jumped over the bridge. The tuna swam in the river, jumping over the bridge.
    • 5. 介词结构-时空感
      • 介词，顾名思义，就是介于两词之间的词，一般为 : - 【名词 + 介词+ 名词】 - 【动词 + 介词+ 名词】 at @ in of 从属 off run off within through on inside from come from originate from emanate from The latter two sources are limited to those few areas where surface water seeps down through underground faults or fractures to reach deep rocks heated by the recent activity of molten rock material. 注意！介词之后只能跟名词！ The temple stands in the mountain. In the mountain stands a temple. In the mountain a temple stands. 从前有座山，山里有座庙。 有座庙在山中。 可能有的孩纸争着说，老师，你看这样的例句【 I`m working on stalking that girl . 】，里面的 stalking.... 不是动词吗？注意咯！这可是动名词哦！也是名词的范畴，只不过是动词幻化成名词，成为一个有动态的名词了！ 注意，介词后紧跟的内容表示 “ 时间或空间 ” 时：在七点钟 - 具体时间 空：在 McDonald - 具体空间 时： in 在如此苦难的时候 - 抽象时间 空： in 在如此艰难的条件下 - 抽象空间 那么，可以在时空中存在的实词一共有两个：名词、动词，所以 —— [1] 名词 + 介词 + 名词 [ 介词及之后的内容，起到形容词的作用 ] [2] 动词 + 介词 + 名词 [ 介词及之后的内容，起到副词的作用 ] 在一个长句中，可能会遇到更长的这种介词结构： - 名词+ 【介词+ 名词 + 介词 + 名词 + 介词 + 名词 …. 】 - 动词+ 【介词+ 名词 + 介词 + 名词 + 介词 + 名词 …. 】 - 介词+ 一堆不是完整句子 => 起到插入语作用 我们来看一下简单的例子： - the girl in bed形容词作用 is my classmate. - study at school/home 副词作用 - You exist in the deep of my heart . - A of B in C on D within E off F through G by H into I.../ A of B of C 等结构 阅读时候的为了达到快速读懂，我们可以这样处理，核心词为 A , A 不认识，则读 B ，以此类推（A或B哪个意思上更具体，不读抽象的内容） 1. Some of the world’s finest stone architecture can be seen in the ruinsof the ancient Inca city of Machu Picchu high in the eastern Andes Mountains of Peru. 2. Inequalities of gender have also existed in pastoralist societies, but they seem to have been softened by the absence of steep hierarchies of wealth in most communities, and also by the requirement that women acquire most of the skills of men, including, often, their military skills. ○ Despite the fact that wealth is relatively evenly distributed in pastoral societies, gender inequality still exists because only men can acquire military skills and social status. ○ Inequalities of gender existed in pastoralist societies until most communities began to require women to possess the same skills as men and take part in the military. once only if ○ Inequalities of gender in pastoralist societies were caused by steep hierarchies of wealth and differences in military training between men and women. ○ In pastoral societies, gender inequality is comparatively mild because wealth is relatively evenly distributed and women have to learn most of the same skills that men do. We are from the people, by the people, and for the people. 3. Even though the fine arts in the twentieth century often treat materials in new ways , the basic difference in attitude of artists in relation to their materials in the fine arts and the applied arts remains relatively constant. 4. This is particularly true for trees in the middle and upper latitudes , which tend to attain greater heights on ridges , whereas in the tropics the trees reach their greater heights in the valleys . 注意介词之后紧跟的限定非常重要！ 5. At the other extreme are “competitors,” almost all of whose resources are invested in building a huge body, with a bare minimum allocated to reproduction . 本句中使用了倒装句型哦！可以学习下，然后用到写作结构中。 In the mountain stands a temple. = It is in the mountain that a temple stands. 6. The researchers Peter Ucko and Andree Rosenfeld identified three principal locations of paintings in the caves of western Europe: (1) in obviously inhabited rock shelters and cave entrances; (2) in galleries immediately off the inhabited areas of caves; and (3) in the inner reaches of caves, whose difficulty of access has been interpreted by some as a sign that magical-religious activities were performed there. 以上是介词穿插在名词、动词之间，下面这个句子中，用介词引导一坨内容，表示时空概念。 Estimates indicate that the aquifer contains enough water to fill Lake Huron, but unfortunately, under the semiarid climatic conditions that presently exist in the region, rates of addition to the aquifer are minimal, amounting to about half a centimeter a year. ○ Despite the current impressive size of the Ogallala aquifer, the region’s climate keeps the rates of water addition very small. ○ Although the aquifer has been adding water at the rate of only half a centimeter a year, it will eventually accumulate enough water of fill Lake Huron. ○ Because of the region’s present climatic conditions, water is being added each year to the aquifer. ○ Even when the region experiences unfortunate climatic conditions, the rates of addition of water continue to increase. The stone between the arms and the body and between the legs in standing figures or the legs and the seat in seated ones was not normally cut away. Long-handed Neolithic spoons of yew wood preserved in Alpine villages dating to 3000 B.C., have survived. In order to increase the production of grains , famersadopted an approach that… Enormous changes in materials and techniques of construction within the last few generations have made it possible to enclose space with much greater ease and speed and with a minimum of material
    • 6. 插入成分-忽略之
      • 1. 插入结构：双逗号、双破折号成双成对出现。 [1] A, B, C. 双逗号之间，没有谓语动词（不是完整的句子），即为插入语； [2] A — B — C. 双破折号之间，均为插入语。 注：所谓完整句 —— 主谓宾、主系表、主谓。 2. 阅读中插入语的处理方法：两个逗号（不是完整的句子）/两个破折号中间内容跳过不读 One, set forth by Aristotle in the fourth century B.C., sees humans as naturally imitative —as taking pleasure in imitating persons, things, and actions and in seeing such imitations. Another , advanced in the twentieth century, suggests that humans have a gift for fantasy , through which they seek to reshape reality into more satisfying forms than those encountered in daily life. Thus , fantasy or fiction (of which drama is one form) permits people to objectify their anxieties and fears, confront them, and fulfill their hopes in fiction if not fact. This unprecedented development of a finite groundwater resource with an almost negligible natural recharge rate—that is, virtually no natural water source to replenish the water supply—has caused water tables in the region to fall drastically. Estimates indicate that the aquifer contains enough water to fill Lake Huron, but unfortunately, under the semiarid climatic conditions that presently exist in the region , rates of addition to the aquifer are minimal, amounting to about half a centimeter a year. ○Despite the current impressive size of the Ogallala aquifer, the region’s climate keeps the rates of water addition very small. ○Although the aquifer has been adding water at the rate of only half a centimeter a year, it will eventually accumulate enough water of fill Lake Huron. ○Because of the region’s present climatic conditions, water is being added each year to the aquifer. ○Even when the region experiences unfortunate climatic conditions, the rates of addition of water continue to increase. In addition to finding an increase of suitable browse, like huckleberry and vine maple, Arthur Einarsen, longtime game biologist in the Pacific Northwest, found quality of browse in the open areas to be substantially more nutritive. ○ Arthur Einarsen`s longtime family with the Pacific Northwest helped him discover areas where deer had an increase in suitable browse. ○ Biologist like Einarsen believe it is important to find additional open areas with suitable browse for deer to inhabit. ○ According to Einarsen, huckleberry and vine maple are examples of vegetation that may someday improve the nutrition of deer in the open areas of the Pacific Northwest. ○ Arthur Einarsen found that deforested feeding grounds provided deer with more and better food. Europe's maritime tradition had developed in the context of easily navigable seas—the Mediterranean, the Baltic, and, to a lesser extent, the North Sea between England and the Continent —not of vast oceans. The answer lies apparently not in the increased energy costs of exaggerated begging—such energy costs are small relative to the potential gain in calories— but rather in the damage that any successful cheater would do to its siblings, which share genes with one another. The rapid technical development of photography—the introduction of lighter and simpler equipment, and of new emulsions that coated photographic plates, film, and paper and enabled images to be made at much faster speeds—had some unanticipated consequences. The new candid photography—unposed pictures that were made when the subjects were unaware that their pictures were being taken—confirmed these scientific results, and at the same time, thanks to the radical cropping (trimming) of images that the camera often imposed, suggested new compositional formats. The answer lies apparently not in the increased energy costs of exaggerated begging—such energy costs are small relative to the potential gain in calories— but rather in the damage that any successful cheater would do to its siblings, which share genes with one another. Estimates indicate that the aquifer contains enough water to fill Lake Huron, but unfortunately, under the semiarid climatic conditions that presently exist in the region, rates of addition to the aquifer are minimal, amounting to about half a centimeter a year.
    • 7. 长句解析-四百句
      • 托福长难句结构阅读 400 句 (OG & TPO) 1. The same thing happens to this day, though on a smaller scale, wherever a sediment-laden river or stream emerges from a mountain valley onto relatively flat land, dropping its load as the current slows: the water usually spreads out fanwise, depositing the sediment in the form of a smooth, fan-shaped slope. 2. Unfortunately, the cost of water obtained through any of these schemes would increase pumping costs at least tenfold, making the cost of irrigated agricultural products from the region uncompetitive on the national and international markets. Fortunately, such efforts made by the university through all of these projects would sharpen graduates’ competitive edge to the best, encouraging them to sooner familiarize and adapt to their future workplace. 3. Timberline trees are normally evergreens, suggesting that they have advantage over deciduous trees (those that lose their leaves) in the extreme environments of the upper timberline. 4. It should be noted, however, that the pure opportunist or pure competitor is rare in nature, as most species fall between the extremes of a continuum, exhibiting a blend of some opportunistic and some competitive characteristics. 5. But the myths that have grown up around the rites may continue as part of the group’s oral tradition and may even come to be acted out under conditions divorced from these rites. 6. The Ogallala aquifer is a sandstone formation that underlies some 583,000 square kilometers of land extending from northwestern Texas to southern South Dakota. 7. If the pores are large, the water in them will exist as drops too heavy for surface tension to hold, and it will drain away; but if the pores are small enough, the water in them will exist as thin films, too light to overcome the force of surface tension holding them in place; then the water will be firmly held. 8. But note that porosity is not the same as permeability, which measures the ease with which water can flow through a material; this depends on the sizes of the individual cavities and the crevices linking them. 9. In lowland country almost any spot on the ground may overlie what was once the bed of a river that has since become buried by soil; if they are now below the water’s upper surface (the water table), the gravels and sands of the former riverbed, and its sandbars, will be saturated with groundwater. 10. Another, advanced in the twentieth century, suggests that humans have a gift for fantasy, through which they seek to reshape reality into more satisfying forms than those encountered in daily life. 11. For example, one sign of this condition is the appearance of the comic vision, since comedy requires sufficient detachment to view some deviations from social norms as ridiculous rather than as serious threats to the welfare of the entire group. 12. This is particularly true for trees in the middle and upper latitudes, which tend to attain greater heights on ridges, whereas in the tropics the trees reach their greater heights in the valleys. 13. As the snow is deeper and lasts longer in the valleys, trees tend to attain greater heights on the ridges, even though they are more exposed to high-velocity winds and poor, thin soils there 14. Wind velocity also increases with altitude and may cause serious stress for trees, as is made evident by the deformed shapes at high altitudes. 15. Some scientists have proposed that the presence of increasing levels of ultraviolet light with elevation may play a role, while browsing and grazing animals like the ibex may be another contributing factor. 16. Probably the most important environmental factor is temperature, for if the growing season is too short and temperatures are too low, tree shoots and buds cannot mature sufficiently to survive the winter months. 17. Immediately adjacent to the timberline, the tundra consists of a fairly complete cover of low-lying shrubs, herbs, and grasses, while higher up the number and diversity of species decrease until there is much bare ground with occasional mosses and lichens and some prostrate cushion plants. 18. In order for the structure to achieve the size and strength necessary to meet its purpose, architecture employs methods of support that, because they are based on physical laws, have changed little since people first discovered them-even while building materials have changed dramatically. 19. Some of the world’s finest stone architecture can be seen in the ruins of the ancient Inca city of Machu Picchu high in the eastern Andes Mountains of Peru. 20. It works in compression to divert the weight above it out to the sides, where the weight is borne by the vertical elements on either side of the arch. 21. Whatever the final answer to the water crisis may be, it is evident that within the High Plains, irrigation water will never again be the abundant, inexpensive resource it was during the agricultural boom years of the mid-twentieth century. 22. To take an extreme example, farmlands dominated by a single crop are so unstable that one year of bad weather or the invasion of a single pest can destroy the entire crop. 23. Ecologists are especially interested to know what factors contribute to the resilience of communities because climax communities all over the world are being severely damaged or destroyed by human activities. 24. The destruction caused by the volcanic explosion of Mount St. Helens, in the northwestern United States, for example, pales in comparison to the destruction caused by humans. 25. Many ecologists now think that the relative long-term stability of climax communities comes not from diversity but from the “patchiness” of the environment, an environment that varies from place to place supports more kinds of organisms than an environment that is uniform. 26. Similarly, a plant or animal cannot squander all its energy on growing a big body if none would be left over for reproduction, for this is the surest way to extinction. 27. At the other extreme are “competitors,” almost all of whose resources are invested in building a huge body, with a bare minimum allocated to reproduction. 28. A new plant will spring up wherever a seed falls on a suitable soil surface, but because they do not build big bodies, they cannot compete with other plants for space, water, or sunlight. 29. These plants are termed opportunists because they rely on their seeds’ falling into settings where competing plants have been removed by natural processes, such as along an eroding riverbank, on landslips, or where a tree falls and creates a gap in the forest canopy. 30. Human landscapes of lawns, fields, or flowerbeds provide settings with bare soil and a lack of competitors that are perfect habitats for colonization by opportunists. 31. A massive oak claims its ground for 200 years or more, outcompeting all other would-be canopy trees by casting a dense shade and drawing up any free water in the soil. 32. Because some paintings were made directly over others, obliterating them, it is probable that a painting’s value ended with the migration it pictured. 33. One Lascaux narrative picture, which shows a man with a birdlike head and a wounded animal, would seem to lend credence to this third opinion, but there is still much that remains unexplained. 34. Perhaps so much time has passed that there will never be satisfactory answers to the cave images, but their mystique only adds to their importance. 35. In 1994 there were nearly 20,000 wind turbines worldwide, most grouped in clusters called wind farms that collectively produced 3,000 megawatts of electricity. 36. Most were in Denmark (which got 3 percent of its electricity from wind turbines) and California (where 17,000 machines produced 1 percent of the state’s electricity, enough to meet the residential needs of a city as large as San Francisco). 37. In the long run, electricity from large wind farms in remote areas might be used to make hydrogen gas from water during periods when there is less than peak demand for electricity. 38. Large wind farms might also interfere with the flight patterns of migratory birds in certain areas, and they have killed large birds of prey (especially hawks, falcons, and eagles) that prefer to hunt along the same ridge lines that are ideal for wind turbines. 39. David Douglas, Scottish botanical explorer of the 1830s, found a disturbing change in the animal life around the fort during the period between his first visit in 1825 and his final contact with the fort in 1832. 40. The researchers Peter Ucko and Andree Rosenfeld identified three principal locations of paintings in the caves of western Europe: (1) in obviously inhabited rock shelters and cave entrances; (2) in galleries immediately off the inhabited areas of caves; and (3) in the inner reaches of caves, whose difficulty of access has been interpreted by some as a sign that magical-religious activities were performed there. 41. Perhaps, like many contemporary peoples, Upper Paleolithic men and women believed that the drawing of a human image could cause death or injury, and if that were indeed their belief, it might explain why human figures are rarely depicted in cave art. 42. For example, wild cattle (bovines) and horses are portrayed more often than we would expect by chance, probably because they were larger and heavier (meatier) than other animals in the environment. 43. Consistent with this idea, according to the investigators, is the fact that the art of the cultural period that followed the Upper Paleolithic also seems to reflect how people got their food. 44. But in that period, when getting food no longer depended on hunting large game animals (because they were becoming extinct), the art ceased to focus on portrayals of animals. 45. When the well reaches a pool, oil usually rises up the well because of its density difference with water beneath it or because of the pressure of expanding gas trapped above it. 46. More than one-quarter of the world’s oil and almost one-fifth of the world’s natural gas come from offshore, even though offshore drilling is six to seven times more expensive than drilling on land. 47. While there are a dozen or more mass extinctions in the geological record, the Cretaceous mass extinction has always intrigued paleontologists because it marks the end of the age of the dinosaurs. 48. The explosion lifted about 100 trillion tons of dust into the atmosphere, as can be determined by measuring the thickness of the sediment layer formed when this dust settled to the surface. 49. Such a quantity of material would have blocked the sunlight completely from reaching the surface, plunging Earth into a period of cold and darkness that lasted at least several months. 50. The explosion is also calculated to have produced vast quantities of nitric acid and melted rock that sprayed out over much of Earth, starting widespread fires that must have consumed most terrestrial forests and grassland. 51. Following each mass extinction, there is a sudden evolutionary burst as new species develop to fill the ecological niches opened by the event. 52. Earth is a target in a cosmic shooting gallery, subject to random violent events that were unsuspected a few decades ago. 53. 53. Early in the century, a pump had come into use in which expanding steam raised a piston in a cylinder, and atmospheric pressure brought it down again when the steam condensed inside the cylinder to form a vacuum. 54. The final step came when steam was introduced into the cylinder to drive the piston backward as well as forward thereby increasing the speed of the engine and cutting its fuel consumption. 55. Iron manufacturers which had starved for fuel while depending on charcoal also benefited from ever-increasing supplies of coal; blast furnaces with steam- powered bellows turned out more iron and steel for the new machinery. 56. He received rudimentary village schooling but mostly he roamed his uncle’s farm collecting the fossils that were so abundant in the rocks of the Cotswold Hills. 57. The companies building the canals to transport coal needed surveyors to help them find the coal deposits worth mining as well as to determine the best courses for the canals. 58. In 1831 when Smith was finally recognized by the Geological Society of London as the “father of English geology”, it was not only for his maps but also for something even more important. 59. Maturation of the frontal lobes of the brain continues throughout early childhood, and this part of the brain may be critical for remembering particular episodes in ways that can be retrieved later. 60. Demonstrations of infants’ and toddlers’ long-term memory have involved their repeating motor activities that they had seen or done earlier, such as reaching in the dark for objects, putting a bottle in a doll’s mouth, or pulling apart two pieces of a toy. 61. Through hearing stories with a clear beginning, middle, and ending children may learn to extract the gist of events in ways that they will be able to describe many years later. 62. The world looks very different to a person whose head is only two or three feet above the ground than to one whose head is five or six feet above it. 63. Older children and adults often try to retrieve the names of things they saw, but infants would not have encoded the information verbally. 64. General knowledge of categories of events such as a birthday party or a visit to the doctor’s office helps older individuals encode their experiences, but again, infants and toddlers are unlikely to encode many experiences within such knowledge structures. 65. Physiological immaturity may be part of why infants and toddlers do not form extremely enduring memories, even when they hear stories that promote such remembering in preschoolers. 66. In 1947 Norwegian adventurer Thor Heyerdahl drifted on a balsa-log raft westward with the winds and currents across the Pacific from South America to prove his theory that Pacific islanders were Native Americans (also called American Indians). 67. Contrary to the arguments of some that much of the pacific was settled by Polynesians accidentally marooned after being lost and adrift, it seems reasonable that this feat was accomplished by deliberate colonization expeditions that set out fully stocked with food and domesticated plants and animals. 68. The undisputed pre-Columbian presence in Oceania of the sweet potato, which is a New World domesticate, has sometimes been used to support Heyerdahl’s “American Indians in the Pacific” theories. 69. As Patrick Kirch, an American anthropologist, points out, rather than being brought by rafting South Americans, sweet potatoes might just have easily been brought back by returning Polynesian navigators who could have reached the west coast of South America. 70. Conditions that promote fossilization of soft-bodied animals include very rapid covering by sediments that create an environment that discourages decomposition. 71. This 700-million-year-old formation gives few clues to the origins of modern animals, however, because paleontologists believe it represents an evolutionary experiment that failed. 72. At one time, the animals present in these fossil beds were assigned to various modern animal groups, but most paleontologists now agree that all Tommotian fossils represent unique body forms that arose in the early Cambrian period and disappeared before the end of the period, leaving no descendants in modern animal groups. 73. These fossil beds provide evidence of about 32 modern animal groups, plus about 20 other animal body forms that are so different from any modern animals that they cannot be assigned to any one of the modern groups. 74. With question such as these clearly before them, the scientists aboard the Glomar Challenger processed to the Mediterranean to search for the answers. 75. In all probability it was the fertile plain of Latium, where the Latins who founded Rome originated, that created the habits and skills of landed settlement, landed property, landed economy, landed administration, and a land-based society. 76. Agriculture seems to have reached these people from the Near East, since the first domesticated crops were millets and sorghums whose origins are not African but west Asian. 77. Most of Africa presents a curious case in which societies moved directly from a technology of stone to iron without passing through the intermediate stage of copper or bronze metallurgy, although some early copper-working sites have been found in West Africa. 78. They spoke a language, prior-Bantu (“Bantu” means “the people”), which is the parent tongue of a language of a large number of Bantu languages still spoken throughout sub-Sahara Africa. 79. Why and how these people spread out into central and southern Africa remains a mystery, but archaeologists believe that their iron weapons allowed them to conquer their hunting-gathering opponents, who still used stone implements. 80. With Cuicuilco eliminated as a potential rival, any one of a number of relatively modest towns might have emerged as a leading economic and political power in Central Mexico. 81. The hard volcanic stone was a resource that had been in great demand for many years, at least since the rise of the Olmecs (a people who flourished between 1200 and 400 B.C.), and it apparently had a secure market. 82. Moreover, recent research on obsidian tools found at Olmecs sites has shown that some of the obsidian obtained by the Olmecs originated near Teotihuacán. 83. The growing power of the elite, who controlled the economy, would give them the means to physically coerce people to move to Teotihuacán and serve as additions to the labor force. 84. By measuring how many of these meteorites fall to Earth over a given period of time, scientists can estimate how long it might have taken to deposit the observed amount of lr in the boundary clay. 85. They bear a strong resemblance to river systems on Earth, and geologists think that they are dried-up beds of long-gone rivers that once carried rainfall on Mars from the mountains down into the valleys. 86. Runoff channels on Mars speak of a time 4 billion years ago (the age of the Martian highlands), when the atmosphere was thicker, the surface warmer, and liquid water widespread. 87. The onrushing water arising from these flash floods likely also formed the odd teardrop-shaped “islands” (resembling the miniature versions seen in the wet sand of our beaches at low tide) that have been found on the plains close to the ends of the outflow channels. 88. Judging from the width and depth of the channels, the flow rates must have been truly enormous―perhaps as much as a hundred times greater than the 105 tons per second carried by the great Amazon river. 89. 88. A computer-generated view of the Martian north polar region shows the extent of what may have been an ancient ocean covering much of the northern lowlands. 90. 89. Proponents point to features such as the terraced “beaches” shown in one image, which could conceivably have been left behind as a lake or ocean evaporated and the shoreline receded. 91. But detractors maintain that the terraces could also have been created by geological activity, perhaps related to the geologic forces that depressed the Northern Hemisphere far below the level of the south, in which case they have nothing whatever to do with Martian water. 92. It has long been accepted that the Americas were colonized by a migration of peoples from Asia, slowly traveling across a land bridge called Beringia (now the Bering Strait between northeastern Asia and Alaska) during the last Ice Age. 93. The first water craft theory about the migration was that around 11,000-12,000 years ago there was an ice-free corridor stretching from eastern Beringia to the areas of North America south of the great northern glaciers. 94. But belief in this ice-free corridor began to crumble when paleoecologist Glen MacDonald demonstrated that some of the most important radiocarbon dates used to support the existence of an ice-free corridor were incorrect. 95. He theorized that with the use of watercraft, people gradually colonized glaciated refuges and areas along the continental shelf exposed by the lower sea level. 96. Fladmark’s hypothesis received additional support from the fact that the greatest diversity in Native American languages occurs along the west coast of the Americans, suggesting that this region has been settled the longest. 97. Vast areas along the coast may have been deglaciated beginning around16, 000 years ago, possibly providing a coastal corridor for the movement of plants, animals, and humans sometime between 13,000 and 14,000 years ago. 98. The coastal hypothesis has gained increasing support in recent years because the remains of large land animals, such as caribou and brown bears, have been found in southeastern Alaska dating between 10,000 and 12,500 years ago. 99. Fladmark and others believe that the first human colonization of America occurred by boat along the Northwest Coast during the very late Ice Age, possibly as early as 14,000 years ago. 100. The most recent geologic evidence indicates that it may have been possible for people to colonize ice-free regions along the continental shelf that were still exposed by the lower sea level between 13,000 and 14,000 ago. 101. They were concerned that many would be drawn to these new, refreshing conceptions of teaching only to find that the void between the abstractions and the realities of teacher reflection is too great to bridge. 102. Further observation revealed the tendency of teachers to evaluate events rather than review the contributory factors in a considered manner by, in effect, standing outside the situation. 103. The researchers estimate that the initial training of the same teachers to view events objectively took between 20 and 30 hours, with the same number of hours again being required to practice the skills of reflection. 104. The teachers in the program described how they found it difficult to put aside the immediate demands of others in order to give themselves the time they needed to develop their reflective skills. 105. Support and encouragement were also required to help teachers in the program cope with aspects of their professional life with which they were not comfortable. 106. The fungi absorb moisture and mineral salts from the rocks, passing these on in waste products that nourish algae. 107. Lichens helped to speed the decomposition of the hard rock surfaces, preparing a soft bed of soil that was abundantly supplied with minerals that had been carried in the molten rock from the bowels of Earth. 108. By means of these seeds, plants spread more widely to new locations, even to isolated islands like the Hawaiian archipelago, which lies more than 2,000 miles west of California and 3,500 miles east of Japan. 109. Although we now tend to refer to the various crafts according to the materials used to construct them-clay, glass, wood, fiber, and metal-it was once common to think of crafts in terms of function, which led to their being known as the “applied arts.” 110. Since the laws of physics, not some arbitrary decision, have determined the general form of applied-art objects, they follow basic patterns, so much so that functional forms can vary only within certain limits. 111. That this device was a necessary structural compromise is clear from the fact that the cannonball quickly disappeared when sculptors learned how to strengthen the internal structure of a statue with iron braces (iron being much stronger than bronze). 112. Even though the fine arts in the twentieth century often treat materials in new ways, the basic difference in attitude of artists in relation to their materials in the fine arts and the applied arts remains relatively constant. 113. Pakicetus was found embedded in rocks formed from river deposits that were 52 million years old. 114. The structure of the backbone shows, however, that Ambulocetus swam like modern whales by moving the rear portion of its body up and down, even though a fluke was missing. 115. The impact of raindrops on the loose soil tends to transfer fine clay particles into the tiniest soil spaces, sealing them and producing a surface that allows very little water penetration. 116. The gradual drying of the soil caused by its diminished ability to absorb water results in the further loss of vegetation, so that a cycle of progressive surface deterioration is established. 117. During the dry periods that are common phenomena along the desert margins, though, the pressure on the land is often far in excess of its diminished capacity, and desertification results. 118. The increased pressures of expanding populations have led to the removal of woody plants so that many cities and towns are surrounded by large areas completely lacking in trees and shrubs. 119. The increasing use of dried animal waste as a substitute fuel has also hurt the soil because this valuable soil conditioner and source of plant nutrients is no longer being returned to the land. 120. In areas where considerable soil still remains, though, a rigorously enforced program of land protection and cover-crop planting may make it possible to reverse the present deterioration of the surface. 121. The cinema did not emerge as a form of mass consumption until its technology evolved from the initial “peepshow” format to the point where images were projected on a screen in a darkened theater. 122. It was designed for use in Kinetoscope parlors, or arcades, which contained only a few individual machines and permitted only one customer to view a short, 50-foot film at any one time. 123. In the phonograph parlors, customers listened to recordings through individual ear tubes, moving from one machine to the next to hear different recorded speeches or pieces of music. 124. He refused to develop projection technology, reasoning that if he made and sold projectors, then exhibitors would purchase only one machine-a projector-from him instead of several. 125. But the movies differed significantly from these other forms of entertainment, which depended on either live performance or (in the case of the slide-and-lantern shows) the active involvement of a master of ceremonies who assembled the final program. 126. Although early exhibitors regularly accompanied movies with live acts, the substance of the movies themselves is mass-produced, prerecorded material that can easily be reproduced by theaters with little or no active participation by the exhibitor. 127. Even though early exhibitors shaped their film programs by mixing films and other entertainments together in whichever way they thought would be most attractive to audiences or by accompanying them with lectures, their creative control remained limited. 128. With the advent of projection, the viewer’s relationship with the image was no longer private, as it had been with earlier peepshow devices such as the Kinetoscope and the Mutoscope, which was a similar machine that reproduced motion by means of successive images on individual photographic cards instead of on strips of celluloid. 129. At the same time, the image that the spectator looked at expanded from the minuscule peepshow dimensions of 1 or 2 inches (in height) to the life-size proportions of 6 or 9 feet. 130. Those individuals who possess characteristics that provide them with anadvantage in the struggle for existence are more likely to survive and contribute their genes to the next generation. 131. Because aggressive individuals are more likely to survive and reproduce, whatever genes are linked to aggressive behavior are more likely to be transmitted to subsequent generations. 132. Children normally desire to vent aggressive impulses on other people, including their parents, because even the most attentive parents cannot gratify all of their demands immediately. 133. People decide whether they will act aggressively or not on the basis of factors such as their experiences with aggression and their interpretation of other people’s motives. 134. Factory life necessitated a more regimented schedule, where work began at the sound of a bell and workers kept machines going at a constant pace. 135. One mill worker who finally quit complained revealingly about “obedience to the ding-dong of the bell-just as though we are so many living machines.” 136. Unlike artisan workshops in which apprentices worked closely with the masters supervising them, factories sharply separated workers from management. 137. More than a decade of agitation did finally bring a workday shortened to10 hours to most industries by the 185O’s, and the courts also recognized workers’ right to strike, but these gains had little immediate impact. 138. When not in use, the fins are tucked into special grooves or depressions so that they lie flush with the body and do not break up its smooth contours. 139. They must also keep swimming to keep from sinking, since most have largely or completely lost the swim bladder, the gas-filled sac that helps most other fish remain buoyant. 140. The development of the modern presidency in the United States began with Andrew Jackson who swept to power in 1829 at the head of the Democratic Party and served until 1837. 141. The Fore also displayed familiar facial expressions when asked how they would respond if they were the characters in stories that called for basic emotional responses. 142. Ekman and his colleagues more recently obtained similar results in a study of ten cultures in which participants were permitted to report that multiple emotions were shown by facial expressions. 143. According to this hypothesis, signals from the facial muscles (“feedback) are sent back to emotion centers of the brain, and so a person’s facial expression can influence that person’s emotional state. 144. But when the emotion that leads to stiffening the lip is more intense, and involves strong muscle tension, facial feedback may heighten emotional response. 145. Hills and mountains are often regarded as the epitome of permanence, successfully resisting the destructive forces of nature, but in fact they tend to be relatively short-lived in geological terms. 146. About 400 million years ago, when the present-day continents of North America and Europe were joined, the Caledonian mountain chain was the same size as the modern Himalayas. 147. Glaciers may form in permanently cold areas, and these slowly moving masses of ice cut out valleys, carrying with them huge quantities of eroded rock debris. 148. Fuller devised a type of dance that focused on the shifting play of lights and colors on the voluminous skirts or draperies she wore, which she kept in constant motion principally through movements of her arms, sometimes extended with wands concealed under her costumes. 149. Although her early theatrical career had included stints as an actress, she was not primarily interested in storytelling or expressing emotions through dance; the drama of her dancing emanated from her visual effects. 150. Although she discovered and introduced her art in the United States, she achieved her greatest glory in Paris, where she was engaged by the Folies Bergere in 1892 and soon became “La Loie,” the darling of Parisian audiences. 151. Her interest in color and light paralleled the research of several artists of the period, notably the painter Seurat, famed for his Pointillist technique of creating a sense of shapes and light on canvas by applying extremely small dots of color rather than by painting lines. 152. Although she gave little thought to music in her earliest dances, she later used scores by Gluck, Beethoven, Schubert, Chopin, and Wagner, eventually graduating to Stravinsky, Faure, Debussy, and Mussorgsky, composers who were then considered progressive. 153. Always open to scientific and technological innovations, she befriended the scientists Marie and Pierre Curie upon their discovery of radium and created a Radium Dance, which simulated the phosphorescence of that element. 154. Although she is remembered today chiefly for her innovations in stage lighting, her activities also touched Isadora Duncan and Ruth St. Denis, two other United States dancers who were experimenting with new types of dance. 155. They may change color with changing light conditions and cloud cover, glowing pink or gold in the morning or evening light, but this color change is generally related to the low angle of the Sun above the horizon. 156. One explanation for green icebergs attributes their color to an optical illusion when blue ice is illuminated by a near-horizon red Sun, but green icebergs stand out among white and blue icebergs under a great variety of light conditions. 157. The scientists concluded that green icebergs form when a two-layer block of shelf ice breaks away and capsizes (turns upside down), exposing the bubble-free shelf ice that was formed from seawater. 158. A green iceberg that stranded just west of the Amery Ice Shelf showed two distinct layers: bubbly blue-white ice and bubble-free green ice separated by a one-meter-long ice layer containing sediments. 159. For example, some early societies ceased to consider certain rites essential to their well-being and abandoned them, nevertheless, they retained as parts of their oral tradition the myths that had grown up around the rites and admired them for their artistic qualities rather than for their religious usefulness. 160. Famous explorers of the north American frontier, Lewis and Clark had experienced great difficulty finding game west of the Rockies and not until the second of December did they kill their first elk. 161. We might expect that early artistic efforts would be crude, but the cave paintings of Spain and southern France show a marked degree of skill. So do the naturalistic paintings on slabs of stone excavated in southern Africa. 162. Not only could Smith identify rock strata by the fossils they contained, he could also see a pattern emerging: certain fossils always appear in more ancient sediments, while others begin to be seen as the strata become more recent. 163. Only recently have investigators considered using these plants to clean up soil and waste sites that have been contaminated by toxic levels of heavy metals – an environmentally friendly approach known as phytoremediation. 164. “Had the Greeks held novelty in such disdain as we,” asked Horace in his Epistle, “what work of ancient date would now exist?” 165. Nor did the Whigs envision any conflict in society between farmers and workers on the one hand and businesspeople and bankers on the other. 166. Interbedded with the salt were thin layers of what appeared to be windblown silt. 167. From this arose the Roman genius for military organization and orderly government. 168. With the loss of personal freedom also came the loss of standing in the community. 169. Only when it has been chewed up and digested almost to a liquid can the food pass through the rumen and on through the gut. 170. The commonest spaces are those among the particles—sand grains and tiny pebbles—of loose, unconsolidated sand and gravel. 171. The water was always laden with pebbles, gravel, and sand, known as glacial outwash, that was deposited as the flow slowed down. 172. One, set forth by Aristotle in the fourth century B.C., sees humans as naturally imitative—as taking pleasure in imitating persons, things, and actions and in seeing such imitations. 173. The most widely accepted theory, championed by anthropologists in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, envisions theater as emerging out of myth and ritual. 174. In order for the structure to achieve the size and strength necessary to meet its purpose, architecture employs methods of support that, because they are based on physical laws, have changed little since people first discovered them-even while building materials have changed dramatically. 175. Estimates indicate that the aquifer contains enough water to fill Lake Huron, but unfortunately, under the semiarid climatic conditions that presently exist in the region, rates of addition to the aquifer are minimal, amounting to about half a centimeter a year. 176. Modern irrigation devices, each capable of spraying 4.5 million liters of water a day, have produced a landscape dominated by geometric patterns of circular green islands of crops. 177. This unprecedented development of a finite groundwater resource with an almost negligible natural recharge rate—that is, virtually no natural water source to replenish the water supply—has caused water tables in the region to fall drastically. 178. It is possible that tubes made from animal bones were used for spraying because hollow bones, some stained with pigment, have been found nearby. 179. A third opinion takes psychological motivation much further into the realm of tribal ceremonies and mystery: the belief that certain animals assumed mythical significance as ancient ancestors or protectors of a given tribe or clan. 180. Advocates for this opinion point to reports from people who have experienced a trance state, a highly suggestive state of low consciousness between waking and sleeping. 181. The other species, the Columbian white-tailed deer, in earlier times was common in the open prairie country, it is now restricted to the low, marshy islands and flood plains along the lower Columbia River. 182. Hulmut Buechner (1953), in reviewing the nature of biotic changes in Washington through recorded time, says that “since the early 1940s, the state has had more deer than at any other time in its history, the winter population fluctuating around approximately 320,000 deer (mule and black-tailed deer), which will yield about 65,000 of either sex and any age annually for an indefinite period.” 183. In addition to finding an increase of suitable browse, like huckleberry and vine maple, Arthur Einarsen, longtime game biologist in the Pacific Northwest, found quality of browse in the open areas to be substantially more nutritive. 184. She rejected the technical virtuosity of movement in ballet, the most prestigious form of theatrical dance at that time, perhaps because her formal dance training was minimal. 185. Continued sedimentation—the process of deposits’ settling on the sea bottom—buries the organic matter and subjects it to higher temperatures and pressures, which convert the organic matter to oil and gas. 186. Spillage from huge oil-carrying cargo ships, called tankers, involved in collisions or accidental groundings (such as the one off Alaska in 1989) can create oil slicks at sea. 187. This “atmospheric engine,” invented by Thomas Savery and vastly improved by his partner, Thomas Newcomen, embodied revolutionary principles, but it was so slow and wasteful of fuel that it could not be employed outside the coal mines for which it had been designed. 188. In 1815 he published the first modern geological map “A Map of the Strata of England and Wales with a Part of Scotland”, a map so meticulously researched that it can still be used today. 189. Even without the problem of regional differences, rocks present a difficulty as unique time markers: Quartz is quartz—a silicon ion surrounded by four oxygen ion—there’s no difference at all between two-million-year-old Pleistocene quartz and Cambrian quartz created over 500 million years ago. 190. Limestone may be found in the Cambrian or 300 million years later in the Jurassic strata but a trilobite-the ubiquitous marine arthropod that had its birth in the Cambrian-will never be found in Jurassic strata, nor a dinosaur in the Cambrian. 191. While rock between two consistent strata might in one place be shale and in another sandstone, the fossils in that shale or sandstone were always the same. 192. Nor does the hypothesis that infantile amnesia reflects repression- or holding back- of sexually charged episodes explain the phenomenon. 193. Thus, all three explanations– physiological maturation, hearing and producing stories about past events, and improved encoding of key aspects of events–seem likely to be involved in overcoming infantile amnesia. 194. Aeroponics, a technique in which plants are suspended and the roots misted with a nutrient solution, is another method for growing plants without soil. 195. Saline soils, which have high concentrations of sodium chloride and other salts, limit plant growth, and research continues to focus on developing salt-tolerant varieties of agricultural crops. 196. After several years of cultivation and harvest, the site would be restored at a cost much lower than the price of excavation and reburial, the standard practice for remediation of contaminated soils. 197. The culture of that time, based on archaeology and linguistic reconstruction, is assumed to have had a broad inventory of cultivated plants including taro, yarns, banana, sugarcane, breadfruit, coconut, sago, and rice. 198. As a result of crustal adjustments and faulting, the Strait of Gibraltar, where the Mediterranean now connects to the Atlantic, opened, and water cascaded spectacularly back into the Mediterranean. 199. These peoples settled at first in scattered hunting-and-gathering bands, although in some places near lakes and rivers, people who fished, with a more secure food supply, lived in larger population concentrations. 200. Their migration may have been set in motion by an increase in population caused by a movement of people’s fleeing the desiccation, or drying up, of the Sahara. 201. It seems likely that Teotihuacán’s natural resources―along with the city elite’s ability to recognize their potential―gave the city a competitive edge over its neighbors. 202. Off and on throughout the Cretaceous (the last period of the Mesozoic era, during which dinosaurs flourished), large shallow seas covered extensive areas of the continents. 203. Data from diverse sources, including geochemical evidence preserved in seafloor sediments, indicate that the Late Cretaceous climate was milder than today’s. 204. It’s hard to understand why they would not be affected, whereas dinosaurs were left too crippled to cope, especially if, as some scientists believe, dinosaurs were warm-blooded. 205. In view of these facts, scientists hypothesized that a single large asteroid, about 10 to 15 kilometers across, collided with Earth, and the resulting fallout created the boundary clay. 206. These flow features are extensive systems ―sometimes hundreds of kilometers in total length ―of interconnecting, twisting channels that seem to merge into larger, wider channels. 207. A 2003 Mars Global Surveyor image shows what mission specialists think may be a delta―a fan-shaped network of channels and sediments where a river once flowed into a larger body of water, in this case a lake filling a crater in the southern highlands. 208. The Hellas Basin, which measures some 3,000 kilometers across and has a floor that lies nearly 9 kilometers below the basin’s rim, is another candidate for an ancient Martian sea. 209. Furthermore, Mars Global Surveyor data released in 2003 seem to indicate that the Martian surface contains too few carbonate rock layers ―layers containing compounds of carbon and oxygen ―that should have been formed in abundance in an ancient ocean. 210. Aside from some small-scale gullies (channels) found since2000, which are inconclusive, astronomers have no direct evidence for liquid water anywhere on the surface of Mars today, and the amount of water vapor in the Martian atmosphere is tiny. 211. It had been assumed that the ice extended westward from the Alaskan/Canadian mountains to the very edge of the continental shelf, the flat, submerged part of the continent that extend into the ocean. 212. One study suggests that except for a 250-mile coastal area between southwestern British Columbia and Washington State, the Northwest Coast of North America was largely free of ice by approximately 16,000 years ago. 213. Teachers, it is thought, benefit from the practice of reflection, the conscious act of thinking deeply about and carefully examining the interactions and events within their own classrooms. 214. Wildman and Niles were particularly interested in investigating the conditions under which reflection might flourish-a subject on which there is little guidance in the literature. 215. The teachers were taken through a program of talking about teaching events, moving on to reflecting about specific issues in a supported, and later an independent, manner. 216. Further observation revealed the tendency of teachers to evaluate events rather than review the contributory factors in a considered manner by, in effect, standing outside the situation. 217. There appear to be many unexplored matters about the motivation to reflect-for example, the value of externally motivated reflection as opposed to that of teachers who might reflect by habit. 218. It is significant that the earliest living things that built communities on these islands are examples of symbiosis, a phenomenon that depends upon the close cooperation of two or more forms of life and a principle that is very important in island communities. 219. Now, other forms of life could take hold: ferns and mosses (two of the most ancient types of land plants) that flourish even in rock crevices. 220. These plants propagate by producing spores-tiny fertilized cells that contain all the instructions for making a new plant-but the spores are unprotected by any outer coating and carry no supply of nutrient. 221. However, unlike the cases of sea otters and pinnipeds (seals, sea lions, and walruses, whose limbs are functional both on land and at sea), it is not easy to envision what the first whales looked like. 222. Many incomplete skeletons were found but they included, for the first time in an archaeocyte, a complete hind leg that features a foot with three tiny toes. 223. The deserts, which already occupy approximately a fourth of the Earth’s land surface, have in recent decades been increasing at an alarming pace. 224. For the price of 25 cents (or 5 cents per machine), customers moved from machine to machine to watch five different films (or, in the case of famous prizefights, successive rounds of a single fight). 225. Edison was more interested in the sale of Kinetoscopes (for roughly $1,000 apiece) to these parlors than in the films that would be run in them (which cost approximately $10 to $15 each). 226. The Democrats tended to view society as a continuing conflict between “the people”-farmers, planters, and workers-and a set of greedy aristocrats. 227. All groups, including the Fore, who had almost no contact with Western culture, agreed on the portrayed emotions. 228. On the other hand, the repression, as far as possible, of all outward signs softens our emotions. 229. Causing participants in experiments to smile, for example, leads them to report more positive feelings and to rate cartoons (humorous drawings of people or situations) as being more humorous. 230. Ekman has found that the so-called Duchenne smile, which is characterized by ”crow’s feet” wrinkles around the eyes and a subtle drop in the eye cover fold so that the skin above the eye moves down slightly toward the eyeball, can lead to pleasant feelings. 231. Most people consider the landscape to be unchanging, but Earth is a dynamic body, and its surface is continually altering-slowly on the human time scale, but relatively rapidly when compared to the great age of Earth (about 4,500 billion years). 232. Many of her dances represented elements or natural objects—Fire, the Lily, the Butterfly, and so on—and thus accorded well with the fashionable Art Nouveau style, which emphasized nature imagery and fluid, sinuous lines. 233. Her dancing also attracted the attention of French poets and painters of the period, for it appealed to their liking for mystery, their belief in art for art’s sake, a nineteenth-century idea that art is valuable in itself rather than because it may have some moral or educational benefit, and their efforts to synthesize form and content. 234. At the Paris Exposition in 1900, she had her own theater, where, in addition to her own dances, she presented pantomimes by the Japanese actress Sada Yocco. 235. They are formed by glaciers—large rivers of ice that begin inland in the snows of Greenland, Antarctica, and Alaska—and move slowly toward the sea. 236. Recent expeditions have taken ice samples from green icebergs and ice cores—vertical, cylindrical ice samples reaching down to great depths—from the glacial ice shelves along the Antarctic continent. 237. The ice shelf cores, with a total length of 215 meters (705 feet), were long enough to penetrate through glacial ice—which is formed from the compaction of snow and contains air bubbles—and to continue into the clear, bubble-free ice formed from seawater that freezes onto the bottom of the glacial ice. 238. Advocates also point to people who believe that the forces of nature are inhabited by spirits, particularly shamans* who believe that an animal’s spirit and energy is transferred to them while in a trance. 239. The researchers Peter Ucko and Andree Rosenfeld identified three principal locations of paintings in the caves of western Europe: (1) in obviously inhabited rock shelters and cave entrances; (2) in galleries immediately off the inhabited areas of caves; and (3) in the inner reaches of caves, whose difficulty of access has been interpreted by some as a sign that magical-religious activities were performed there. 240. At the same time, operators of the first printing presses run by steam rather than by hand found it possible to produce a thousand pages in an hour rather than thirty. 241. Limestone may be found in the Cambrian or 300 million years later in the Jurassic strata but a trilobite-the ubiquitous marine arthropod that had its birth in the Cambrian-will never be found in Jurassic strata, nor a dinosaur in the Cambrian. 242. While rock between two consistent strata might in one place be shale and in another sandstone, the fossils in that shale or sandstone were always the same. 243. The Greeks were wedded to the sea; the Romans, to the land Greek civilization had quality; Rome, mere quantity. 244. Darwin held that many more individuals are produced than can find food and survive into adulthood. 245. Also, skilled artisans did not work by the clock, at a steady pace, but rather in bursts of intense labor alternating with more leisurely time. 246. Can smiling give rise to feelings of good will, for example, and frowning to anger? 247. Consider Darwin’s words: “The free expression by outward signs of an emotion intensifies it. 248. For example, some early societies ceased to consider certain rites essential to their well-being and abandoned them, nevertheless, they retained as parts of their oral tradition the myths that had grown up around the rites and admired them for their artistic qualities rather than for their religious usefulness. 249. Because some paintings were made directly over others, obliterating them, it is probable that a painting’s value ended with the migration it pictured. 250. This opinion holds that the pictures and whatever ceremony they accompanied were an ancient method of psychologically motivating hunters. 251. The data they present suggest that the animals portrayed in the cave paintings were mostly the ones that the painters preferred for meat and for materials such as hides. 252. When he grew older William Smith taught himself surveying from books he bought with his small savings and at the age of eighteen he was apprenticed to a surveyor of the local parish. 253. Scientists felt that they could get an idea of how long the extinctions took by determining how long it took to deposit this one centimeter of clay and they thought they could determine the time it took to deposit the clay by determining the amount of the element iridium (lr) it contained. 254. Wildman and Niles make a summary comment: “Perhaps the most important thing we learned is the idea of the teacher-as-reflective-practitioner will not happen simply because it is a good or even compelling idea.” 255. Even the kind of stability defined as simple lack of change is not always associated with maximum diversity. 256. Even if the new population is of a different species, it can approximately fill the niche vacated by the extinct population and keep the food web intact. 257. Their seed heads raised just high enough above the ground to catch the wind, the plants are no bigger than they need be, their stems are hollow, and all the rigidity comes from their water content. 258. By contrast, in the United States an estimated 97 million birds are killed each year when they collide with buildings made of plate glass, 57 million are killed on highways each year; at least 3.8 million die annually from pollution and poisoning; and millions of birds are electrocuted each year by transmission and distribution lines carrying power produced by nuclear and coal power plants. 259. A recent Douglas biographer states:” The deer which once picturesquely dotted the meadows around the fort were gone [in 1832], hunted to extermination in order to protect the crops.” 260. Scientists first identified this impact in 1980 from the worldwide layer of sediment deposited from the dust cloud that enveloped the planet after the impact. 261. Only a few organisms especially tolerant of very salty conditions remained. 262. Paleontologists have argued for a long time that the demise of the dinosaurs was caused by climatic alterations associated with slow changes in the positions of continents and seas resulting from plate tectonics. 263. The answer may be that virtually all the water on Mars is now locked in the permafrost layer under the surface, with more contained in the planet’s polar caps. 264. But belief in this ice-free corridor began to crumble when paleoecologist 265. Glen MacDonald demonstrated that some of the most important radiocarbon dates used to support the existence of an ice-free corridor were incorrect. 266. Spores light enough to float on the breezes were carried thousands of miles from more ancient lands and deposited at random across the bare mountain flanks. 267. Interestingly enough, several of these hydrodynamic adaptations resemble features designed to improve the aerodynamics of high-speed aircraft. 268. Those queried ranged from European college students to members of the Fore, a tribe that dwells in the New Guinea highlands. 269. Perceiving an apparent connection between certain actions performed by the group and the result it desires, the group repeats, refines and formalizes those actions into fixed ceremonies, or rituals. 270. One, set forth by Aristotle in the fourth century B.C., sees humans as naturally imitative—as taking pleasure in imitating persons, things, and actions and in seeing such imitations. 271. A more complicated system is, in general, more likely than a simple system to break down. 272. The killing of birds of prey by wind turbines has pitted environmentalists who champion wildlife protection against environmentalists who promote renewable wind energy. 273. Second, conservation has been insured by limiting times for and types of hunting. 274. It has been suggested that these figurines were an ideal type or an expression of a desire for fertility. 275. A third likely explanation for infantile amnesia involves incompatibilities between the ways in which infants encode information and the ways in which older children and adults retrieve it. 276. Whether people can remember an event depends critically on the fit between the way in which they earlier encoded the information and the way in which they later attempt to retrieve it. 277. Critics also point out that the shallow seaways had retreated from and advanced on the continents numerous times during the Mesozoic, so why did the dinosaurs survive the climatic changes associated with the earlier fluctuations but not with this one? 278. This would have created a barrier of ice extending from the Alaska Peninsula, through the Gulf of Alaska and southward along the Northwest Coast of North America to what is today the state of Washington. 279. Teachers, it is thought, benefit from the practice of reflection, the conscious act of thinking deeply about and carefully examining the interactions and events within their own classrooms. 280. They describe the initial understanding in the teachers with whom they were working as being “utilitarian…and not rich or detailed enough to drive systematic reflection.” 281. Liston (1987) point out the inconsistency between the role of the teacher as a (reflective) professional decision maker and the more usual role of the teacher as a technician, putting into practice the ideas of others. 282. Other features, however, show experts that Pakicetus is a transitional form between a group of extinct flesh-eating mammals, the mesonychids, and cetaceans. 283. Sociobiology views much social behavior, including aggressive behavior, as genetically determined. 284. The Democrats tended to view society as a continuing conflict between ”the people”-farmers, planters, and workers-and a set of greedy aristocrats. 285. Nor did the Whigs envision any conflict in society between farmers and workers on the one hand and businesspeople and bankers on the other. 286. The new age of machinery, in short, could not have been born without a new source of both movable and constant power. 287. Of course, the contrast is not quite so stark: in Alexander the Great the Greeks had found the greatest territorial conqueror of all time; and the Romans, once they moved outside Italy, did not fail to learn the lessons of sea power. 288. It would therefore not be too great an exaggeration to say that practitioners of the fine arts work to overcome the limitations of their materials, whereas those engaged in the applied arts work in concert with their materials. 289. Their streamlined bodies, the absence of hind legs, and the presence of a fluke1 and blowhole2 cannot disguise their affinities with land dwelling mammals. 290. It appears that unlike salt, dissolved organic substances are not excluded from the ice in the freezing process. 291. Having little understanding of natural causes, it attributes both desirable and undesirable occurrences to supernatural or magical forces, and it searches for means to win the favor of these forces. 292. Performers may wear costumes and masks to represent the mythical characters or supernatural forces in the rituals or in accompanying celebrations. 293. But the myths that have grown up around the rites may continue as part of the group’s oral tradition and may even come to be acted out under conditions divorced from these rites. 294. When this occurs, the first step has been taken toward theater as an autonomous activity, and thereafter entertainment and aesthetic values may gradually replace the former mystical and socially efficacious concerns. 295. Thus, the recalling of an event (a hunt, battle, or other feat) is elaborated through the narrator’s pantomime and impersonation and eventually through each role being assumed by a different person. 296. A closely related theory sees theater as evolving out of dances that are primarily pantomimic, rhythmical or gymnastic, or from imitations of animal noises and sounds. 297. One, set forth by Aristotle in the fourth century B.C., sees humans as naturally imitative—as taking pleasure in imitating persons, things, and actions and in seeing such imitations. 298. Thus, fantasy or fiction (of which drama is one form) permits people to objectify their anxieties and fears, confront them, and fulfill their hopes in fiction if not fact. 299. For example, some early societies ceased to consider certain rites essential to their well-being and abandoned them, nevertheless, they retained as parts of their oral tradition the myths that had grown up around the rites and admired them for their artistic qualities rather than for their religious usefulness. 300. For example, some early societies ceased to consider certain rites essential to their well-being and abandoned them, nevertheless, they retained as parts of their oral tradition the myths that had grown up around the rites and admired them for their artistic qualities rather than for their religious usefulness. 301. Enormous changes in materials and techniques of construction within the last few generations have made it possible to enclose space with much greater ease and speed and with a minimum of material. 302. Modern architectural forms generally have three separate components comparable to elements of the human body; a supporting skeleton or frame, an outer skin enclosing the interior spaces, equipment, similar to the body’s vital organs and systems. 303. Other, however, have adopted the philosophy that it is best to use the water while it is still economically profitable to do so and to concentrate on high-value crops such as cotton. 304. The incentive of the farmers who wish to conserve water is reduced by their knowledge that many of their neighbors are profiting by using great amounts of water, and in the process are drawing down the entire region’s water supplies. 305. In the face of the upcoming water supply crisis, a number of grandiose schemes have been developed to transport vast quantities of water by canal or pipeline from the Mississippi, the Missouri, or the Arkansas rivers. 306. Their seed heads raised just high enough above the ground to catch the wind, the plants are no bigger than they need be, their stems are hollow, and all the rigidity comes from their water content. 307. These plants are termed opportunists because they rely on their seeds’ falling into settings where competing plants have been removed by natural processes, such as along an eroding riverbank, on landslips, or where a tree falls and creates a gap in the forest canopy. 308. A population of oaks is likely to be relatively stable through time, and its survival is likely to depend more on its ability to withstand the pressures of competition or predation than on its ability to take advantage of chance events. 309. Most were in Denmark (which got 3 percent of its electricity from wind turbines) and California (where 17,000 machines produced 1 percent of the state’s electricity, enough to meet the residential needs of a city as large as San Francisco). 310. With a moderate to fairly high net energy yield, these systems emit no heat-trapping carbon dioxide or other air pollutants and need no water for cooling; manufacturing them produces little water pollution. 311. Backup power could also be provided by linking wind farms with a solar cell, with conventional or pumped-storage hydropower, or with efficient natural-gas-burning turbines. 312. Large wind farms might also interfere with the flight patterns of migratory birds in certain areas, and they have killed large birds of prey (especially hawks, falcons, and eagles) that prefer to hunt along the same ridge lines that are ideal for wind turbines. 313. Some analysts also contend that the number of birds killed by wind turbines is dwarfed by birds killed by other human-related sources and by the potential loss of entire bird species from possible global warming. 314. By contrast, in the United States an estimated 97 million birds are killed each year when they collide with buildings made of plate glass, 57 million are killed on highways each year; at least 3.8 million die annually from pollution and poisoning; and millions of birds are electrocuted each year by transmission and distribution lines carrying power produced by nuclear and coal power plants. 315. Where the forest inhibits the growth of grass and other meadow plants, the black-tailed deer browses on huckleberry, dogwood, and almost any other shrub or herb. 316. The early explorers and settlers told of abundant deer in the early 1800s and yet almost in the same breath bemoaned the lack of this succulent game animal. 317. A worsening of the plight of deer was to be expected as settlers encroached on the land, logging, burning, and clearing, eventually replacing a wilderness landscape with roads, cities, towns, and factories. 318. Wild life zoologist Hulmut Buechner(1953), in reviewing the nature of biotic changes in Washington through recorded time, says that “since the early 1940s, the state has had more deer than at any other time in its history, the winter population fluctuating around approximately 320,000 deer (mule and black-tailed deer), which will yield about 65,000 of either sex and any age annually for an indefinite period.” 319. In addition, the paintings mostly portray animals that the painters may have feared the most because of their size, speed, natural weapons such as tusks and horns, and the unpredictability of their behavior. 320. Continued sedimentation—the process of deposits’ settling on the sea bottom—buries the organic matter and subjects it to higher temperatures and pressures, which convert the organic matter to oil and gas. 321. The development of the oil field on the North Slope of Alaska and the construction of the Alaska pipeline are examples of the great expense and difficulty involved in new oil discoveries. 322. Moreover, getting petroleum out of the ground and from under the sea and to the consumer can create environmental problems anywhere along the line. 323. The body that impacted Earth at the end of the Cretaceous period was a meteorite with a mass of more than a trillion tons and a diameter of at least 10 kilometers. 324. Only the last of these was suited at all to the continuous operating of machines, and although waterpower abounded in Lancashire and Scotland and ran grain mills as well as textile mills, it had one great disadvantage ： streams flowed where nature intended them to and water-driven factories had to be located on their banks whether or not the location was desirable for other reasons. 325. In the 1760s, James Watt perfected a separate condenser for the steam, so that the cylinder did not have to be cooled at every stroke; then he devised a way to make the piston turn a wheel and thus convert reciprocating (back and forth) motion into rotary motion. 326. Coal gas rivaled smoky oil lamps and flickering candles, and early in the new century, well-to-do Londoners grew accustomed to gaslit houses and even streets. 327. Another generation passed before inventors succeeded in combining these ingredients by putting the engine on wheels and the wheels on the rails, so as to provide a machine to take the place of the horse. 328. When he grew older William Smith taught himself surveying from books he bought with his small savings and at the age of eighteen he was apprenticed to a surveyor of the local parish. 329. The companies building the canals to transport coal needed surveyors to help them find the coal deposits worth mining as well as to determine the best courses for the canals. 330. He later worked on similar jobs across the length and breadth of England all the while studying the newly revealed strata and collecting all the fossils he could find. 331. But as more and more accumulations of strata were cataloged in more and more places, it became clear that the sequences of rocks sometimes differed from region to region and that no rock type was ever going to become a reliable time marker throughout the world. 332. Some fossils endured through so many millions of years that they appear in many strata, but others occur only in a few strata, and a few species had their births and extinctions within one particular stratum. 333. This view is supported by a variety of factors that can create mismatches between very young children’s encoding and older children’s and adults’ retrieval efforts. 334. Conversely, improved encoding of what they hear may help them better understand and remember stories and thus make the stories more useful for remembering future events. 335. Mineral deficiencies can often be detected by specific symptoms such as chlorosis (loss of chlorophyll resulting in yellow or white leaf issue), necrosis (isolated dead patches), anthocyanin formation (development of deep red pigmentation of leaves or stem), stunted growth, and development of woody tissue in an herbaceous plant. 336. Later Heyerdahl suggested that the Pacific was peopled by three migrations: by Native Americans from the Pacific Northwest of North America drifting to Hawaii, by Peruvians drifting to Easter Island, and by Melanesians. 337. Contrary to these theorists, the overwhelming evidence of physical anthropology, linguistics, and archaeology shows that the Pacific islanders came from Southeast Asia and were skilled enough as navigators to sail against the prevailing winds and currents. 338. The basic cultural requirements for the successful colonization of the Pacific islands include the appropriate boat-building, sailing, and navigation skills to get to the islands in the first place, domesticated plants and gardening skills suited to often marginal conditions, and a varied inventory of fishing implements and techniques. 339. It is now generally believed that these prerequisites originated with peoples speaking Austronesian languages (a group of several hundred related languages) and began to emerge in Southeast Asia by about 5000 B. C.E. 340. These expeditions were likely driven by population growth and political dynamics on the home islands, as well as the challenge and excitement of exploring unknown waters. 341. Because all Polynesians, Micronesians, and many Melanesians speak Austronesian languages and grow crops derived from Southeast Asia, all these peoples most certainly derived from that region and not the New World or elsewhere. 342. The geologic timescale is marked by significant geologic and biological events, including the origin of Earth about 4.6 billion years ago, the origin of life about 3.5 billion years ago, the origin of eukaryotic life-forms (living things that have cells with true nuclei) about 1.5 billion years ago, and the origin of animals about 0.6 billion years ago. 343. One interpretation regarding the absence of fossils during this important 100-million-year period is that early animals were soft bodied and simply did not fossilize. 344. Were they salt domes such as are common along the United States Gulf Coast, and if so, why should there have been so much solid crystalline salt beneath the floor of the Mediterranean? 345. Like the stone of Roman wall, which were held together both by the regularity of the design and by that peculiarly powerful Roman cement, so the various parts of the Roman realm were bonded into a massive, monolithic entity by physical, organizational, and psychological controls. 346. The physical bonds included the network of military garrisons, which were stationed in every province, and the network of stone-built roads that linked the provinces with Rome. 347. The organizational bonds were based on the common principles of law and administration and on the universal army of officials who enforced common standards of conduct. 348. The psychological controls were built on fear and punishment—on the absolute certainty that anyone or anything that threatened the authority of Rome would be utterly destroyed. 349. Of course, the contrast is not quite so stark: in Alexander the Great the Greeks had found the greatest territorial conqueror of all time; and the Romans, once they moved outside Italy, did not fail to learn the lessons of sea power. 350. In turn, a deep attachment to the land, and to the stability which rural life engenders, fostered the Roman virtues: gravitas, a sense of responsibility, peitas, a sense of devotion to family and country, and iustitia, a sense of the natural order. 351. As always, there are the power worshippers, especially among historians, who are predisposed to admire whatever is strong, who feel more attracted to the might of Rome than to the subtlety of Greece. 352. It may have developed independently, but many scholars believe that the spread of agriculture and iron throughout Africa linked it to the major centers of the Near East and Mediterranean world. 353. Rock paintings in the Sahara indicate that horses and chariots were used to traverse the desert and that by 300-200 B.C., there were trade routes across the Sahara. 354. This was an important innovation, because the camel’s abilities to thrive in harsh desert conditions and to carry large loads cheaply made it an effective and efficient means of transportation. 355. Unlike in the Americas, where metallurgy was a very late and limited development, Africans had iron from a relatively early date, developing ingenious furnaces to produce the high heat needed for production and to control the amount of air that reached the carbon and iron ore necessary for making iron. 356. It had over 2,000 apartment complexes, a great market, a large number of industrial workshops, an administrative center, a number of massive religious edifices, and a regular grid pattern of streets and buildings. 357. Among the main factors are Teotihuacán’s geographic location on a natural trade route to the south and east of the Valley of Mexico, the obsidian resources in the Teotihuacán Valley itself, and the valley’s potential for extensive irrigation. 358. The exact role of other factors is much more difficult to pinpoint―for instance, Teotihuacán’s religious significance as a shrine, the historical situation in and around the Valley of Mexico toward the end of the first millennium B.C., the ingenuity and foresightedness of Teotihuacán’s elite, and, finally, the impact of natural disasters, such as the volcanic eruptions of the late first millennium B.C. 359. The picture of Teotihuacán that emerges is a classic picture of positive feedback among obsidian mining and working, trade, population growth, irrigation, and religious tourism. 360. The thriving obsidian operation, for example, would necessitate more miners, additional manufacturers of obsidian tools, and additional traders to carry the goods to new markets. 361. Many plants and animals disappear abruptly from the fossil record as one moves from layers of rock documenting the end of the Cretaceous up into rocks representing the beginning of the Cenozoic (the era after the Mesozoic). 362. Their calculations show that the impact kicked up a dust cloud that cut off sunlight for several months, inhibiting photosynthesis in plants; decreased surface temperatures on continents to below freezing; caused extreme episodes of acid rain; and significantly raised long-term global temperatures through the greenhouse effect. 363. Support is growing for the alternative theory that people using watercraft, possibly skin boats, moved southward from Beringia along the Gulf of Alaska and then southward along the Northwest Coast of North America possibly as early as 16,000 years ago. 364. Because of the barrier of ice to the east, the Pacific Ocean to the west, and populated areas to the north, there may have been a greater impetus for people to move in a southerly direction. 365. Teachers, it is thought, benefit from the practice of reflection, the conscious act of thinking deeply about and carefully examining the interactions and events within their own classrooms. 366. This was justified by the view that reflective practice could help teachers to feel more intellectually involved in their role and work in teaching and enable them to cope with the paucity of scientific fact and the uncertainty of knowledge in the discipline of teaching. 367. The teachers were taken through a program of talking about teaching events, moving on to reflecting about specific issues in a supported, and later an independent, manner. 368. The first is support from administrators in an education system, enabling teachers to understand the requirements of reflective practice and how it relates to teaching students. 369. Becoming a reflective practitioner requires extra work (Jaworski, 1993) and has only vaguely defined goals with, perhaps, little initially perceivable reward and the threat of vulnerability. 370. There appear to be many unexplored matters about the motivation to reflect-for example, the value of externally motivated reflection as opposed to that of teachers who might reflect by habit. 371. It is significant that the earliest living things that built communities on these islands are examples of symbiosis, a phenomenon that depends upon the close cooperation of two or more forms of life and a principle that is very important in island communities. 372. The applied arts are thus bound by the laws of physics, which pertain to both the materials used in their making and the substances and things to be contained, supported, and sheltered. 373. The skull is cetacean-like but its jawbones lack the enlarged space that is filled with fat or oil and used for receiving underwater sound in modern whales. 374. Several skeletons of another early whale, Basilosaurus, were found in sediments left by the Tethys Sea and now exposed in the Sahara desert. 375. The semiarid lands bordering the deserts exist in a delicate ecological balance and are limited in their potential to adjust to increased environmental pressures. 376. Since the raising of most crops necessitates the prior removal of the natural vegetation, crop failures leave extensive tracts of land devoid of a plant cover and susceptible to wind and water erosion. 377. The consequences of an excessive number of livestock grazing in an area are the reduction of the vegetation cover and the trampling and pulverization of the soil. 378. The extreme seriousness of desertification results from the vast areas of land and the tremendous numbers of people affected, as well as from the great difficulty of reversing or even slowing the process. 379. Exhibitors, however, wanted to maximize their profits, which they could do more readily by projecting a handful of films to hundreds of customers at a time (rather than one at a time) and by charging 25 to 50 cents admission. 380. About a year after the opening of the first Kinetoscope parlor in 1894, showmen such as Louis and Auguste Lumiere, Thomas Armat and Charles Francis Jenkins, and Orville and Woodville Latham (with the assistance of Edison’s former assistant, William Dickson) perfected projection devices. 381. These early projection devices were used in vaudeville theaters, legitimate theaters, local town halls, makeshift storefront theaters, fairgrounds, and amusement parks to show films to a mass audience. 382. Previously, large audiences had viewed spectacles at the theater, where vaudeville, popular dramas, musical and minstrel shows, classical plays, lectures, and slide-and-lantern shows had been presented to several hundred spectators at a time. 383. What audiences came to see was the technological marvel of the movies; the lifelike reproduction of the commonplace motion of trains, of waves striking the shore, and of people walking in the street; and the magic made possible by trick photography and the manipulation of the camera. 384. For example, people who believe that aggression is necessary and justified-as during wartime-are likely to act aggressively, whereas people who believe that a particular war or act of aggression is unjust, or who think that aggression is never justified, are less likely to behave aggressively. 385. Apprentices were considered part of the family, and masters were responsible not only for teaching their apprentices a trade but also for providing them some education and for supervising their moral behavior. 386. Workers were united in resenting the industrial system and their loss of status, but they were divided by ethnic and racial antagonisms, gender, conflicting religious perspectives, occupational differences, political party loyalties, and disagreements over tactics. 387. For them, the factory and industrialism were not agents of opportunity but reminders of their loss of independence and a measure of control over their lives. 388. This “paper money aristocracy” of bankers and investors manipulated the banking system for their own profit, Democrats claimed, and sapped the nation’s virtue by encouraging speculation and the desire for sudden, unearned wealth. 389. They wanted the wealth that the market offered without the competitive, changing society; the complex dealing; the dominance of urban centers; and the loss of independence that came with it. 390. They believed that it should be used to protect individual rights and public liberty, and that it had a special role where individual effort was ineffective. 391. Whigs appealed to planters who needed credit to finance their cotton and rice trade in the world market, to farmers who were eager to sell their surpluses, and to workers who wished to improve themselves. 392. Democrats attracted farmers isolated from the market or uncomfortable with it, workers alienated from the emerging industrial system, and rising entrepreneurs who wanted to break monopolies and open the economy to newcomers like themselves. 393. The Whigs were strongest in the towns, cities, and those rural areas that were fully integrated into the market economy, whereas Democrats dominated areas of semisubsistence farming that were more isolated and languishing economically. 394. Causing participants in experiments to smile, for example, leads them to report more positive feelings and to rate cartoons (humorous drawings of people or situations) as being more humorous. 395. Ekman has found that the so-called Duchenne smile, which is characterized by ”crow’s feet” wrinkles around the eyes and a subtle drop in the eye cover fold so that the skin above the eye moves down slightly toward the eyeball, can lead to pleasant feelings. 396. There are two principal influences that shape the terrain: constructive processes such as uplift, which create new landscape features, and destructive forces such as erosion, which gradually wear away exposed landforms. 397. Today, however, the relics of the Caledonian orogeny (mountain-building period) exist as the comparatively low mountains of Greenland, the northern Appalachians in the United States, the Scottish Highlands, and the Norwegian coastal plateau. 398. The exposed rocks are attacked by the various weather processes and gradually broken down into fragments, which are then carried away and later deposited as sediments. 399. Her dancing also attracted the attention of French poets and painters of the period, for A it appealed to their liking for mystery, their belief in art for art’s sake, a nineteenth-century idea that art is valuable in itself rather than because it may have some moral or educational benefit, and their efforts to synthesize form and content. 400. The forward movement, the melting at the base of the glacier where it meets the ocean, and waves and tidal action cause blocks of ice to break off and float out to sea. 401. Once detached from the ice shelf, these blue bergs drift in the currents and wind systems surrounding Antarctica and can be found scattered among Antarctica’s less colorful icebergs.
    • 8. 长句分析-四百句
      • 1. Immediately adjacent to the timberline, the tundra consists of a fairly complete cover of low-lying shrubs, herbs, and grasses, while higher up the number and diversity of species decrease until there is much bare ground with occasional mosses and lichens and some prostrate cushion plants. 难句类型 : 复杂句子结构 + 大量生僻名词本句比较长 , 理解起来比较有难度 , 因为句子结构有些复杂 , 同时夹杂着众多的生 僻名词。如果一个句子里有超过 5 个单词不认识或者不熟悉 , 对我们的阅读都会构成一定的影响。这句话是一个表示对比关系的复合句 , 主句和从句都各有一个状语来修饰 , 表明条件的变化 ; 然后说明在两种不同条件下植被的构成发生了变化。整句的主干结构是这样的 :adjacent to timberline, the tundra consists of shrubs and grasses and so on, while rise up, the species and diversities will decrease. 同学们只要能读出来这句话的核心意思是 “ 靠近林木线的土地上到处覆盖着灌木和草 , 而海拔高度提高的时候 , 物种减少直到出现大片的荒地 ” 就可以了。 timberline: n. 林木线 ( 树木生长的极限海拔高度 ) tundra: n. 冻原 , 苔原 lichen n. 地衣 , cushion :n. 垫子 , 垫状物 timber + line moss : n. 苔藓 , prostrate:adj. 俯倒 , 拜倒 译文 : 由于紧挨着林木线 , 苔原上比较完整地覆盖着矮灌木、药材和草地。随着海拔的增加物种的数量和多样性会逐渐减少 , 直到出现大片的空地 , 这些空地仅仅伴有零星的苔藓和地衣或者一些伏地植物。 意群训练 : Immediately adjacent to the timberline, the tundra consists of cover of low-lying shrubs, herbs, and grasses, while higher up diversity of species decrease until there is much bare ground mosses and lichens and some prostrate cushion plants. a fairly complete the number and with occasional 2. In order for the structure to achieve the size and strength necessary to meet its purpose, architecture employs methods of support that, because they are based on physical laws, have changed little since people first discovered them—even while building materials have changed dramatically. YeeaooBox 微博 :http://weibo.com/yeeaoobox 1 / 36 TPO 阅读部分难句解析【 YeeaooBox 推荐】免费托福真题素材库 http://www.yeeaoobox.com 难句类型 : 复杂状语 + 复杂句子结构 + 插入成分 + 不明显的倒装 + 抽象名词虽然表面看来这个句子没有什么生词 , 但是这个句子理解起来并不容易 , 因为这个句子中出现的单词都是比较抽象的单词 , 例如 structure, achieve, size, strength, purpose, method, 所以读句子的时候让人觉得不舒服。句子开头就是一个目的状语 , 但是这个状语很长 , 让同学们搞不清楚谁是为了实现谁。主句结构是 architecture employs methods of support, 但是随后作者又用 that 引导了一个定语从句来修饰 method, 并且在定语从句一开始 , that 后面直接用 because 引导了一个插入的句子 , 割裂了定语从句。所以完整的复合句是这样的 :architecture employs methods of support that have changed little since people first discovered them, 到此处作者仍不肯收手 , 用 even while 引导了最后一个从句和定语从句做对比。于是整个句子的结构就变的十分混乱了。实际上 because they are based on physical laws 在句子中位置稍作调整 , 同学们就可以比较清楚的理解这句话了 : architecture employs methods of support that have changed little since people first discovered them, because they are based on physical laws. 所以本句意思是 “ 建筑学上采用了一些支撑的方法 , 这些支撑的方法自它们被人类发现以来就鲜有变化 , 因为它们是建立在物理定律上的 ” 。作者隐含的意思是物理定律不变 , 所以这些方法不变。 译文 : 建筑结构必须达到大小和强度的要求 , 以实现必要的建筑目的 , 因此建筑学上采用一些支撑的方法 , 这些方法都是以物理定律为基础的 , 尽管建筑材料已经发生了翻天覆地的变化 , 这些支撑的方法却自人们发现它们以来就鲜有变化。 意群训练 In order for the structure to achieve the size and strength necessary to meet its purpose, architecture employs methods of support that, because they are based on physical laws, have changed little since people first discovered them—even while building materials have changed dramatically. 3. 难句类型 : 并列句做主语从句 + 插入成分 本句的主句结构是一个 there be 结构 , 句子的主语应该是 two principal influences, 主 句的意思是 “ 两个主要的影响决定了地形 ”, 后面的标点符号用冒号 , 表示冒号后面使用并列句对主语进行具体解释 , 并在每个并列的分句中都插入了一个定语从句。省略掉两个并列分句中的由 which 引导的定语从句 , 并列句应当如下 : There are two principal influences that shape the terrain: constructive processes such as uplift, and destructive forces such as erosion. 在并列结构中两次对称地插入了定语从句 , 把一个好好的句子弄得四分五裂 , 虽然作者的逻辑思路是清晰的 , 但是对同学的阅读造成了不利的影响。此类型的句子在托福阅读中出现的频率很高 , 同学们要多练 , 习惯了这种句子就会发现理解它们并不难。 There are two principal influences that shape the terrain: constructive processes such as uplift, which create new landscape features, and destructive forces such as erosion, which gradually wear away exposed landforms. YeeaooBox 微博 :http://weibo.com/yeeaoobox 2 / 36 TPO 阅读部分难句解析【 YeeaooBox 推荐】免费托福真题素材库 http://www.yeeaoobox.com 译文 : 主要有两种影响会改变地形 : 建设性的过程 , 如产生新的地表特征的地壳隆起 ; 和破坏性的力量 , 如缓慢清除突出地貌的地表侵蚀。 意群训练 : There are two principal influences that shape the terrain: constructive processes such as uplift, which create new landscape features, and destructive forces such as erosion, which gradually wear away exposed landforms. 4. 难句类型 : 复杂修饰 + 插入成分 本句的主句结构很简单 the same thing happens, 但是作者为了说明是什么同样的事情发生 而大费周章 , though on a smaller scale 做插入成分 , 说明现在是在更小的规模上发生同样的事情 , 如果跳过这段插入成分 , 主句和从句连在一起读就是 The same thing happens to this day, wherever a sediment-laden river or stream emerges from a mountain valley onto relatively flat land. 到此处句子并不难理解 , 但是作者用动名词构成的短语 dropping its load as the current slows 来修饰从句 , 表示伴随发生的动作。并在状语结束的时候用冒号 , 引出了一个句子来解释从句。 The same thing happens to this day, though on a smaller scale, wherever a sediment-laden river or stream emerges from a mountain valley onto relatively flat land, dropping its load as the current slows: the water usually spreads out fanwise, depositing the sediment in the form of a smooth, fan-shaped slope. 译文 : 意群训练 , 尽管规模相对较小。凡是有携带泥沙的河流或者溪流从山谷流至相对平 ; 水流通常呈扇形扩散 , 它们所携带的砂 现代也有冰水沉积 坦的地面时 , 砂石就随着水流速度的减慢逐渐沉淀 石也会沉淀为光滑的扇形斜坡。 The same thing happens to this day, though on a smaller scale, wherever a sediment-laden river or stream emerges from a mountain valley onto relatively flat land, dropping its load as the current slows: the water usually spreads out fanwise, depositing the sediment in the form of a smooth, fan-shaped slope. 5. Sediments are also dropped where a river slows on entering a lake or the sea, the deposited sediments are on a lake floor or the seafloor at first, but will be located inland at some future date, when the sea level falls or the land rises; such beds are sometimes thousands of meters thick. YeeaooBox 微博 :http://weibo.com/yeeaoobox 3 / 36 TPO 阅读部分难句解析【 YeeaooBox 推荐】免费托福真题素材库 http://www.yeeaoobox.com 难句类型 : 复杂修饰 + 插入成分 本句的主句结构应当是 Sediments are also dropped,but will be located inland at some future date; such beds are sometimes thousands of meters thick. 这是一个由分号隔开的并列句 , 分号前面的句子结构比较复杂 ,Sedimentsarealsodropped , 后面跟了一个由 where 引导的状语从句 , 紧接着这个状语从句又加上了一个插入结构 , the deposited sediments are on a lake floor or the seafloor at first, 然后才开始进行转折 but will be located inland at some future date, 但是马上又跟上了一个由 when 引导的状语从句。分号后面的半句比较简单 such beds are sometimes thousands of meters thick. 同学们面对这样的句子一定要先找主干 , 把状语从句、插入结构纷纷跳过 , 从纷繁复杂的句子中找出主干来 , 才能不被 ETS 出题人改写的句子所迷惑。 译文 : 当河流汇入湖泊和海洋的时候也会有沉淀 , 这些沉淀最初在湖底或海底 , 但将来海平面 下降或者陆地崛起时 , 它们就会分布于内陆 , 通常厚达几千米。 意群训练 Sediments are also dropped where a river slows on entering a lake or the sea, the deposited sediments are on a lake floor or the seafloor at first, but will be located inland at some future date, when the sea level falls or the land rises; such beds are sometimes thousands of meters thick. 6. 难句类型 : 复杂修饰 + 省略 本句也是一个由分号隔开的并列句 , 主句结构是 almost any spot on the ground may overlie what was once the bed of a river; if they are now below the water’s upper surface, they will be saturated with groundwater. 但是作者在 river 后面用 that 引导了一个定语从句修饰一下 river, 在 surface 后面用括号和两个插入成分 the gravels and sands of the former riverbed,and its sandbars, 打乱了分号前后两个并列句自己内部的主谓宾结构的连贯性。所以阅读时就十分困难。所以我们的对策仍然是先读主干 , 不重要的定语、状语、同位语、插入成分纷纷略过 , 读出核心意思来即可。 译文 : 低地区域上的任何位置可能就是曾经的河床 , 后续被土壤覆盖而变成现在的样子。如果 那些河床和沙洲现在位于地下水位之下 , 一定会有大量的地下水浸在它们的沙砾和沙石之间。 In lowland country almost any spot on the ground may overlie what was once the bed of a river that has since become buried by soil; if they are now below the water’s upper surface (the water table), the gravels and sands of the former riverbed, and its sandbars, will be saturated with groundwater. YeeaooBox 微博 :http://weibo.com/yeeaoobox 4 / 36 TPO 阅读部分难句解析【 YeeaooBox 推荐】免费托福真题素材库 http://www.yeeaoobox.com 意群训练 In lowland country almost any spot on the ground may overlie what was once the bed of a river that has since become buried by soil; if they are now below the water’s upper surface (the water table), the gravels and sands of the former riverbed, and its sandbars, will be saturated with groundwater. 7. For example, some early societies ceased to consider certain rites essential to their well-being and abandoned them, nevertheless, they retained as parts of their oral tradition the myths that had grown up around the rites and admired them for their artistic qualities rather than for their religious usefulness. 难句类型 : 复杂修饰 本句的主句结构应该是 some early societies ceased to consider certain rites and abandoned them, nevertheless, they retained as parts of their oral tradition and admired them for their artistic qualities. 在 rites 后面有 essential to their well-being 做后置定语的修饰成分 , 在 tradition 后面有一个 the myths that had grown up around the rites 的同位语从句 , 在 artistic qualities 后面有一个 rather than for their religious usefulness 进行转折。同学们只要能够读出来本句的核心意思是 “ 一些早期社会的人们取消了仪式。虽然如此 , 人们还是保留了那些口头传述故事的传统 , 是因为出于它们的艺术性。 ” 译文 : 例如 , 一些早期社会的人们认为有的仪式对他们的幸福生活来说不再是必需品 , 并且取 消了那些仪式。虽然如此 , 人们还是保留了那些口头传述故事的传统并且热爱从这些仪式里发展起来的神话 , 出于它们的艺术性 , 而不是宗教原因。 意群训练 : For example, some early societies ceased to consider certain rites essential to their well-being and abandoned them, nevertheless, they retained as parts of their oral tradition the myths that had grown up around the rites and admired them for their artistic qualities rather than for their religious usefulness. 8. 难句类型 : 插入结构 本句其实并不是很难 , 就是有个插入结构和同位语在作怪 , 如果我们跳过插入结构和省略掉 Estimates indicate that the aquifer contains enough water to fill Lake Huron, but unfortunately, under the semiarid climatic conditions that presently exist in the region, rates of addition to the aquifer are minimal, amounting to about half a centimeter a year. YeeaooBox 微博 :http://weibo.com/yeeaoobox 5 / 36 TPO 阅读部分难句解析【 YeeaooBox 推荐】免费托福真题素材库 http://www.yeeaoobox.com 最后的同位语 , 句子就变成了 Estimates indicate that the aquifer contains enough water to fill Lake Huron, but unfortunately, rates of addition to the aquifer are minimal. 这个句子就不难理解 , 同学们只要能读出来这个句子的核心意思是 : 这个含水层水很丰富 , 但是蓄水率却很低。理解这个句子就足够了。 译文 : 据估计 , 奥加拉拉蓄水层的含水量足以填满休伦湖 , 但不幸的是 , 在目前该地区半干旱 的气候条件下 , 奥加拉拉蓄水层的蓄水能力极低 , 每年仅半厘米左右。 意群训练 : Estimates indicate that the aquifer contains enough water to fill Lake Huron, but unfortunately, under the semiarid climatic conditions that presently exist in the region, rates of addition to the aquifer are minimal, amounting to about half a centimeter a year. 9. 难句类型 : 并列句 + 复杂修饰 + 倒装 本句是一个由 and 引导的并列句 , 但是 and 前面的句子比较复杂 , 后面有一个倒装 , 所以句子读起来比较不舒服。首先来看 and 前面的句子 , 在 farmers 后面有一个由 who 引导的定语从句 , 隔开了主语 The incentive 和谓语 is reduced, 谓语后面是由 by 引导的原因状语 , 然后又由 that 引导了一个定语从句来修饰 knowledge, 其实前半句要表达的意思非常简单 , 就是这种节水的热情降低了 ,and 后面的句子是一个倒装 , 全句正常的语序应该是 The incentive of the farmers is reduced, and the entire region’s water supplies are drawing down., 就是说 “ 节水的热情降低了 , 整个地区的水资源供应在减少 ” 就可以了。 译文 : 当那些想节水的农民得知邻居们通过大量耗水的种植而盈利的时候 , 他们的热情降低 了 , 从而导致了整个区域的供水量的减少。 意群训练 : The incentive of the farmers who wish to conserve water is reduced by their knowledge that many of their neighbors are profiting by using great amounts of water, and in the process are drawing down the entire region’s water supplies. 10. The incentive of the farmers who wish to conserve water is reduced by their knowledge that many of their neighbors are profiting by using great amounts of water, and in the process are drawing down the entire region’s water supplies. Timberline trees are normally evergreens, suggesting that these have some advantage over deciduous trees (those that lose their leaves) in the extreme environments of the upper YeeaooBox 微博 :http://weibo.com/yeeaoobox 6 / 36 TPO 阅读部分难句解析【 YeeaooBox 推荐】免费托福真题素材库 http://www.yeeaoobox.com timberline. 难句类型 : 插入成分和状语衔接构成了复杂的从句 本句的主句结构其实特别简单 , 就是 Timberline trees are normally evergreens, 但是后面 跟了一个 suggesting that 引导的从句 , 说这个显示了什么 , 从句的内容比较复杂 , 让同学们读了之后忘记了主句结构其实很简单。其实从句就读 these have some advantage over deciduous trees 就足够了 , 后面的括号中的插入成分和表示地点的状语都是次要内容 ,(those that lose their leaves) in the extreme environments of the upper timberline, 同学们扫一眼就行了。 译文 : 树带界线内通常是常绿树木 , 他们和处于上行树带界线处极端恶劣环境中生长的落叶树木相比 , 具有一定的优势。 意群训练 : Timberline trees are normally evergreens, suggesting that these have some advantage over deciduous trees (those that lose their leaves) in the extreme environments of the upper timberline. 11 难句类型 : 并列句 + 复杂修饰 本句是由两个并列句构成的 ,Without this knowledge 是状语 , 主句是 we can appreciate only the formal content of Egyptian art, and we will fail to understand why or the concepts, 就是说我们只能在形式上理解埃及的艺术 , 不能理解为什么埃及艺术会是这样和内容会是这样的 , 在 why 后面的从句和 concepts 后面各有一个句子来具体讲它们的内容 , 频繁出现的 and 扰乱了同学们对于句子结构的把握。 concepts 后面 that 引导的 shapeditandcausedittoadoptitsdistinctiveforms. 都是用来修饰 concepts 的。在第二个并列分句中宾语非常长 , 使用了层层追加修饰的方法 , 使句子变得难于理解。 译文 : 没有这些知识 , 我们对于古埃及艺术的欣赏就仅仅局限在形式上 , 而无法理解这种艺术为什么会被创造出来 , 以及决定艺术品采用某种特殊形式的内在理念。 意群训练 : Without this knowledge we can appreciate only the formal content of Egyptian art, and we willfailtounderstand whyitwasproduced ortheconcepts thatshapedit andcausedittoadoptits distinctiveforms. 12 Without this knowledge we can appreciate only the formal content of Egyptian art, and we will fail to understand why it was producedor the conceptsthat shaped it and caused it to adopt its distinctiveforms. In fact, a lack of understanding concerning the purposes of Egyptian art has often led it to be compared unfavorably YeeaooBox 微博 :http://weibo.com/yeeaoobox 7 / 36 TPO 阅读部分难句解析【 YeeaooBox 推荐】免费托福真题素材库 http://www.yeeaoobox.com with the art of other cultures: Why did the Egyptians not develop sculpture in which the body turned and twisted through space like classical Greek statuary? 难句类型 : 复杂修饰 其实本句从逻辑结构的角度上来分析并不复杂。冒号后面的句子是在对冒号前面的部分进行解释和说明。但是本句就是在各种句子成分的修饰上比较繁琐。主语是 a lack of understanding concerning the purposes of Egyptian art , 谓语是 has often led, 宾语部分是 it to be compared unfavorably with the art of other cultures, 冒号后面的 Why did the Egyptians not develop sculpture in which the body turned and twisted through space like classicalGreekstatuary 是对这个不利的比较进行的说明 , 其中由 which 引导了一个从句来修饰雕塑。但是整体来说 , 这个句子并不很复杂。 译文 : 事实上 , 缺乏对于古埃及艺术目的的了解经常会导致古埃及艺术被拿来和其他文明的艺术相比较 , 而这种比较对于古埃及艺术来说是相对不利的 : 为什么古埃及人不像古希腊人那样创作一些身体扭转或者弯曲的雕塑 ? 意群训练 : In fact, a lack of understanding concerning the purposes of Egyptian art has often led it to be compared unfavorably with the art of other cultures: Why did the Egyptians not develop sculpture in which the body turned and twisted through space like classical Greek statuary? 13 He then set up experiments with caged starlings and found that their orientation was , in fact, in the proper migratory direction except when the sky was overcast, at which times there was no clear direction to their restless movements. 难句类型 : 插入语 + 复杂修饰 本句有一个很短的插入语 in fact, 但是它出现的位置很讨厌 , 打乱了我们读句子时连贯的思维 , 所以还是要先跳过去 , 主句其实是 He then set up experiments with caged starlings and found that their orientation was in the proper migratory direction except when the sky was overcast 核心意思就是说他做的试验除了阴天的时候 , 其他时候鸟类都能准确的找到自己的方向。 at which times there was no clear direction to their restless movements 用来修饰阴天时候鸟类的活动 , 属于典型的次要成分 , 但是同学们如果没有分清主次 , 读完对吼这个句子就会忘记主句的核心意思 , 得不偿失。 译文 : 事实上 , 一般它们都扑向他们迁徙飞行的方向 , 除了天阴多云的时候 , 此时它们拍打翅膀乱扑的行为没有明确的方向。 意群训练 : He then set up experiments with caged starlings and found that their orientation was, in fact, in the proper migratory direction except when the sky was overcast, at which times there was no clear direction to their restless movements. YeeaooBox 微博 :http://weibo.com/yeeaoobox 8 / 36 TPO 阅读部分难句解析【 YeeaooBox 推荐】免费托福真题素材库 http://www.yeeaoobox.com 14 难句类型 : 复杂修饰 本句结构其实不难 , 但是有很多人读不懂 , when tapes of begging tree swallows were played at an artificial swallow nest containing an egg 是状语从句 , 主句是 the egg in that “noisy” nest was taken or destroyed by predators before the egg in a nearby quiet nest in 29 of 37 trials. 影响同学们理解本句的关键是在 before 这个词上 , 很多同学一看到它就认为是在什么之前 , 以为是方位上的比较 , 其实这是时间上的比较 , 就是说比较喧闹的鸟巢中的鸟蛋先被破坏。主谓宾都有修饰成分 , 所以句子读起来不是很舒服。 译文 : 事实上 , 当在一个放有鸟蛋的人工燕巢里播放燕子乞讨的录音时 , 37 次实验中有 29 次 , 在 “ 喧闹 ” 环境中的鸟蛋比在附近安静燕巢中的蛋先被捕食者夺走或毁坏。 意群训练 : In fact, when tapes of begging tree swallows were played at an artificial swallow nest containing an egg, the egg in that “noisy” nest was taken or destroyed by predators before the egg in a nearby quiet nest in 29 of 37 trials. 15 In fact, when tapes of begging tree swallows were played at an artificial swallow nest containing an egg, the egg in that “noisy” nest was taken or destroyed by predators before the egg in a nearby quiet nest in 29 of 37 trials. The hypothesis that begging calls have evolved properties that reduce their potential for attracting predators yields a prediction: baby birds of species that experience high rates of nest predation should produce softer begging signals of higher frequency than nestlings of other species less often victimized by nest predators. 难句类型 : 同位语从句 + 定语从句等复杂修饰 本句主语是 The hypothesi s 后面跟了一个由 that 引导的同位语从句 begging calls have evolved properties 然后又有一个由 that 引导的定语从句 reduce their potential for attracting predators 修饰 properties, 其实主句结构很简单 , 就是 the hypothesis yields a prediction, 然后冒号后面的部分来解释这个假设 , baby birds should produce softer begging signals , 同学们遇到这样的复杂修饰的句子 , 一定要先把主句结构读出来 , 核心意思掌握了 , 再看那些次要的修饰成分即可。 译文 : 关于乞讨声发展演化出一些性质 , 能够降低幼鸟吸引捕食者的潜在危险的假说产生出一个预言 : 那些被捕食频率较高的幼鸟种群应该比那些很少被捕食的种群产生出更柔和的高频乞讨信号。 意群训练 : The hypothesis that begging calls have evolved properties that reduce their potential for attracting predators yields a prediction: baby birds of species that experience high rates of nest predation should produce softer begging signals of higher frequency than nestlings of YeeaooBox 微博 :http://weibo.com/yeeaoobox 9 / 36 TPO 阅读部分难句解析【 YeeaooBox 推荐】免费托福真题素材库 http://www.yeeaoobox.com other species less often victimized by nest predators. 16 来句子应该是 The answer lies not in the increased energy costs but rather in the damage , 其他的都是非重点的次要句子成分 , 同学们只要能读出来本句的核心意思是答案不在高能量消耗而在伤害 , 就可以了。至于其他的修饰成分 , 只要搞清楚谁修饰谁就可以。 ETS 非常喜欢这种层层追加修饰的方法 , 把句子搞得很长 , 但是实际上没有什么重要信息。 译文 : 答案明显不在于夸张的乞讨叫声需要高能量消耗 —— 这些能量和将要获得的能量相比是很少的 —— 而是在于任何一个成功的欺骗者会对和它有同样基因的亲缘造成伤害。 意群分类 : The answer lies apparently not in the increased energy costs of exaggerated begging — such energy costs are small relative to the potential gain in calories— but rather in the damage that any successful cheater would do to its siblings, which share genes with one another. 17 我们先跳过插入成分读主句结构是 Most engravings are best lit from the left, 由 as 引导的从句 befits the work of right-handed artists 对主句进行解释和说明 , 然后由 who 引导定语从句嵌套一个目的状语从句来修饰艺术家这么做的原因 generally prefer to have the light source on the left so that the shadow of their hand does not fall on the tip of the engraving tool or brush. 译文 : 例如 , 大多数时候都是从左侧照射雕刻比较好 , 这样适于右撇子艺术家工作 , 他们通常喜欢将光源放在左侧以便自己手的投影不会落在雕刻工具或刷子的末端。 意群训练 : Most engravings, for example, are best lit from the left, as befits the work of right-handed artists, who generally prefer to have the light source on the left so that the shadow of their hand does not fall on the tip of the engraving tool or brush. 18 The answer lies apparently not in the increased energy costs of exaggerated begging —such energy costs are small relative to the potential gain in calories— but rather in the damage that any successful cheater would do to its siblings, which share genes with one another. 难句类型 : 插入成分 + 复杂修饰成分本句中有一个由两个破折号引导的比较长的插入成 , 分我们先跳过插入成分 , 完整的读下 Most engravings, for example, are best lit from the left, as befits the work of right-handed artists, who generally prefer to have the light source on the left so that the shadow of their hand does not fall on the tip of the engraving tool or brush. 难句类型 : 插入成分 + 复杂从句 YeeaooBox 微博 :http://weibo.com/yeeaoobox 10 / 36 TPO 阅读部分难句解析【 YeeaooBox 推荐】免费托福真题素材库 http://www.yeeaoobox.com In stone toolmaking experiments, Nick Toth, a right-hander, held the core (the stone that would become the tool) in his left hand and the hammer stone in his right. 难句类型 : 插入成分 + 易混单词本句中插入成分实在比较多 , 在这么短的句子中出现的插入成分将整个句子弄得支离破 碎。跳过插入成分 , 主句结构应该是 Nick Toth held the core in his left hand and the hammer stoneinhisright. 其实就是描述了一个很简单的场景 , 但是 aright-hander 和括号 (thestonethat would become the tool) 中的两个插入成分非常讨厌 , 同学们一定要养成读主干和跳过插入语的习惯。此外句子出现了左右 , 同学们读句子的时候容易混淆。一定要分清。 译文 : 在石器工具制造的实验中 , 右撇子 Nick Toth 左手握住 the core( 将会成为工具的那块石头 ), 右手举着石锤。 意群训练 : In stone toolmaking experiments, Nick Toth, a right-hander, held the core (the stone that would become the tool) in his left hand and the hammer stone in his right. 19 In many instances, spectators in the era before recorded sound experienced elaborate aural presentations alongside movies' visual images, from the Japanese benshi (narrators) crafting multivoiced dialogue narratives to original musical compositions performed by symphony-size orchestras in Europe and the United States. 难句类型 : 复杂修饰成分 本句主干结构是 spectators experienced elaborate aural presentations alongside movies' visual images, 其实非常简单 , 就是说观众们既看到影像也欣赏到了音效。但是从句子一开头的状语 In many instances 开始 , 作者用 in the era before recorded sound 修饰主语 spectators, 割裂了谓语 experienced 和主语之间的关系 , 然后宾语是 elaborate aural presentations alongside movies' visual images 倒不难 , 但是随后用一个 from the Japanese benshi (narrators) crafting multivoiced dialogue narratives to original musical compositions performed by symphony-size orchestras in Europe and the United States. 来解释这个主干成分的句子。就使句子变得很复杂了。 译文 : 很多时候 , 在有声时代之前 , 观众们在观看影像的同时也欣赏到了精心制作的音效 , 从日本多人对话式叙事到欧美交响乐团的原声乐 , 无不体现这一点。 意群训练 : In many instances, spectators in the era before recorded sound experienced elaborate aural presentations alongside movies' visual images, from the Japanese benshi (narrators) crafting multivoiced dialogue narratives to original musical compositions performed by symphony-size orchestras in Europe and the United States. 20 YeeaooBox 微博 :http://weibo.com/yeeaoobox 11 / 36 TPO 阅读部分难句解析【 YeeaooBox 推荐】免费托福真题素材库 http://www.yeeaoobox.com Though it may be difficult to imagine from a later perspective, a strain of critical opinion in the 1920 s predicted that sound film would be a technical novelty that would soon fade from sight, just as had many previous attempts, dating well back before the First World War, to link images with recorded sound. 难句类型 : 层层追加的复杂修饰 + 插入成分 本句也是 ETS 的老套路了 , 为了把句子变长 , 就层层追加修饰成分 , 先又 Though it may be difficult to imagine from a later perspective 所谓一个转折的分句 , 然后主句是 a strain of critical opinion in the 1920 s predicted that sound film would be a technical novelty , 接着用 that 引导 would soon fade from sight, just as had many previous attempts, dating well back before the First WorldWar, to link images with recorded sound 的长句嵌套插入成分 , 来修饰 novelty, 但是实际上这些都不是什么重要的成分 , 大家只要读出来主句结构和句子的核心意思就是以前有一种预言认为有声电影很快就会消失就行了。 译文 : 尽管后来人很难理解 , 但在 20 世纪 20 年代 , 一种批判性的意见预言 : 有声电影是一种将很快淡出公众视线的科技新事物 , 就像的许多先前把图像和声音结合起来的尝试 , 这些尝试可以追溯到第一次世界大战。 意群训练 : Though it may be difficult to imagine from a later perspective, a strain of critical opinion in the 1920 s predicted that sound film would be a technical novelty that would soon fade from sight, just as had many previous attempts, dating well back before the First WorldWar, to link images with recorded sound. 21 本句的是一个原因从句修饰主句 ,Sociologists view primary groups as bridges between individuals and the larger society because, 并不难懂 , 但是原因从句是由两个并列句构成的 , 中有第一个并列句有三个并列的谓语 they transmit, mediate, and interpret a society's cultural patterns, 后面又有一个 and 引导的并列句 provide the sense of oneness so critical for social solidarity., 这样句子结构就复杂了。 译文 : 社会学家认为主要团体是个人和社会之间的桥梁 , 因为主要团体传播和解释社会文化模式 , 并为社会提供统一意识 , 这对社会的团结是十分重要的。 意群训练 : Sociologists view primary groups as bridges between individuals and the larger society because they transmit, mediate, and interpret a society's cultural patterns and provide the 难句类型 : Sociologists view primary groups as bridges between individuals and the larger society because they transmit, mediate, and interpret a society's cultural patterns and provide the sense of oneness so critical for social solidarity. YeeaooBox 微博 :http://weibo.com/yeeaoobox 12 / 36 TPO 阅读部分难句解析【 YeeaooBox 推荐】免费托福真题素材库 http://www.yeeaoobox.com sense of oneness so critical for social solidarity. 22 research field of chronobiology has emerged 其实并不难 , 就是一个并列句而已。但是 The relations 后面由 between animal activity and these periods 来修饰 , 紧跟着一个插入成分 particularly for the daily rhythms 来限制缩小一下范围 , 这样把主语和谓语割裂开来 have been of such interest and importance 后面用 that 引导一个从句 a huge amount of work has been done on them 来修饰 interest 和 importance, 最后再用一个 and 引导的并列分句 the special research field of chronobiology has emerged 来结束句子。 译文 : 因此 , 生物功能的时机和节奏和周期性的事物 , 如 , 太阳日 , 潮汐 , 月晕周期和季节 , 是紧密联系的。动物活动和这些周期性事件的关系 , 特别是日间的节奏 , 是非常有意思和重要的 , 因此现在有很多人致力于研究这种关系 , 并且专门研究这种关系的项目已经出现 , 叫做时间生物学。 意群训练 : The relationsbetween animal activity and these periods, particularly for the daily rhythms, have been of such interest and importance that a huge amount of work has been done on them and the special research field of chronobiology has emerged. 23 The relations between animal activity and these periods, particularly for the daily rhythms, have been of such interest and importance that a huge amount of work has been done on them and the special research field of chronobiology has emerged. 难句类型 : 插入成分 + 复杂修饰从句 + 并列句 本句的主句结构是 The relationshave been of such interest and importance and the special Normally, the constantly changing levels of an animal's activity—sleeping, feeding, moving, reproducing, metabolizing, and producing enzymes and hormones, for example—are well coordinated with environmental rhythms, but the key question is whether the animal's schedule is driven by external cues, such as sunrise or sunset, or is instead dependent somehow on internal timers that themselves generate the observed biological rhythms. 难句类型 : 插入成分 + 冗长修饰 本句的插入成分多而且长 , 但是对付他们的办法非常简单 , 就是跳过去 , 先读主干 , 本句主干是 the constantly changing levels of an animal's activity are well coordinated with environmental rhythms, but the key question is whether the animal's schedule is driven by external cues, 所以本句的核心意思就是动物活动经常变化的水平是和环境节奏相协调的 , 但是关键的问题是动物的节奏是否由外界因素决定的。 such as 引导成分直到句子结束都是次要的成分 , 同学们读的时候只要扫一眼就行了。 . 译文 : YeeaooBox 微博 :http://weibo.com/yeeaoobox 13 / 36 TPO 阅读部分难句解析【 YeeaooBox 推荐】免费托福真题素材库 http://www.yeeaoobox.com 通常地 , 动物活动 , 如睡眠 , 进食 , 移动 , 繁殖 , 新陈代谢和酶和激素的分泌等活动的持续变动水平是一直和环境变化的节奏保持一致的 , 但有一个关键的问题是 : 生物钟表是由外界因素 , 如日出日落 , 影响 , 还是自身内在的生物钟决定的 ? 意群训练 : Normally, the constantly changing levels of an animal's activity— sleeping, feeding, moving, reproducing, metabolizing, and producing enzymes and hormones, for example — are well coordinated with environmental rhythms, but the key question is whether the animal's schedule is driven by external cues, such as sunrise or sunset, or is instead dependent somehow on internal timers that themselves generate the observed biological rhythms. 24 本句的主句结构其实特别简单就是 stability is one of its major features, even when 引导的状语从句 the organism's environment is subjected to considerable changes in factors, 然后用 such as 引导了列举 temperature, 之后再用 that 引导从句来说明 temperature would be expected to affect biological activity strongly. 译文 : 事实上 , 即使有机体受到外界因素 , 如温度 , 强烈改变的影响 , 有机体内生物钟的稳定性是影响生物活动的一个主要因素。 意群训练 : Indeed, stability of the biological clock's period is one of its major features, even when the organism's environment is subjected to considerable changes in factors, such as temperature, that would be expected to affect biological activity strongly. 25 本句先用 when 引导了一个状语从句 observational assessment is used as a technique for studying infant perceptual abilities, 主句是 care must be taken , 然后 not to overgeneralize from the data or to rely on one or two studies 来修饰这个谓语 , 最后由 as 引导的句子 conclusive evidence of a particular perceptual ability of the infant 来修饰 studies 。 译文 : 因此 , 当观测评估作为一项技术来研究婴儿的感知能力 , 必须小心不要把过度归纳 Indeed, stability of the biological clock's period is one of its major features, even when the organism's environment is subjected to considerable changes in factors, such as temperature, that would be expected to affect biological activity strongly. 难句类型 : 复杂修饰 + 插入成分 Therefore, when observational assessment is used as a technique for studying infant perceptual abilities, care must be taken not to overgeneralize from the data or to rely on one or two studies as conclusive evidence of a particular perceptual ability of the infant. 难句类型 : 复杂修饰 YeeaooBox 微博 :http://weibo.com/yeeaoobox 14 / 36 TPO 阅读部分难句解析【 YeeaooBox 推荐】免费托福真题素材库 http://www.yeeaoobox.com 的数据或者依赖于一两个研究作为特定的婴儿感知能力的确凿证据。意群训练 : Therefore , when observational assessment is used as a technique for studying infant perceptual abilities , care must be taken not to overgeneralize from the data or to rely on one or two studies as conclusive evidence of a particular perceptual ability of the infant. 21 、 1 Perhaps, like many contemporary peoples, Upper Paleolithic men and women believed that the drawing of a human image could cause death of injury, and if that were indeed their belief, it might explain why human figures are rarely depicted in cave art. 难句类型 : 插入 + 虚拟语气 + 宾语从句 虚拟语气 if that were indeed their belief, it might explain why human figures are rarely depictedincaveart. 与现在事实相反的条件句的虚拟语气。插入语 ,likemanycontemporary p e o p l e s , 两个逗号之间起解释说明作用 , 在阅读过程中可跳过不看。宾语从句 1 、 U p p e r Paleolithic men and women 关系代词 that 引导的宾语从句 , 2 、 it might in 关系副词 why 引导的宾语从句。 译文 : 就像许多当代人一样 , 旧石器时代的人们可能都认为人物的画像会引起伤害性死亡 , 并且 , 如果这确实是他们的信仰的话 , 就可以解释在洞穴绘画中很少描绘人物形象的原因了。 意群训练 :Perhaps, like many contemporary peoples, Upper Paleolithic men and women believed that the drawing of a human image could cause death of injury, and if that were indeed their belief, it might explain why human figures are rarely depicted in cave art. believed that ; explain why human figures are rarely depicted cave art. YeeaooBox 微博 :http://weibo.com/yeeaoobox 15 / 36 TPO 阅读部分难句解析【 YeeaooBox 推荐】免费托福真题素材库 http://www.yeeaoobox.com 2 难句类型 : 复杂修饰 + 宾语从句 + 形式主语 if improving their hunting luck was the chief motivation for the paintings, 动名词 improving their hunting luck 作主语。 it is difficult to explain why only a few show signs of having been speared,it 是形式主语 , 实际的主语是 why only a few show signs of having been speared. explain why only a few show signs of having been speared 是 why 引导的宾语从句。 译文 : 然而 , 如果以提高他们的狩猎的收获为绘画的主要动机 , 就很难解释为什么只有一些被戳破的绘画。 意群训练 : But if improving their hunting luck was the chief motivation for the paintings, it is difficult to explain why only a few show signs of having been speared. 22 、 3 难句类型 : 插入结构 + 非限制性定语从句 + 并列 插入结构 : 两个破折号之间的成分 —the process of deposits’ settling on the sea bottom— 并列 :buries and subjects But if improving their hunting luck was the chief motivation for the paintings, it is difficult to explain why only a few show signs of having been speared. Continued sedimentation—the process of deposits’ settling on the sea bottom—buries the organic matter and subjects it to higher temperatures and pressures, which convert the organic matter to oil and gas. YeeaooBox 微博 :http://weibo.com/yeeaoobox 16 / 36 TPO 阅读部分难句解析【 YeeaooBox 推荐】免费托福真题素材库 http://www.yeeaoobox.com 非限制性定语从句 :, which convert the organic matter to oil and gas.which 指代主句。 译文 : 持续沉积 —— 在海底沉淀的过程 —— 掩藏了有机物并使之承受高温高压 , 这个过程使得有机物变成了石油和天然气。 意群训练 : Continued sedimentation—the process of deposits’ settling on the sea bottom—buries the organic matter and subjects it to higher temperatures and pressures, which convert the organic matter to oil and gas. 4 难句类型 : 复杂修饰 + 并列 + 省略 主语成分复杂 : getting petroleum out of the ground and from under the sea and to the consumer 两个大并列 : 第一层并列是 getting petroleum out of the ground and from under the sea 与 to the consumer , 第二层中又有动名词引导的两个并列并且省略了 getting petroleum, 完整的应该是 getting petroleum from under the sea 译文 : 然而 , 从地下和海底获取石油并运给消费者会在任何一个方面上产生环境问题。 意群训练 : Moreover, getting petroleum out of the ground and from under the sea and to the consumer can create environmental problems anywhere along the line. Moreover, getting petroleum out of the ground and from under the sea and to the consumer can create environmental problems anywhere along the line. YeeaooBox 微博 :http://weibo.com/yeeaoobox 17 / 36 TPO 阅读部分难句解析【 YeeaooBox 推荐】免费托福真题素材库 http://www.yeeaoobox.com 23 、 5 难句类型 : 同位语从句 同位语从句是连词 that 引导 , 在句子中不承担任何成分 , 没有词义 , 也不能省略 ( 这是和定 语从句的区别 ) 译文 : 越来越多的证据表明陨石撞击对地球造成的影响特别严重 , 尤其是生物进化领域。 意群训练 : There is increasing evidence that the impacts of meteorites have had important effects on Earth, particularly in the field of biological evolution. 6 难句类型 : 定语从句 定语从句 : melted rock that sprayed out over much of Earth, 关系代词 that 引导定语从句 , 指代 melted rock, 在从句中作主语。 starting widespread fires that must have consumed most terrestrial forests and grassland. 关系代词 that 引导的定语从句 , 指代 widespreadfires, 在从句中作主语。 译文 : 据估计 , 爆炸过程还产生了大量的硝酸和被溶解的岩浆并喷出地球外 , 同时造成了大面积火灾 , 烧毁了大部分的森林和草原。 There is increasing evidence that the impacts of meteorites have had important effects on Earth, particularly in the field of biological evolution. The explosion is also calculated to have produced vast quantities of nitric acid and melted rock that sprayed out over much of Earth, starting widespread fires that must have consumed most terrestrial forests and grassland. YeeaooBox 微博 :http://weibo.com/yeeaoobox 18 / 36 TPO 阅读部分难句解析【 YeeaooBox 推荐】免费托福真题素材库 http://www.yeeaoobox.com 意群训练 : The explosion is also calculated to have produced vast quantities of nitric acid and melted rock that sprayed out over much of Earth, starting widespread fires that must have consumed most terrestrial forests and grassland. 24 、 7 难句类型 : 复杂修饰 主语是 Many in of the metals, 其中省略关系代词 that/which 的定语从句修饰 many, 再加上一个 of 结构 译文 : 存在于热带和亚热带地区的许多金属可以为植物提供保护 , 对抗食草类昆虫和细菌病原体。 意群训练 : Many are found in tropical and subtropical areas of the metals may afford some protection against plant-eating insects and microbial pathogens. 难句类型 : 插入 + 定语从句 此句的主干是 Acroponics is another method for growing plants without soil. , a technique in which plants are suspended and the roots misted with a nutrient solution, 是起解释说明作用的插入结构 , 此插入结构中包含一个 which 引导的定语从句。 译文 : 气培法 , 一种把植物悬挂起来并将其根部浸入营养液的技术 , 是另外一种无土栽培的 Many are found in tropical and subtropical areas of the metals may afford some protection against plant-eating insects and microbial pathogens. are found tropical and subtropical areas Acroponics, a technique in which plants are suspended and the roots misted with a nutrient solution, is another method for growing plants without soil. YeeaooBox 微博 :http://weibo.com/yeeaoobox 19 / 36 TPO 阅读部分难句解析【 YeeaooBox 推荐】免费托福真题素材库 http://www.yeeaoobox.com 方法。 意群训练 : Acroponics, a technique in which plants are suspended and the roots misted with a nutrient solution, is another method for growing plants without soil. 25 、 8 The culture of that time, based on archaeology and linguistic reconstruction, is assumed to have had a broad inventory of cultivated plants including taro, yarns, banana, sugarcane, breadfruit, coconut, sago, and rice. Just as important, the culture also possessed the basic foundation for an effective maritime adaptation, including outrigger canoes and a variety of fishing techniques that could be effective for overseas voyaging. 难句类型 : 插入 + 定从 ( 省略关系代词 )+ 并列 based on archaeology and linguistic reconstruction 是插入结构 , 跳读不看 ;cultivated plants including taro, yarns, banana, sugarcane, breadfruit, coconut, sago, and rice 省略 which is 的定语从句。上下两句是并列递进关系 , 由 Just as important 衔接。 译文 : 基于考古学和语言学的重建 , 那个时候的文明被认为拥有广泛的栽培植物储存 , 包括芋头、纱、香蕉、甘蔗、面包果树、椰子、西米和稻米。同样重要的 , 当时的文明也具备适应海洋行动的基础功能 , 包括桅杆船和各种各样有利于越洋航行的捕鱼技术。 意群训练 : The culture of that time, based on archaeology and linguistic reconstruction, is assumed to have had a broad inventory of cultivated plants including taro, yarns, banana, sugarcane, YeeaooBox 微博 :http://weibo.com/yeeaoobox 20 / 36 TPO 阅读部分难句解析【 YeeaooBox 推荐】免费托福真题素材库 http://www.yeeaoobox.com breadfruit, coconut, sago, and rice. Just as important, the culture also possessed the basic foundation for an effective maritime adaptation, including outrigger canoes and a variety of fishing techniques that could be effective for overseas voyaging. 9 难句类型 : 同位语从句 + 表语从句 + 定语从句 Contrary to the arguments of some that much of the pacific was settled by Polynesians accidentally marooned after being lost and adrift, 是由 that 引导的同位语从句 , 是 arguments 的同位语 ;it seems reasonable that this feat was accomplished by deliberate colonization expeditions, 是由连词 that 引导的表语从句 ,that 无意义 , 不可省略 ;deliberate colonization expeditions that set out fully stocked with food and domesticated plants and animals, 是由关系代词 that 引导的定语从句 , 修饰 deliberate colonization expeditions,that 作主语。 译文 : 大部分太平洋人都是由于玻利尼西亚人迷失和漂流之后的意外被困而定居下来形成的 , 而与 这些相反的观点似乎更合理 : 这些功绩是通过有意的殖民远征来实现的 , 因为远征出发时满 载食物、家养的植物和动物。 意群训练 : Contrary to the arguments of some that much of the pacific was settled by Polynesians accidentally marooned after being lost and adrift, it seems reasonable that this feat was accomplished by deliberate colonization expeditions that set out fully stocked with food and domesticated plants and animals. 36 篇 Contrary to the arguments of some that much of the pacific was settled by Polynesians accidentally marooned after being lost and adrift, it seems reasonable that this feat was accomplished by deliberate colonization expeditions that set out fully stocked with food and domesticated plants and animals. YeeaooBox 微博 :http://weibo.com/yeeaoobox 21 / 36 TPO 阅读部分难句解析【 YeeaooBox 推荐】免费托福真题素材库 http://www.yeeaoobox.com Support is growing for the alternative theory that people using watercraft, possibly skin boats, moved southward from Beringia along the Gulf of Alaska and then southward along the Northwest Coast of North America possibly as early as 16,000 years ago. 难句类型 : 长从句 + 插入语 这句话的主干结构是 Support is growing for the alternative theory. 在这之后的部分 全部是由 “that” 引导的定语从句 , 用来修饰 theory, 解释到底是什么样的理论。在这个从句中 , 主语是 people, “using watercraft“ 是分词短语做后置定语 , “possibly skin boats” 是插入语 , 补充说明 watercraft 的 , 在阅读时插入成分会打断我们的思路 , 所以先跳过 , 直接读后面的部分。从句的谓语就是 moved, 之后是并列结构的状语 , 表示向哪个方向移动 : 沿着 Alaska 湾从 beringia 向南移动 , 之后又沿着北美大陆的西北海岸向南移。最后还有一个时间状语表示 “ 移动这个行为可能发生在 16000 年之前 ” 。 译文 : 另外一种理论得到越来越多的人的支持 , 它认为可能早在 16,000 年前 , 人们使用船只 , 也许是那种兽皮做的小船 , 从白令沿着阿拉斯加海湾 , 然后沿着北美的西北海岸前进。 意群训练 : Support is growing for the alternative theory that people using watercraft, possibly skin boats, moved southward from Beringia along the Gulf of Alaska and then southward along the Northwest Coast of North America possibly as early as 16,000 years ago. 2 Fladmark's hypothesis received additional support from the fact that the greatest diversity in Native American languages occurs along the west coast of the Americans, suggesting that this region has been settled the longest. YeeaooBox 微博 :http://weibo.com/yeeaoobox 22 / 36 TPO 阅读部分难句解析【 YeeaooBox 推荐】免费托福真题素材库 http://www.yeeaoobox.com 难句类型 : 长从句 + 分词短语 本句的主干结构是 Fladmark's hypothesis received additional support, 后面的状语 from the fact 有一个由 that 引导的长同位语从句 , 该从句后面还有一个现在分词短语做伴随情况状语 , 表示这个事实 the fact 还暗示了什么。 译文 : Fladmark 的假设从一个事实那得到了更多的支持 , 因为美国本土语言的最大多样性出现在西海岸沿岸 , 这就表明这个地区是人类定居时间最早的。 意群训练 : Fladmark's hypothesis received additional support from the fact that the greatest diversity in Native American languages occurs along the west coast of the Americans, suggesting that this region has been settled the longest. 37 篇 3. 难句类型 : 长从句 + 复杂并列成分 本句主干是 Thiswasjustifiedbytheview. 这里 theview 有一个 that 引导的长同位语从 句 , 在从句中有 and 连接的几个并列的目的状语的动作 (help teachers to do sth.) 。目 的 1: feel more intellectually involved in their role and work in teaching 目的 2:enable them to cope with the paucity of scientific fact 目的 3: the uncertainty of knowledge in the discipline of teaching. 译文 : This was justified by the view that reflective practice could help teachers to feel more intellectually involved in their role and work in teaching and enable them to cope with the paucity of scientific fact and the uncertainty of knowledge in the discipline of teaching. YeeaooBox 微博 :http://weibo.com/yeeaoobox 23 / 36 TPO 阅读部分难句解析【 YeeaooBox 推荐】免费托福真题素材库 http://www.yeeaoobox.com 这是合理的 , 因为人们认为反思的实践可以帮助老师们更加理性的对待他们的角色和他 们从事的事业 , 并可以让他们能在教学准则中处理科学事实的缺乏和知识的不确定。意群训练 : This was justified by the view that reflective practice could help teachers to feel more intellectually involved in their role and work in teaching and enable them to cope with the paucity of scientific fact and the uncertainty of knowledge in the discipline of teaching. 4. 难句类型 : 分词短语 + 并列结构 + 省略 Moving 引导的现在分词短语做主语 teachers 的伴随主语 , 他也是主语发出的动作。 And 后面的并列成分实际上是一种省略现象 , 补充完成后是这样的 : toreflectingaboutspecific issues in a supported manner, and later to reflecting about specific issues in an independent manner. 这里为了避免重复 , 所以 manner 只用了一次 , 并写在了最后 , supported 后面 没有 manner. 译文 : 老师们都参加了关于教学事件计划的讨论 , 紧接着在工作人员的协助下去反思 具体问题 , 然后是独立反思。 意群训练 : The teachers were taken through a program of talking about teaching events, moving on to reflecting about specific issues in a supported, and later an independent, manner. 38 篇 The teachers were taken through a program of talking about teaching events, moving on to reflecting about specific issues in a supported, and later an independent, manner. YeeaooBox 微博 :http://weibo.com/yeeaoobox 24 / 36 TPO 阅读部分难句解析【 YeeaooBox 推荐】免费托福真题素材库 http://www.yeeaoobox.com 5 难句类型 : 主语从句 + 长从句 + 同位语 本句是一个从句修饰成分复杂的主语从句。其中 living things 是从句的主语 , 后面的 that built communities on these islands 是修饰它的定语从句。句子主干就是 living things are examples of symbiosis. 逗号后面从 a phenomenon 开始全部是 symbiosis 的同位语 , 用来补充解释说明 symbiosis 的。这个同位语有两个并列的名词成分 , 一个是 phenomenon, 一个是 principle, 并且这两个核心名词后面都有定语从句来修饰。 译文 : 岛屿上的最早的生物群落以共生的方式存在是非常重要的。共生是一种依靠两种或两种以上的生物紧密合作而生存的现象 , 也是岛屿上生物群落非常重要的一项原则。 意群训练 : It is significant that the earliest living things that built communities on these islands are examples of symbiosis, a phenomenon that depends upon the close cooperation of two or more forms of life and a principle that is very important in island communities. 6 本句中的现在分词短语是主语 lichens 的伴随状语 , 也是 lichens 发出的动作。在这个分词短语中修饰 soil 的定语从句中还嵌套着一个 that 引导的定语从句 , 这会对同学们的阅读理解造成很大障碍。第二个 that 引导的定语从句只是第一个从句内部 minerals 的一个修饰 It is significant that the earliest living things that built communities on these islands are examples of symbiosis, a phenomenon that depends upon the close cooperation of two or more forms of life and a principle that is very important in island communities. Lichens helped to speed the decomposition of the hard rock surfaces, preparing a soft bed of soil that was abundantly supplied with minerals that had been carried in the molten rock from the bowels of Earth. 难句类型 : 分词短语 + 层层修饰 YeeaooBox 微博 :http://weibo.com/yeeaoobox 25 / 36 TPO 阅读部分难句解析【 YeeaooBox 推荐】免费托福真题素材库 http://www.yeeaoobox.com 成分。 译文 : 地衣有利于加速坚硬的岩石表面的分解 , 并产生了一层柔软的土壤 , 这些土壤可以提供 熔融岩石含有的来自地球内部的丰富的矿物质。 意群训练 : Lichens helped to speed the decomposition of the hard rock surfaces, preparing a soft bed of soil that was abundantly supplied with minerals that had been carried in the molten rock from the bowels of Earth. 42 篇 7 难句类型 : 复杂并列成分 + 定语从句 + 嵌套定语 本句是一个宾语包含若干并列成分的句子 , 每个并列成分之间由 and 连接 , 最后两个并列由 as well as 连接 , 其主干结构是说 Ceramic products 包含了 5 样东西 , 它们分别是什么。在叙述第四样物品时用了一个定语从句 inwhichthemotifswereoutlinedinaraised trail of slip 来修饰 temple ornaments. 而第五样物品的修饰成分更加复杂 , produced 引导的是 ceramics 的后置定语 , 在这个后置定语中的 vessals 又携带一个 made 引导的后置定语。所以是层层嵌套。其实同学们也可以把这些后置定语理解成省略了 which (that) 及 be 动词的定语从句。 译文 : 陶瓷制品还包括汉朝风格的铅釉墓 , 唐朝风格的三色铅釉容器和雕像 , 以及明朝风格的 Ceramic products also include lead-glazed tomb models of the Han dynasty, three-color lead-glazed vessels and figures of the Tang dynasty, and Ming three-color temple ornaments, in which the motifs were outlined in a raised trail of slip- as well as the many burial ceramics produced in imitation of vessels made in materials of higher intrinsic value. YeeaooBox 微博 :http://weibo.com/yeeaoobox 26 / 36 TPO 阅读部分难句解析【 YeeaooBox 推荐】免费托福真题素材库 http://www.yeeaoobox.com 三色庙宇装饰 , 其中在庙宇装饰中的图案是以滑动的浮雕勾勒轮廓的 —— 这一点和很多仿造 本身具有更高价值的材料制造的容器的陪葬陶瓷器皿一样。意群训练 : Ceramic products also include lead-glazed tomb models of the Han dynasty, three-color lead-glazed vessels and figures of the Tang dynasty, and Ming three-color temple ornaments, in which the motifs were outlined in a raised trail of slip- as well as the many burial ceramics produced in imitation of vessels made in materials of higher intrinsic value. 8 In the seventeenth century, the trading activities of the Dutch East India Company resultedin vast quantities of decorated Chinese porcelain being brought to Europe, which stimulated and influenced the work of a wide variety of wares, notably Delft. 难句类型 : 分词短语 + 定语从句 本句主干是 the trading activities resulted in vast quantities of decorated Chinese porcelain. Being brought to Europe 是 porcelain 的后置定语 , 表示 porcelain 同时被带到欧洲 , 这个后置定语中的 bring to 这个词组原本的形式是 bring A to B , 但由于这里是被动语态的结构 ,A 位置上的名词提前了。 B 位置上是 Europe, 它后面有 which 引导的定语从句来修饰。 译文 : 到了十七世纪 , 荷兰东印度公司的贸易活动导致了大量精美的中国瓷器运往欧洲 , 从而刺激并影响了很多不同的器皿 , 一个有名的例子就是荷兰代夫特瓷器。 意群训练 : In the seventeenth century, the trading activities of the Dutch East India Company resulted in vast quantities of decorated Chinese porcelain being brought to Europe, which stimulated and influenced the work of a wide variety of wares, notably Delft. YeeaooBox 微博 :http://weibo.com/yeeaoobox 27 / 36 TPO 阅读部分难句解析【 YeeaooBox 推荐】免费托福真题素材库 http://www.yeeaoobox.com 43 篇 9 Over long periods of time, substances whose physical and chemical properties change with the ambient climate at the time can be deposited in a systematic way to provide a continuous record of changes in those properties overtime, sometimes for hundreds or thousands of years. 难句类型 : 从句 + 状语 本句的主干是 substances can be deposited. 主语 substances 有 whose 引导的定语从 句修饰 :whose physical and chemical properties change with the ambient climate at the time. “ To provide a continuous record of changes in those properties overtime, sometimes for hundreds or thousands of years.” 是目的状语。 译文 : 在一段很长的时间内 , 那些物理和化学性质随着周围气候一起变化的物质可以用一种系统 方法保存起来 , 以便提供一种有时能达到上百上千年的长期的、连续的属性变化的记录。 意群训练 : Over long periods of time, substances whose physical and chemical properties change with the ambient climate at the time can be deposited in a systematic way to provide a continuous record of changes in those properties overtime, sometimes for hundreds or thousands of years. 10 One of the most difficult aspects of deciding whether current climatic events reveal evidence of the impact of human activities is that it is hard to get a measure of what constitutes the natural variability of the climate. 难句类型 : 嵌套 of 结构 + 长从句 本句的主语非常之长 , 嵌套了很多 of 结构 ,One of the most difficult aspects of deciding YeeaooBox 微博 :http://weibo.com/yeeaoobox 28 / 36 TPO 阅读部分难句解析【 YeeaooBox 推荐】免费托福真题素材库 http://www.yeeaoobox.com whether current climatic events reveal evidence of the impact of human activities 全部是主 语 , 主句谓语是 is,that 后面是宾语从句。译文 : 要判断现在的天气变化是不是能反映人类活动对其产生影响 , 其中最严重的困难就在于 , 要测量是什么因素造成了气候的自然变迁是艰难的。 意群训练 : One of the most difficult aspects of deciding whether current climatic events reveal evidence of the impact of human activities is that it is hard to get a measure of what constitutes the natural variability of the climate. 16. The Long-TermStability of Ecosystems(TPO3) 1 难句类型 : 内部结构复杂的定语从句 + 复杂修饰 句子主干 : Support came from the observation. 对句子主干的修饰基本上集中在 observation 上。对 support 的修饰虽然只有 “for this idea” 三个单词 , 但大家也应该避免 idea camefrom,( 来自什么什么的想法 ) 这种更常见的搭配的影响 , 注意主干是 support 。定语从句的内部逻辑关系相对简单 , 但层次比较多。首先我们看定语从句中的两个 more+ 形容词 + 名词结构是并列的 , 以 and 相连。而整个 more......than 结构是定语从句的主干 , 其两个主体分别是 long-lasting climax communities 和 pioneer communities 。 看一下这个句子的直译 : 对于这一观点的支持来自于 “ 长期持久的顶极群落通常要比先锋群落具备更为复杂的食物网和更多的物种 ” 这样的观察。引号中的部分都是 “ 观察 ” 的定语 , 如此头重脚轻的句子显然读起来非常吃力 , 也是不符合我们的阅读习惯的。因此我们下 面给出的译文是意译的 , 在中文中更为通顺 , 但是由于中英文的语法习惯不同 , 大家应该注意译文中没有突出这样一点 : 中文中逗号后面的部分 ( “ 长期 ......” 开始 ), 都是观察 (observation) 的具体内容。 Support for this idea came from the observation that long-lasting climax communities usually have more complex food webs and more species diversity than pioneer communities. YeeaooBox 微博 :http://weibo.com/yeeaoobox 29 / 36 TPO 阅读部分难句解析【 YeeaooBox 推荐】免费托福真题素材库 http://www.yeeaoobox.com 译文 : 通过观察得出的结论支持了这个观点 , 长期持久的顶极群落通常要比先锋群落具备更为复杂的食物网和更多的物种。 意群训练 : Support for this idea came from the observation that long-lasting climax communities usually have more complex food webs and more species diversity than pioneer communities. 2 难句类型 : 宾语从句 + 并列结构 + 定语从句 + 复杂修饰 句子的主干是 Many ecologists now think that 。很显然又是一个头重脚轻的句子 , 整 个句子都在描述生态学家的观点具体是什么。从 “therelative” 开始到逗号这一宾语从句 , 是生态学家的观点描述 , 逗号后面又出现一套主谓宾 , 有没有关联词表明它是前面这一从句的附属从句 , 所以这显然是两个并列的从句。从句内部又有细节的固定搭配 “come from,not......but......, from to,more than” 等等使结构进一步复杂化。 句子中有很多固定搭配 , 由于句子相对较长 , 将固定搭配分开了 , 从而难以辨认。通读句子 , 宏观上加以把握 , 挑出其中的固定搭配可以使句子的脉络更清晰。 译文 : 现在的很多生态学家们认为 , 顶极群落相对长期的稳定性并非来于自多样性 , 而是来自环境的 “ 补缀 ”, 随处变化的环境比统一的环境更有利于多种有机体的生存。 意群训练 : Many ecologists now think that the relative long-term stability of climax communities comes not from diversity but from the “patchiness” of the environment, an environment that varies from place to place supports more kinds of organisms than an environment that is uniform. Many ecologists now think that the relative long-term stability of climax communities comes not from diversity but from the “patchiness” of the environment, an environment that varies from place to place supports more kinds of organisms than an environment that is uniform. YeeaooBox 微博 :http://weibo.com/yeeaoobox 30 / 36 TPO 阅读部分难句解析【 YeeaooBox 推荐】免费托福真题素材库 http://www.yeeaoobox.com 17.Opportunists and Competitors( 在线测试题 ) 1 难句类型 : 独立主格 + 并列结构 + 复杂修饰本句比较明显的特点在于独立主格和并列结构。值得注意的是 Their seed heads raised just high enough above the ground to catch the wind, the plants are no bigger than they need be 整个独立主格和后面的 their stems are hollow, all the rigidity comes from their water content 为并列关系。所以整个句子的结构是标准的 A,B and C 三个完整句子的并列。 本句并列结构各部分都比较短 , 所以意群划分的参考意义不大 , 整体把握好句子的结构即可。 译文 : 意群训练 : Their seed heads raised just high enough above the ground to catch the wind, the plants are no bigger than they need be, their stems are hollow, and all the rigidity comes from their water content. 2 难句类型 : 原因从句、地点状语从句 +( 列举 ) 并列结构 + 复杂修饰 Because 引导原因从句 , 从句中所有格后面跟动名词以及地点状语从句 , 包括对地点的抽象描述和具体举例。句子被 such as 后面的举例加长了 , 但结构并不复杂。 Such as 后面一 长串只是对 settings where competing plants have been removed by natural processes 的具体化 , 可以作为一个意群带过 , 当然也可以根据列举中分句之间的逗号做自然划分。 译文 : Their seed heads raised just high enough above the ground to catch the wind, the plants are no bigger than they need be, their stems are hollow, and all the rigidity comes from their water content. 蒲公英的种子的头部刚好生长到高出地面接触到风的高度 , 他们的体型也刚好是它们需 要的最低尺寸 , 茎部是中空的 , 他们通过体内水分来维持自身的硬度。 These plants are termed opportunists because they rely on their seeds’ falling into settings where competing plants have been removed by natural processes, such as along an eroding riverbank, on landslips, or where a tree falls and creates a gap in the forest canopy. YeeaooBox 微博 :http://weibo.com/yeeaoobox 31 / 36 TPO 阅读部分难句解析【 YeeaooBox 推荐】免费托福真题素材库 http://www.yeeaoobox.com , 因为他们依靠其种子落入那些竞争者们已经被大自然淘汰 , 如被侵蚀了的河岸、山崩之处或在由于树木倒下而在森林冠层中形成 意群训练 : These plants are termed opportunists because they rely on their seeds’ falling into settings where competing plants have been removed by natural processes, such as along an eroding riverbank, on landslips, or where a tree falls and creates a gap in the forest canopy. 18.Lascaux Cave Paintings( 在线测试题 ) 1 难句类型 : 同位语从句 + 复杂修饰 + 并列结构 takes ...... much further into the realm of 作为固定结构 , 读时提出这些框架可以避免受到复杂修饰的干扰 , 把握句子脉络。冒号表示解释说明 , 事实上也起到类似同位语、并列关系的作用。冒号后面至句尾是 belief 引导的同位语从句。除了整体结构使句子变长之外 , 每一处名词都加上较复杂的修饰 , 提取各个从句主干可以避免干扰。 译文 : 第三种意见把心理动机上升到部落仪式和神话的层面 : 他们相信某些动物拥有神秘的重要性 , 它们是某个特定部落或种族的古老祖先或守护神。 意群训练 : A third opinion takes psychological motivation much further into the realm of tribal ceremonies and mystery: the belief that certain animals assumed mythical significance as ancient ancestors or protectors of a given tribe or clan. 2 这些植物被称为机会主义者 了的地方生长而成活 的空隙处等。 A third opinion takes psychological motivation much further into the realm of tribal ceremonies and mystery: the belief that certain animals assumed mythical significance as ancient ancestors or protectors of a given tribe or clan. Advocates also point to people who believe that the forces of nature are inhabited by spirits, particularly shamans* who believe that an animal’s spirit and energy is transferred to them while in a trance. YeeaooBox 微博 :http://weibo.com/yeeaoobox 32 / 36 TPO 阅读部分难句解析【 YeeaooBox 推荐】免费托福真题素材库 http://www.yeeaoobox.com 难句类型 : 定语从句 + 并列结构 + 复杂修饰 句子直译即 : 拥护者包括什么什么样的人。定语从句是句子提供给我们的主要信息 :believe that the forces of nature are inhabited by spirits, 特别是 shamans* who believe that an animal’s spirit and energy is transferred to them while in a trance. 后者可以看做是前者的具体例子 , 是一个更具体的人群。二者可以看做是并列的关系 , 也可以认为是同一事物的 paraphrase, 取其一即可。 译文 : 而且 , 那些相信精神存在于自然力量之中的人 , 特别是巫师 , 相信动物的精神和能量可以在昏迷状态中获得。 意群训练 : Advocates also point to people who believe that the forces of nature are inhabited by spirits, particularly shamans* who believe that an animal’s spirit and energy is transferred to them while in a trance. 19.Electricity from Wind( 在线测试题 ) 1 难句类型 : 定语从句 + 并列结构 + 复杂修饰本句由两套完整句子并列组成 , 首先看第一个句子 : 只是主谓宾分别做了很多修饰 , 但都是形容词和 of 结构的简单堆砌 , 仍是一个简单句 ; 第二个句子 : 对宾语 birds 的修饰除了 of prey 这种简单的 of 结构以外 , 又加上了括号中的举例以及后面 that 引导的定语从句 , 从句中涉及到的 ridge line 又用了从句进行修饰。 译文 : 某些区域的大型风力发电厂很可能会影响候鸟的飞行方式 , 而且它们已经杀害了一些喜欢沿那些风力涡轮机所处的理想嵴线捕食的猛禽 ( 尤其是老鹰、猎鹰和鹰 ) 。 Large wind farms might also interfere with the flight patterns of migratory birds in certain areas, and they have killed large birds of prey (especially hawks, falcons, and eagles) that prefer to hunt along the same ridge lines that are ideal for wind turbines. YeeaooBox 微博 :http://weibo.com/yeeaoobox 33 / 36 TPO 阅读部分难句解析【 YeeaooBox 推荐】免费托福真题素材库 http://www.yeeaoobox.com 意群训练 : Large wind farms might also interfere with the flight patterns of migratory birds in certain areas, and they have killed large birds of prey (especially hawks, falcons, and eagles) that prefer to hunt along the same ridge lines that are ideal for wind turbines. 2 难句类型 : 并列结构 + 定语从句 + 复杂修饰 这个句子可以算是托福阅读中比较长的了 , 但只要耐心读完 , 就可以发现其难度非常小。 除了两处定语从句以外 , 其他部分都是简单句 , 句子较长只是由并列结构 ( 各种鸟类死亡的列举 ) 以及形容词的堆砌。 译文 : 相比之下 , 在美国估计每年有 9700 万禽鸟由于碰撞到建筑物的厚玻璃板而死亡 , 5700 万禽鸟死在高速公路上 , 至少有 380 万禽鸟死于污染和中毒 , 每年数以百万计的禽鸟在燃煤电厂和核电厂的输电和配电线缆上触电致死。 意群训练 : By contrast, in the United States an estimated 97 million birds are killed each year when they collide with buildings made of plate glass, 57 million are killed on highways each year; at least 3.8 million die annually from pollution and poisoning; and millions of birds are electrocuted each year by transmission and distribution lines carrying power produced by nuclear and coal power plants. 20.Deer Populations of the Puget Sound(TPO4) 1 By contrast, in the United States an estimated 97 million birds are killed each year when they collide with buildings made of plate glass, 57 million are killed on highways each year; at least 3.8 million die annually from pollution and poisoning; and millions of birds are electrocuted each year by transmission and distribution lines carrying power produced by nuclear and coal power plants. A worsening of the plight of deer was to be expected as settlers encroached on the land, logging, burning, and clearing, eventually replacing a wilderness landscape with roads, cities, towns, and factories. YeeaooBox 微博 :http://weibo.com/yeeaoobox 34 / 36 TPO 阅读部分难句解析【 YeeaooBox 推荐】免费托福真题素材库 http://www.yeeaoobox.com 难句类型 : 原因状语从句 + 并列结构 + 复杂修饰 固定搭配 to be expected 表示 “ 可以预见 ”,as 在这里可以表示伴随的状态 , 译为 “ 随着 ”, 也 可以看作引导原因状语从句。另外一个需要注意的就是句中两次出现的并列结构 : logging, burning, and clearing, eventually replacing 和 roads, cities, towns, and factories 由于意向一致 , 这两次并列的出现在阅读时都可以以其中一个作为代表提取出来 , 从而简化较长的句子 , 也降低了理解和记忆的难度。 译文 : 可以预见 , 鹿群的处境将逐渐恶化 , 因为人类在他们生活的土地上进行采伐、焚烧 , 清除障碍 , 最终将荒野风景变成公路、城市、城镇和工厂。 意群训练 : A worsening of the plight of deer was to be expected as settlers encroached on the land, logging, burning, and clearing, eventually replacing a wilderness landscape with roads, cities, towns, and factories. 2 难句类型 : 插入成分 + 固定搭配 + 复杂修饰 句中比较明显的插入成分 , 即出现在两个逗号之间的 , 有 “like huckleberry and vine maple”, 和 “longtime game biologist in the Pacific Northwest”, 但从广义上来说 , 开头的 In addition to finding an increase of suitable browse, 也可以看做是插入成分。在主干部分 , 提取出 find......to be 这一固定搭配使句意的理解得以简化 : 研究对象是 “quality of browse in the open areas”, 特点是 “substantially more nutritive” 。 译文 : 除了找到越来越多适合的嫩叶 , 比如越橘类和枫叶以外 , 有很长时间从业经验的太平洋西北的狩猎生物学家亚瑟 · 埃纳森发现在空旷地区的嫩叶的成分大部分都是更有营养的。 意群训练 : In addition to finding an increase of suitable browse, like huckleberry and vine maple, Arthur Einarsen, longtime game biologist in the Pacific Northwest, found quality of browse in the open areas to be substantially more nutritive. In addition to finding an increase of suitable browse, like huckleberry and vine maple, Arthur Einarsen, longtime game biologist in the Pacific Northwest, found quality of browse in the open areas to be substantially more nutritive.
• 15. 篇章结构速读
  • 【1】在本部分需要掌握的内容
    • 【1】区分主要和次要信息——改写题
    • 【2】构建信息链TSD结构——各题型
    • 【3】培养主动预测的能力——读标题
      • 主动总结要点（总结）
      • 填补逻辑空白（预测）
    • 【4】快速笔记及四大原则——课后练
  • 【2】阅读步骤及结构笔记训练
    • 【1】根据标题，预判全文结构
      • 【1】议论文阅读策略
        • 议论文：对某种未知事物 / 尚無定論的事物，提出某种理論假设、證據總結，或是驳斥别人的观点。 议论文是以议论为主要表达方式，通过摆事实，讲道理，直接表达作者的观点和主张的常用文体。它不同于记叙文以形象生动的记叙来间接地表达作者的思想感情，也不同于说明文侧重介绍或解释事物的形状、性质、成因、功能等。总之，议论文是以理服人的文章，记叙文和说明文则是以事感人，以知授人的文章。 议论是作者对客观事物进行分析、评论、说服，以表明作者见解的表达方式，通常由论点、论据、论证三部分构成。 - Running Water on Mars? (TPO8-3) - Which Hand Did They Use? - The Mystery of Yawning - Orientation and Navigation - Begging by Nestlings - The Origins of Theater - Maya Water Problems - Mass Extinctions - Extinction of the Dinosaurs (TPO-8-2) - Meteorite Impact and Dinosaur Extinction - Early Settlements in the Southwest Asia - The Origin of the Pacific Island People - Colonizing the Americas via the Northwest Coast - The Origins of Agriculture - Lascaux Cave Paintings - Cave Art in Europe - Rock Art of the Australia Aborigines - The Cambrian Explosion - The Geologic History of the Mediterranean (TPO-7-1) - Succession, Climax, and Ecosystems (TPO19-2 Clement 观点 ) **************************************************************************************** TPO-12-1 Which Hand Did They Use? We all know that many more people today are right-handed than left-handed. Can one trace this same pattern far back in prehistory? Much of the evidence about right-hand versus left-hand dominance comes from stencils and prints found in rock shelters in Australia and elsewhere, and in many Ice Age caves in France, Spain, and Tasmania. When a left hand has been stenciled, this implies that the artist was right-handed, and vice versa. Even though the paint was often sprayed on by mouth, one can assume that the dominant hand assisted in the operation. One also has to make the assumption that hands were stenciled palm downward—a left hand stenciled palm upward might of course look as if it were a right hand. Of 158 stencils in the French cave of Gargas, 136 have been identified as left, and only 22 as right; right-handedness was therefore heavily predominant. Cave art furnishes other types of evidence of this phenomenon. Most engravings, for example, are best lit from the left, as befits the work of right-handed artists, who generally prefer to have the light source on the left so that the shadow of their hand does not fall on the tip of the engraving tool or brush. In the few cases where an Ice Age figure is depicted holding something, it is mostly, though not always, in the right hand. Clues to right-handedness can also be found by other methods. Right-handers tend to have longer, stronger, and more muscular bones on the right side , and Marcellin Boule as long ago as 1911 noted the La Chapelle-aux-Saints Neanderthal skeleton had a right upper arm bone that was noticeably stronger than the left. Similar observations have been made on other Neanderthal skeletons such as La Ferrassie I and Neanderthal itself. Fractures and other cut marks are another source of evidence. Right-handed soldiers tend to be wounded on the left. The skeleton of a 40- or 50-year-old Nabatean warrior, buried 2,000 years ago in the Negev Desert, Israel, had multiple healed fractures to the skull, the left arm, and the ribs. Tools themselves can be revealing. Long-handed Neolithic spoons of yew wood preserved in Alpine villages dating to 3000 B.C. have survived; the signs of rubbing on their left side indicate that their users were right-handed. The late Ice Age rope found in the French cave of Lascaux consists of fibers spiraling to the right, and was therefore tressed by a righthander. Occasionally one can determine whether stone tools were used in the right hand or the left, and it is even possible to assess how far back this feature can be traced. In stone toolmaking experiments, Nick Toth, a right-hander, held the core (the stone that would become the tool) in his left hand and the hammer stone in his right. As the tool was made, the core was rotated clockwise, and the flakes, removed in sequence, had a little crescent of cortex (the core's outer surface) on the side. Toth's knapping produced 56 percent flakes with the cortex on the right, and 44 percent left-oriented flakes. A left-handed toolmaker would produce the opposite pattern. Toth has applied these criteria to the similarly made pebble tools from a number of early sites (before 1.5 million years) at Koobi Fora, Kenya, probably made by Homo habilis. At seven sites he found that 57 percent of the flakes were right-oriented, and 43 percent left, a pattern almost identical to that produced today. About 90 percent of modern humans are right-handed: we are the only mammal with a preferential use of one hand. The part of the brain responsible for fine control and movement is located in the left cerebral hemisphere, and the findings above suggest that the human brain was already asymmetrical in its structure and function not long after 2 million years ago. Among Neanderthalers of 70,000–35,000 years ago, Marcellin Boule noted that the La Chapelle-aux-Saints individual had a left hemisphere slightly bigger than the right, and the same was found for brains of specimens from Neanderthal, Gibraltar, and La Quina. 14. Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2 points. Several categories of evidence indicate that people have always been predominantly right-handed. ● ● ● Answer Choices ○ Stencils of right-handed figures are characteristic of cave art in France, Spain, and Tasmania. ○ Signs on the skeletal remains of prehistoric figures, including arm-bone size and injury marks, imply that these are the remains of right-handed people. ○ Instruments such as spoons, ropes, and pebble tools show signs that indicate they were used or constructed by right-handed people. ○ The amount of prehistoric art created by right-handed artists indicates that left-handed people were in the minority. ○ Neanderthal skeletons often have longer finger bones in the right hand, which is evidence that the right hand was stronger. ○ Nick Toth, a modem right-handed toolmaker. has shown that prehistoric tools were knapped to fit the right hand. **************************************************************************************** TPO-8-3 Running Water on Mars? Photographic evidence suggests that liquid water once existed in great quantity on the surface of Mars.Two types of flow features are seen: runoff channels and outflow channels. Runoff channels are found in the southern highlands. These flow features are extensive systems—sometimes hundreds of kilometers in total length—of interconnecting, twisting channels that seem to merge into larger, wider channels. They bear a strong resemblance to river systems on Earth, and geologists think that they are dried-up beds of long-gone rivers that once carried rainfall on Mars from the mountains down into the valleys. Runoff channels on Mars speak of a time 4 billion years ago (the age of the Martian highlands), when the atmosphere was thicker, the surface warmer, and liquid water widespread. Outflow channels are probably relics of catastrophic flooding on Mars long ago. They appear only in equatorial regions and generally do not form extensive interconnected networks. Instead, they are probably the paths taken by huge volumes of water draining from the southern highlands into the northern plains. The onrushing water arising from these flash floods likely also formed the odd teardrop-shaped “islands” (resembling the miniature versions seen in the wet sand of our beaches at low tide) that have been found on the plains close to the ends of the outflow channels. Judging from the width and depth of the channels, the flow rates must have been truly enormous—perhaps as much as a hundred times greater than the 105 tons per second carried by the great Amazon river. Flooding shaped the outflow channels approximately 3 billion years ago, about the same times as the northern volcanic plains formed. Some scientists speculate that Mars may have enjoyed an extended early period during which rivers, lakes, and perhaps even oceans adorned its surface. A 2003 Mars Global Surveyor image shows what mission specialists think may be a delta—a fan-shaped network of channels and sediments where a river once flowed into a larger body of water, in this case a lake filling a crater in the southern highlands. Other researchers go even further, suggesting that the data provide evidence for large open expenses of water on the early Martian surface. A computer-generated view of the Martian north polar region shows the extent of what may have been an ancient ocean covering much of the northern lowlands. The Hellas Basin, which measures some 3,000 kilometers across and has a floor that lies nearly 9 kilometers below the basin’s rim, is another candidate for an ancient Martian sea. These ideas remain controversial. Proponents point to features such as the terraced “beaches” shown in one image, which could conceivably have been left behind as a lake or ocean evaporated and the shoreline receded. But detractors maintain that the terraces could also have been created by geological activity, perhaps related to the geologic forces that depressed the Northern Hemisphere far below the level of the south, in which case they have nothing whatever to do with Martian water. Furthermore, Mars Global Surveyor data released in 2003 seem to indicate that the Martian surface contains too few carbonate rock layers—layers containing compounds of carbon and oxygen—that should have been formed in abundance in an ancient ocean. Their absence supports the picture of a cold, dry Mars that never experienced the extended mild period required to form lakes and oceans. However, more recent data imply that at least some parts of the planet did in fact experience long periods in the past during which liquid water existed on the surface. Aside from some small-scale gullies (channels) found since 2000, which are inconclusive, astronomers have no direct evidence for liquid water anywhere on the surface of Mars today, and the amount of water vapor in the Martian atmosphere is tiny. Yet even setting aside the unproven hints of ancient oceans, the extent of the outflow channels suggests that a huge total volume of water existed on Mars in the past. Where did all the water go? The answer may be that virtually all the water on Mars is now locked in the permafrost layer under the surface, with more contained in the planet’s polar caps. 13. Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2 points. There is much debate concerning whether Mars once had water. ● ● ● Answer choices ○ Mars’ runoff and outflow channels are large-scale, distinctive features that suggest that large quantities of liquid water once flowed on Mars. ○ Although some researchers claim that Mars may once have had oceans, others dispute this, pointing to an absence of evidence or offering alternative interpretations of evidence. ○ Various types of images have been used to demonstrate that most of Martian surface contains evidence of flowing water. ○ The runoff and outflow channels of Mars apparently carried a higher volume of water and formed more extensive networks than do Earth’s river systems. ○ There is very little evidence of liquid water on Mars today, and it is assumed that all the water that once existed on the planet is frozen beneath its surface. ○ While numerous gullies have been discovered on Mars since 2000, many astronomers dismiss them as evidence that Mars once had liquid water. **************************************************************************************** TPO-18-3 The Mystery of Yawning According to conventional theory, yawning takes place when people are bored or sleepy and serves the function of increasing alertness by reversing, through deeper breathing, the drop in blood oxygen levels that are caused by the shallow breathing that accompanies lack of sleep or boredom. Unfortunately, the few scientific investigations of yawning have failed to find any connection between how often someone yawns and how much sleep they have had or how tired they are. About the closest any research has come to supporting the tiredness theory is to confirm that adults yawn more often on weekdays than at weekends, and that school children yawn more frequently in their first year at primary school than they do in kindergarten. Another flaw of the tiredness theory is that yawning does not raise alertness or physiological activity, as the theory would predict. When researchers measured the heart rate, muscle tension and skin conductance of people before, during and after yawning, they did detect some changes in skin conductance following yawning, indicating a slight increase in physiological activity. However, similar changes occurred when the subjects were asked simply to open their mouths or to breathe deeply. Yawning did nothing special to their state of physiological activity. Experiments have also cast serious doubt on the belief that yawning is triggered by a drop in blood oxygen or a rise in blood carbon dioxide. Volunteers were told to think about yawning while they breathed either normal air, pure oxygen, or an air mixture with an above-normal level of carbon dioxide. If the theory was correct, breathing air with extra carbon dioxide should have triggered yawning, while breathing pure oxygen should have suppressed yawning. In fact, neither condition made any difference to the frequency of yawning, which remained constant at about 24 yawns per hour. Another experiment demonstrated that physical exercise, which was sufficiently vigorous to double the rate of breathing, had no effect on the frequency of yawning. Again the implication is that yawning has little or nothing to do with oxygen. A completely different theory holds that yawning assists in the physical development of the lungs early in life, but has no remaining biological function in adults. It has been suggested that yawning and hiccuping might serve to clear out the fetuses airways. The lungs of a fetus secrete a liquid that mixes with its mother's amniotic fluid. Babies with congenital blockages that prevent this fluid from escaping from their lungs are sometimes born with deformed lungs. It might be that yawning helps to clear out the lungs by periodically lowering the pressure in them. According to this theory, yawning in adults is just a developmental fossil with no biological function. But, while accepting that not everything in life can be explained by Darwinian evolution, there are sound reasons for being skeptical of theories like this one, which avoid the issue of what yawning does for adults. Yawning is distracting, consumes energy and takes time. It is almost certainly doing something significant in adults as well as in fetuses. What could it be? The empirical evidence, such as it is, suggests an altogether different function for yawning—namely, that yawning prepares us for a change in activity level. Support for this theory came from a study of yawning behavior in everyday life. Volunteers wore wrist-mounted devices that automatically recorded their physical activity for up to two weeks: the volunteers also recorded their yawns by pressing a button on the device each time they yawned. The data showed that yawning tended to occur about 15 minutes before a period of increased behavioral activity. Yawning bore no relationship to sleep patterns, however. This accords with anecdotal evidence that people often yawn in situations where they are neither tired nor bored, but are preparing for impending mental and physical activity. Such yawning is often referred to as "incongruous" because it seems out of place, at least on the tiredness view: soldiers yawning before combat, musicians yawning before performing, and athletes yawning before competing. Their yawning seems to have nothing to do with sleepiness or boredom—quite the reverse—but it does precede a change in activity level. 15. Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THERR answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2 points. The tiredness theory of yawning does not seem to explain why yawning occurs. ● ● ● ○ Although earlier scientific studies strongly supported the tiredness theory, new evidence has cast doubt on these findings. ○ Evidence has shown that yawning is almost completely unrelated to amount of oxygen in the blood and is unrelated to sleep behavior. ○ Some have proposed that yawning plays a role in the development of the lungs before birth but that it serves no purpose in adults. ○ Fluids in the lungs of the fetus prevent yawning from occurring, which disproves the developmental theory of yawning. ○ New studies, along with anecdotal evidence, have shown that the frequency of yawning increases during extended periods of inactivity. ○ There is some evidence that suggests that yawning prepares the body and mind for a change in activity level. **************************************************************************************** TPO-11-2 Orientation and Navigation To South Americans, robins are birds that fly north every spring. To North Americans, the robins simply vacation in the south each winter. Furthermore, they fly to very specific places in South America and will often come back to the same trees in North American yards the following spring. The question is not why they would leave the cold of winter so much as how they find their way around. The question perplexed people for years, until, in the 1950s, a German scientist named Gustave Kramer provided some answers and, in the process, raised new questions. Kramer initiated important new kinds of researches regarding how animals orient and navigate. Orientation is simply facing in the right direction; navigation involves finding ones way from point A to point B. Early in his research, Kramer found that caged migratory birds became very restless at about the time they would normally have begun migration in the wild. Furthermore, he noticed that as they fluttered around in the cage, they often launched themselves in the direction of their normal migratory route. He then set up experiments with caged starlings and found that their orientation was, in fact, in the proper migratory direction except when the sky was overcast, at which times there was no clear direction to their restless movements. Kramer surmised, therefore, that they were orienting according to the position of the Sun. To test this idea, he blocked their view of the Sun and used mirrors to change its apparent position. He found that under these circumstances, the birds oriented with respect to the new "Sun." They seemed to be using the Sun as a compass to determine direction. At the time, this idea seemed preposterous. How could a bird navigate by the Sun when some of us lose our way with road maps? Obviously, more testing was in order. So, in another set of experiments, Kramer put identical food boxes around the cage, with food in only one of the boxes. The boxes were stationary, and the one containing food was always at the same point of the compass. However, its position with respect to the surroundings could be changed by revolving either the inner cage containing the birds or the outer walls, which served as the background. As long as the birds could see the Sun, no matter how their surroundings were altered, they went directly to the correct food box. Whether the box appeared in front of the right wall or the left wall, they showed no signs of confusion. On overcast days, however, the birds were disoriented and had trouble locating their food box. In experimenting with artificial suns, Kramer made another interesting discovery. If the artificial Sun remained stationary, the birds would shift their direction with respect to it at a rate of about 15 degrees per hour, the Sun's rate of movement across the sky. Apparently, the birds were assuming that the "Sun" they saw was moving at that rate. When the real Sun was visible, however, the birds maintained a constant direction as it moved across the sky. In other words, they were able to compensate for the Sun's movement. This meant that some sort of biological clock was operating-and a very precise clock at that. What about birds that migrate at night? Perhaps they navigate by the night sky. To test the idea, caged night-migrating birds were placed on the floor of a planetarium during their migratory period. A planetarium is essentially a theater with a domelike ceiling onto which a night sky can be projected for any night of the year. When the planetarium sky matched the sky outside, the birds fluttered in the direction of their normal migration. But when the dome was rotated, the birds changed their direction to match the artificial sky. The results clearly indicated that the birds were orienting according to the stars. There is accumulating evidence indicating that birds navigate by using a wide variety of environmental cues. Other areas under investigation include magnetism, landmarks, coastlines, sonar, and even smells. The studies are complicated by the fact that the data are sometimes contradictory and the mechanisms apparently change from time to time. Furthermore, one sensory ability may back up another. 14.Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2 points. Gustave Kramer conducted important research related to the ability of birds to orient and navigate. ● ● ● Answer Choices ○ Because caged birds become disoriented when the sky is overcast, Kramer hypothesized that birds orient themselves according to the Sun's position. ○ In one set of experiments, Kramer placed the box containing food at the same point of the compass each time he put food boxes in the birds’ environment. ○ Kramer demonstrated that an internal biological clock allows starlings to compensate for the Sun's movement. ○ After several studies, Kramer surmised that an internal biological clock allows some species of birds to navigate at night. ○ The role of environmental cues in birds' navigation is clear, for on overcast days, birds use objects besides the Sun to orient themselves. ○ Kramer showed that night-migrating birds use the sky to navigate by the stars. **************************************************************************************** TPO-11-3 Begging by Nestlings Many signals that animals make seem to impose on the signalers costs that are overly damaging. A classic example is noisy begging by nestling songbirds when a parent returns to the nest with food. These loud cheeps and peeps might give the location of the nest away to a listening hawk or raccoon, resulting in the death of the defenseless nestlings. In fact, when tapes of begging tree swallows were played at an artificial swallow nest containing an egg, the egg in that “noisy” nest was taken or destroyed by predators before the egg in a nearby quiet nest in 29 of 37 trials. Further evidence for the costs of begging comes from a study of differences in the begging calls of warbler species that nest on the ground versus those that nest in the relative safety of trees. The young of ground-nesting warblers produce begging cheeps of higher frequencies than do their tree-nesting relatives. These higher-frequency sounds do not travel as far, and so may better conceal the individuals producing them, who are especially vulnerable to predators in their ground nests. David Haskell created artificial nests with clay eggs and placed them on the ground beside a tape recorder that played the begging calls of either tree-nesting or of ground-nesting warblers. The eggs “advertised” by the tree-nesters' begging calls were found bitten significantly more often than the eggs associated with the ground-nesters' calls. The hypothesis that begging calls have evolved properties that reduce their potential for attracting predators yields a prediction : baby birds of species that experience high rates of nest predation should produce softer begging signals of higher frequency than nestlings of other species less often victimized by nest predators. This prediction was supported by data collected in one survey of 24 species from an Arizona forest, more evidence that predator pressure favors the evolution of begging calls that are hard to detect and pinpoint. Given that predators can make it costly to beg for food, what benefit do begging nestlings derive from their communications? One possibility is that a noisy baby bird provides accurate signals of its real hunger and good health, making it worthwhile for the listening parent to give it food in a nest where several other offspring are usually available to be fed. If this hypothesis is true, then it follows that nestlings should adjust the intensity of their signals in relation to the signals produced by their nestmates, who are competing for parental attention. When experimentally deprived baby robins are placed in a nest with normally fed siblings, the hungry nestlings beg more loudly than usual—but so do their better-fed siblings, though not as loudly as the hungrier birds. If parent birds use begging intensity to direct food to healthy offspring capable of vigorous begging, then parents should make food delivery decisions on the basis of their offsprings’ calls. Indeed, if you take baby tree swallows out of a nest for an hour feeding half the set and starving the other half, when the birds are replaced in the nest, the starved youngsters beg more loudly than the fed birds, and the parent birds feed the active beggars more than those who beg less vigorously. As these experiments show, begging apparently provides a signal of need that parents use to make judgments about which offspring can benefit most from a feeding. But the question arises, why don't nestlings beg loudly when they aren't all that hungry? By doing so, they could possibly secure more food, which should result in more rapid growth or larger size, either of which is advantageous. The answer lies apparently not in the increased energy costs of exaggerated begging—such energy costs are small relative to the potential gain in calories—but rather in the damage that any successful cheater would do to its siblings, which share genes with one another. An individual's success in propagating his or her genes can be affected by more than just his or her own personal reproductive success. Because close relatives have many of the same genes, animals that harm their close relatives may in effect be destroying some of their own genes. Therefore, a begging nestling that secures food at the expense of its siblings might actually leave behind fewer copies of its genes overall than it might otherwise. 14. Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2 points. Experiments have shed much light on the begging behaviors of baby songbirds. ● ● ● Answer Choices ○ Songbird species that are especially vulnerable to predators have evolved ways of reducing the dangers associated with begging calls. ○ Songbird parents focus their feeding effort on the nestlings that beg loudest for food. ○ It is genetically disadvantageous for nestlings to behave as if they are really hungry when they are not really hungry. ○ The begging calls of songbird nestlings provide a good example of overly damaging cost to signalers of signaling. ○ The success with which songbird nestlings communicate their hunger to their parents is dependent on the frequencies of the nestlings' begging calls. ○ Songbird nestlings have evolved several different ways to communicate the intensity of their hunger to their parents. **************************************************************************************** TPO-9-1 Colonizing the Americas via the Northwest Coast It has long been accepted that the Americas were colonized by a migration of peoples from Asia, slowly traveling across a land bridge called Beringia (now the Bering Strait between northeastern Asia and Alaska) during the last Ice Age. The first water craft theory about this migration was that around 11,000-12,000 years ago there was an ice-free corridor stretching from eastern Beringia to the areas of North America south of the great northern glaciers. It was this midcontinental corridor between two massive ice sheets–the Laurentide to the east and the Cordilleran to the west–that enabled the southward migration. But belief in this ice-free corridor began to crumble when paleoecologist Glen MacDonald demonstrated that some of the most important radiocarbon dates used to support the existence of an ice-free corridor were incorrect. He persuasively argued that such an ice-free corridor did not exist until much later, when the continental ice began its final retreat. Support is growing for the alternative theory that people using watercraft, possibly skin boats, moved southward from Beringia along the Gulf of Alaska and then southward along the Northwest coast of North America possibly as early as 16,000 years ago. This route would have enabled humans to enter southern areas of the Americas prior to the melting of the continental glaciers. Until the early 1970s,most archaeologists did not consider the coast a possible migration route into the Americas because geologists originally believed that during the last Ice Age the entire Northwest Coast was covered by glacial ice. It had been assumed that the ice extended westward from the Alaskan/Canadian mountains to the very edge of the continental shelf, the flat, submerged part of the continent that extends into the ocean. This would have created a barrier of ice extending from the Alaska Peninsula, through the Gulf of Alaska and southward along the Northwest Coast of north America to what is today the state of Washington. The most influential proponent of the coastal migration route has been Canadian archaeologist Knut Fladmark. He theorized that with the use of watercraft, people gradually colonized unglaciated refuges and areas along the continental shelf exposed by the lower sea level. Fladmark’s hypothesis received additional support form from the fact that the greatest diversity in native American languages occurs along the west coast of the Americas, suggesting that this region has been settled the longest. More recent geologic studies documented deglaciation and the existence of ice-free areas throughout major coastal areas of British Columbia, Canada, by 13,000 years ago. Research now indicates that sizable areas of southeastern Alaska along the inner continental shelf were not covered by ice toward the end of the last Ice Age. One study suggests that except for a 250-mile coastal area between southwestern British Columbia and Washington State, the Northwest Coast of North America was largely free of ice by approximately 16,000 years ago. Vast areas along the coast may have been deglaciated beginning around 16,000 years ago, possibly providing a coastal corridor for the movement of plants, animals, and humans sometime between 13,000 and 14,000 years ago. The coastal hypothesis has gained increasing support in recent years because the remains of large land animals, such as caribou and brown bears, have been found in southeastern Alaska dating between 10,000 and 12,500 years ago. This is the time period in which most scientists formerly believed the area to be inhospitable for humans. It has been suggested that if the environment were capable of supporting breeding populations of bears, there would have been enough food resources to support humans. Fladmark and other believe that the first human colonization of America occurred by boat along the Northwest Coast during the very late Ice Age, possibly as early as 14,000 years ago. The most recent geologic evidence indicates that it may have been possible for people to colonize ice-free regions along the continental shelf that were still exposed by the lower sea level between13,000 and 14,000 years ago. The coastal hypothesis suggests an economy based on marine mammal hunting, saltwater fishing, shellfish gathering, and the use of watercraft. Because of the barrier of ice to the east, the Pacific Ocean to the west, and populated areas to the north, there may have been a greater impetus for people to move in a southerly direction. 14. Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some answer choices do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2 points. Recent evidence favors a rival to the long-standing theory that the Americas were colonized 11,000-12,000 years ago by people migrating south from Beringia along a midcontinental ice-free corridor. ● ● ● Answer Choices ○ Evidence that an ice-free corridor between two ice sheets developed when the continental ice first began to melt came primarily from radiocarbon dating. ○ There is growing support for the theory that migration took place much earlier, by sea, following a coastal route along Alaska and down the northwest coast. ○ Recent geologic evidence indicates that contrary to what had been believed, substantial areas along the coast were free of ice as early as 16,000 years ago. ○ Research now indicates that the parts of the inner continental shelf that remained covered with ice were colonized by a variety of early human groups well adapted to living in extremely cold environments. ○ There is evidence suggesting that areas along the coast may have contained enough food resources between 13,000 and 14,000 years ago to have made human colonization possible. ○ Even though the northern part of the continent allowed for a more varied economy, several early human groups quickly moved south. **************************************************************************************** TPO-1-2 The Origins of Theater In seeking to describe the origins of theater, one must rely primarily on speculation, since there is little concrete evidence on which to draw.The most widely accepted theory, championed by anthropologists in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, envisions theater as emerging out of myth and ritual. The process perceived by these anthropologists may be summarized briefly. During the early stages of its development, a society becomes aware of forces that appear to influence or control its food supply and well-being. Having little understanding of natural causes, it attributes both desirable and undesirable occurrences to supernatural or magical forces, and it searches for means to win the favor of these forces. Perceiving an apparent connection between certain actions performed by the group and the result it desires, the group repeats, refines and formalizes those actions into fixed ceremonies, or rituals. Stories (myths) may then grow up around a ritual. Frequently the myths include representatives of those supernatural forces that the rites celebrate or hope to influence. Performers may wear costumes and masks to represent the mythical characters or supernatural forces in the rituals or in accompanying celebrations. As a person becomes more sophisticated, its conceptions of supernatural forces and causal relationships may change. As a result, it may abandon or modify some rites. But the myths that have grown up around the rites may continue as part of the group’s oral tradition and may even come to be acted out under conditions divorced from these rites. When this occurs, the first step has been taken toward theater as an autonomous activity, and thereafter entertainment and aesthetic values may gradually replace the former mystical and socially efficacious concerns. Although origin in ritual has long been the most popular, it is by no means the only theory about how the theater came into being. Storytelling has been proposed as one alternative. Under this theory, relating and listening to stories are seen as fundamental human pleasures. Thus, the recalling of an event (a hunt, battle, or other feat) is elaborated through the narrator’s pantomime and impersonation and eventually through each role being assumed by a different person. A closely related theory sees theater as evolving out of dances that are primarily pantomimic, rhythmical or gymnastic, or from imitations of animal noises and sounds. Admiration for the performer’s skill, virtuosity, and grace are seen as motivation for elaborating the activities into fully realized theatrical performances. In addition to exploring the possible antecedents of theater, scholars have also theorized about the motives that led people to develop theater. Why did theater develop, and why was it valued after it ceased to fulfill the function of ritual? Most answers fall back on the theories about the human mind and basic human needs. One, set forth by Aristotle in the fourth century B.C., sees humans as naturally imitative—as taking pleasure in imitating persons, things, and actions and in seeing such imitations. Another, advanced in the twentieth century, suggests that humans have a gift for fantasy, through which they seek to reshape reality into more satisfying forms than those encountered in daily life. Thus, fantasy or fiction (of which drama is one form) permits people to objectify their anxieties and fears, confront them, and fulfill their hopes in fiction if not fact. The theater, then, is one tool whereby people define and understand their world or escape from unpleasant realities. But neither the human imitative instinct nor a penchant for fantasy by itself leads to an autonomous theater. Therefore, additional explanations are needed. One necessary condition seems to be a somewhat detached view of human problems. For example, one sign of this condition is the appearance of the comic vision, since comedy requires sufficient detachment to view some deviations from social norms as ridiculous rather than as serious threats to the welfare of the entire group. Another condition that contributes to the development of autonomous theater is the emergence of the aesthetic sense. For example, some early societies ceased to consider certain rites essential to their well-being and abandoned them, nevertheless, they retained as parts of their oral tradition the myths that had grown up around the rites and admired them for their artistic qualities rather than for their religious usefulness. 14. Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2 points. Anthropologists have developed many theories to help understand why and how theater originated. ● ● ● Answer choices ○ The presence of theater in almost all societies is thought to have occurred because early storytellers traveled to different groups to tell their stories. ○ Many theorists believe that theater arises when societies act out myths to preserve social well-being. ○ The more sophisticated societies became, the better they could influence desirable occurrences through ritualized theater. ○ Some theories of theater development focus on how theater was used by group leaders to group leaders govern other members of society. ○ Theater may have come from pleasure humans receive from storytelling and moving rhythmically. ○ The human capacities for imitation and fantasy are considered possible reasons why societies develop theater. **************************************************************************************** TPO-21-2 The Origins of Agriculture How did it come about that farming developed independently in a number of world centers (the Southeast Asian mainland, Southwest Asia, Central America, lowland and highland South America, and equatorial Africa) at more or less the same time? Agriculture developed slowly among populations that had an extensive knowledge of plants and animals. Changing from hunting and gathering to agriculture had no immediate advantages. To start with, it forced the population to abandon the nomad's life and become sedentary, to develop methods of storage and, often, systems of irrigation. While hunter-gatherers always had the option of moving elsewhere when the resources were exhausted, this became more difficult with farming. Furthermore, as the archaeological record shows, the state of health of agriculturalists was worse than that of their contemporary hunter-gatherers. Traditionally, it was believed that the transition to agriculture was the result of a worldwide population crisis.It was argued that once hunter-gatherers had occupied the whole world, the population started to grow everywhere and food became scarce ; agriculture would have been a solution to this problem. We know, however, that contemporary hunter-gatherer societies control their population in a variety of ways. The idea of a world population crisis is therefore unlikely, although population pressure might have arisen in some areas. Climatic changes at the end of the glacial period 13,000 years ago have been proposed to account for the emergence of farming. The temperature increased dramatically in a short period of time (years rather than centuries), allowing for a growth of the hunting-gathering population due to the abundance of resources. There were, however, fluctuations in the climatic conditions, with the consequences that wet conditions were followed by dry ones, so that the availability of plants and animals oscillated brusquely. It would appear that the instability of the climatic conditions led populations that had originally been nomadic to settle down and develop a sedentary style of life, which led in turn to population growth and to the need to increase the amount of food available. Farming originated in these conditions. Later on, it became very difficult to change because of the significant expansion of these populations. It could be argued, however, that these conditions are not sufficient to explain the origins of agriculture. Earth had experienced previous periods of climatic change, and yet agriculture had not been developed. It is archaeologist Steven Mithen's thesis, brilliantly developed in his book The Prehistory of the Mind (1996), that approximately 40,000 years ago the human mind developed cognitive fluidity, that is, the integration of the specializations of the mind: technical, natural history (geared to understanding the behavior and distribution of natural resources), social intelligence, and the linguistic capacity. Cognitive fluidity explains the appearance of art, religion, and sophisticated speech. Once humans possessed such a mind, they were able to find an imaginative solution to a situation of severe economic crisis such as the farming dilemma described earlier. Mithen proposes the existence of four mental elements to account for the emergence of farming: (1) the ability to develop tools that could be used intensively to harvest and process plant resources; (2) the tendency to use plants and animals as the medium to acquire social prestige and power; (3) the tendency to develop "social relationships" with animals structurally similar to those developed with people—specifically, the ability to think of animals as people (anthropomorphism) and of people as animals (totemism); and (4) the tendency to manipulate plants and animals. The fact that some societies domesticated animals and plants, discovered the use of metal tools, became literate, and developed a state should not make us forget that others developed pastoralism or horticulture (vegetable gardening) but remained illiterate and at low levels of productivity; a few entered the modern period as hunting and gathering societies. It is anthropologically important to inquire into the conditions that made some societies adopt agriculture while others remained hunter-gatherers or horticulturalists. However, it should be kept in mind that many societies that knew of agriculture more or less consciously avoided it. Whether Mithen's explanation is satisfactory is open to contention, and some authors have recently emphasized the importance of other factors. **************************************************************************************** TPO 7-1 The Geologic History of the Mediterranean In 1970 geologists Kenneth J. Hsu and William B.F. Ryan were collecting research data while aboard the oceanographic research vessel Glomar Challenger. An objective of this particular cruise was to investigate the floor of the Mediterranean and to resolve questions about its geologic history. One question was related to evidence that the invertebrate fauna (animals without spines) of the Mediterranean had changed abruptly about 6 million years ago. Most of the older organisms were nearly wiped out, although a few hardy species survived. A few managed to migrate into the Atlantic. Somewhat later, the migrants returned, bringing new species with them. Why did the near extinction and migrations occur? Another task for the Glomar Challenger’s scientists was to try to determine the origin of the domelike masses buried deep beneath the Mediterranean seafloor. These structures had been detected years earlier by echo-sounding instruments, but they had never been penetrated in the course of drilling. Were they salt domes such as are common along the United States Gulf Coast, and if so, why should there have been so much solid crystalline salt beneath the floor of the Mediterranean? With question such as these clearly before them, the scientists aboard the Glomar Challenger processed to the Mediterranean to search for the answers. On August 23, 1970, they recovered a sample. The sample consisted of pebbles of hardened sediment that had once been soft, deep-sea mud, as well as granules of gypsum and fragments of volcanic rock. Not a single pebble was found that might have indicated that the pebbles came from the nearby continent. In the days following, samples of solid gypsum were repeatedly brought on deck as drilling operations penetrated the seafloor. Furthermore, the gypsum was found to possess peculiarities of composition and structure that suggested it had formed on desert flats. Sediment above and below the gypsum layer contained tiny marine fossils, indicating open-ocean conditions. As they drilled into the central and deepest part of the Mediterranean basin, the scientists took solid, shiny, crystalline salt from the core barrel. Interbedded with the salt were thin layers of what appeared to be windblown silt. The time had come to formulate a hypothesis. The investigators theorized that about 20 million years ago, the Mediterranean was a broad seaway linked to the Atlantic by two narrow straits. Crustal movements closed the straits, and the landlocked Mediterranean began to evaporate. Increasing salinity caused by the evaporation resulted in the extermination of scores of invertebrate species. Only a few organisms especially tolerant of very salty conditions remained. As evaporation continued, the remaining brine (salt water) became so dense that the calcium sulfate of the hard layer was precipitated. In the central deeper part of the basin, the last of the brine evaporated to precipitate more soluble sodium chloride (salt). Later, under the weight of overlying sediments, this salt flowed plastically upward to form salt domes. Before this happened, however, the Mediterranean was a vast desert 3,000 meters deep. Then, about 5.5 million years ago came the deluge. As a result of crustal adjustments and faulting, the Strait of Gibraltar, where the Mediterranean now connects to the Atlantic, opened, and water cascaded spectacularly back into the Mediterranean. Turbulent waters tore into the hardened salt flats, broke them up, and ground them into the pebbles observed in the first sample taken by the Challenger. As the basin was refilled, normal marine organisms returned. Soon layer of oceanic ooze began to accumulate above the old hard layer. The salt and gypsum, the faunal changes, and the unusual gravel provided abundant evidence that the Mediterranean was once a desert. An expedition to the Mediterranean answered some long-standing questions about the ocean’s history. ● ● ● Answer choices ○ The Glomar Challenger expedition investigated changes in invertebrate fauna and some unusual geologic features. ○ Researchers collected fossils to determine which new species migrated from the Atlantic with older species. ○ Scientists aboard the Glomar Challenger were the first to discover the existence of domelike masses underneath the seafloor. ○ Samples recovered from the expedition revealed important differences in chemical composition and fossil distribution among the sediment layers. ○ Evidence collected by the Glomar Challenger supports geologists' beliefs that the Mediterranean had evaporated and become a desert, before it refilled with water. ○ Mediterranean salt domes formed after crustal movements opened the straits between the Mediterranean and the Atlantic, and the Mediterranean refilled with water. ******************************************************************************************************* ►Although the remarkable antiquity of Australia’s rock art is now established, the sequences and meanings of its images have been widely debated. Since the mid-1970s, a reasonably stable picture has formed of the organization of Australian rock art. In order to create a sense of structure to this picture, researchers have relied on a distinction that still underlies the forms of much indigenous visual culture—a distinction between geometric and figurative elements. Simple geometric repeated patterns—circles, concentric circles, and lines—constitute the iconography (characteristic images) of the earliest rock-art sites found across Australia. The frequency with which certain simple motifs appear in these oldest sites has led rock-art researchers to adopt a descriptive term—the Panaramitee style—a label which takes its name from the extensive rock pavements at Panaramitee North in desert South Australia, which are covered with motifs pecked into the surface. Certain features of these engravings lead to the conclusion that they are of great age—geological changes had clearly happened after the designs had been made and local Aboriginal informants, when first questioned about them, seemed to know nothing of their origins. Furthermore, the designs were covered with “desert varnish,” a glaze that develops on rock surfaces over thousands of years of exposure to the elements. The simple motifs found at Panaramitee are common to many rock-art sites across Australia. Indeed, sites with engravings of geometric shapes are also to be found on the island of Tasmania, which was separated from the mainland of the continent some 10,000 years ago. 3. Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave ways or leave out essential information. ○ The oldest rock art sites have simpler motifs than the best known sites of Panaramitee North. ○ Because motifs primarily associated with the Panaramitee region are common in the oldest sites, the term Panaramitee style has become the general term for rock art of this type. ○ Because the Panaramitee style is so common in the older sites, researchers have described it most extensively. ○ The motifs carved in the rocky surface of the Panaramitee region make up the oldest form of rock art discovered in Australia. ❤ 4. According to paragraph 4, researchers have organized and structured Australian rock art by distinguishing between which of the following? ○ Images found at Panaramitee North and images found in other parts of Australia ○ Images found in a particular type of rock layer and images found in other types of rock layers ○ Images that have geometric elements and images that have figurative elements ○ Images that are typically found and image that are rarely found 5. According to paragraph 4, all of the following are signs of the great age of the Panaramitee engravings EXCEPT: ○ The engravings consisted of simple animal drawings. ○ The engravings were covered with a layer of a substance known as “desert varnish”. ○ Local Aborigines who were asked knew nothing about the origin of the engravings. ○ Geologic changes had occurred after the engravings were made. 6. Why does the author include information about Tasmania in paragraph 4? ○ To provide evidence that the Panaramitee style is widespread and of great age ○ To prove that Aboriginal Australians could not have made the carvings in Tasmania ○ To indicate how researchers have determined how long ago Tasmania separated from the mainland ○ To illustrate the importance of geometric rock art to tourism in Tasmania 答案： ******************************************************************************************************* ►In the 1970s when the study of Australian archaeology was in an exciting phase of development, with the great antiquity of rock art becoming clear, Lesley Maynard, the archaeologist who coined the phrase “Panaramitee style,” suggested that a sequence could be determined for Australian rock art, in which a geometric style gave way to a simple figurative style (outlines of figures and animals), followed by a range of complex figurative styles that, unlike the pan-Australian geometric tradition tended to be much greater regional diversity. While accepting that this sequence fits the archaeological profile of those sites, which were occupied continuously over many thousands of years, a number of writers have warned that the underlying assumption of such a sequence—a development from the simple and the geometric to the complex and naturalistic—obscures the cultural continuities in Aboriginal Australia, in which geometric symbolism remains fundamentally important. In this context the simplicity of a geometric motif may be more apparent than real. Motifs of seeming simplicity can encode complex meanings in Aboriginal Australia. And has not twentieth-century art shown that naturalism does not necessarily follow abstraction in some kind of predetermine sequence? 7. According to paragraph 5, the complex figurative style differs from the geometric style in that the complex figurative style ○ varies significantly from region to region ○ is more meaningful ○ appears on only a few types of rocks ○ has changed little overtime 8. According to paragraph 5, Lesley Maynard made which of the following suggestions about Australian rock art? ○ There were a pattern of human figures being represented in a more complex style than animal figures. ○ Australian archaeology should concentrate on determining the sequence of styles that led up to the Panaramitee style. ○ The great antiquity of Australian rock art would probably make it impossible to determine the ages of the various styles found in rock art. ○ The geometric style of Australian rock art was replaced by increasingly complex figurative styles. 9. In paragraph 5, the author indicates that twentieth century art has shown that naturalism does not necessarily follow abstraction in some kind of predetermined sequence in order to ○ emphasize that it may not be possible to determine what the figures in ancient rock art represent ○ suggest a reply to those who have questioned Maynard’s interpretation of the sequence of Australian rock art ○ provide a counterexample to Maynard’s interpretation of the sequence of Australian rock art ○ indicate that twentieth century art is more advanced than ancient rock art *******************************************************************************************************
        • 【1】标题: 未知需要研究的探索事物: 神秘现象/儿童心理/鳥類/火星/远古艺术/物种灭绝/问号
        • 【2】首段/第二段出现:研究实验——未知事物 Navigation and Orientation/Begging by Nestling
        • 【3】作者针对所讨论的未知对象，提出3个【理论】或3个【证据】或3个【理论/证据/驳斥】
          • suppose, hypothesis/hypothesize, maybe, possible, probably, perhaps, speculate, surmised, theorize, propose, thought to... 理论假设【1】穴ꄱߐĀƇ
          • evidence, indicate, reveal, suggest, support, substantiate, therefore, thus, in another word, in conclusion, to sum up, convince, in general 总结证明【2】
          • argue, disagree, question, reject, dispute, controversial, doubt, debate.... 观点驳斥【3】
        • 【4】若段落内存在新老观点对比的时候: 一定是驳斥传统或过去的观点，支持现在/新的观点
      • 【2】说明文阅读策略
        • - Electricity from Wind - Petroleum Resources - Geothermal Energy - Groundwater - Architecture - Minerals and Plants - Agriculture, Iron, and the Bantu Peoples - Chinese Pottery - Ancient Egyptian Sculpture - Water in the Desert - A Warm-Blooded Turtle - The Origins of Agriculture - Spartina - The Allende Meteorite - Lake Water - Depletion of the Ogallala Aquifer - Powering the Industrial Revolution - Timberline Vegetation on Mountains - Deer Populations of the Puget Sound - Ancient Rome and Greece - Reflection in Teaching - Variations in the Climate - Biological Clocks - Pastoralism in Ancient Inner Eurasia - Glacier Formation - Trade and the Ancient Middle East - Europe's Early Sea Trade with Asia - Animal Signals in the Rain Forest - Symbiotic Relationships - Industrialization in the Netherlands and Scandinavia - Lightning - The Roman Army's Impact on Britain - Succession, Climax, and Ecosystems - Autobiographical Memory - Urban Climates - Seventeenth-Century Dutch Agriculture - Moving into Pueblos
        • - 现象说明文：解释“现象/发生的事实” 产生的3个【原因或结果】
          • - Electricity from Wind (ONLINE-TEST-3) - Petroleum Resources (TPO4-3) - Geothermal Energy (TPO21-1) - Depletion of the Ogallala Aquifer (TPO-3-2) - Timberline Vegetation on Mountains (TPO1-3) - Deer Populations of the Puget Sound (TPO4-1) - Minerals and Plants (TPO5-1) - Ancient Rome and Greece (TPO7-2) - Agriculture, Iron, and the Bantu Peoples (TPO7-3) - Reflection in Teaching (TPO9-2) - Variations in the Climate (TPO10-2) - The Rise of Teotihuacán (TPO8-1) - A Warm-Blooded Turtle (TPO15-1) - Biological Clocks (TPO13-2) - Pastoralism in Ancient Inner Eurasia (TPO14-3) - Glacier Formation (TPO15-3) - Trade and the Ancient Middle East (TPO16-1) - Europe's Early Sea Trade with Asia (TPO17-1) - Animal Signals in the Rain Forest (TPO17-2) - Symbiotic Relationships (TPO17-3) - Industrialization in the Netherlands and Scandinavia (TPO18-1) - Lightning (TPO18-3) - The Roman Army's Impact on Britain (TPO19-1) - Autobiographical Memory (TPO21-3 解释) - Urban Climates (TPO23-1) - Seventeenth-Century Dutch Agriculture (TPO23-2) - Moving into Pueblos (TPO24-3) ************************************************************************************* TPO-23-1 Urban Climates The city is an extraordinary processor of mass and energy and has its own metabolism. A daily input of water, food, and energy of various kinds is matched by an output of sewage, solid waste, air pollutants, energy, and materials that have been transformed in some way. The quantities involved are enormous. Many aspects of this energy use affect the atmosphere of a city, particularly in the production of heat. In winter the heat produced by a city can equal or surpass the amount of heat available from the Sun. All the heat that warms a building eventually transfers to the surrounding air, a process that is quickest where houses are poorly insulated. But an automobile produces enough heat to warm an average house in winter, and if a house were perfectly insulated, one adult could also produce more than enough heat to warm it. Therefore, even without any industrial production of heat, an urban area tends to be warmer than the countryside that surrounds it. The burning of fuel, such as by cars, is not the only source of this increased heat. Two other factors contribute to the higher overall temperature in cities. The first is the heat capacity of the materials that constitute the city, which is typically dominated by concrete and asphalt. During the day, heat from the Sun can be conducted into these materials and stored—to be released at night. But in the countryside materials have a significantly lower heat capacity because a vegetative blanket prevents heat from easily flowing into and out of the ground. The second factor is that radiant heat coming into the city from the Sun is trapped in two ways: (1) by a continuing series of reflection among the numerous vertical surfaces that buildings present and (2) by the dust dome, the cloudlike layer of polluted air that most cities produce. Shortwave radiation from the Sun passes through the pollution dome more easily than outgoing longwave radiation does; the latter is absorbed by the gaseous pollutants of the dome and reradiated back to the urban surface. Cities, then, are warmer than the surrounding rural areas, and together they produce a phenomenon known as the urban heat island. Heat islands develop best under particular conditions associated with light winds, but they can form almost any time. The precise configuration of a heat island depends on several factors. For example, the wind can make a heat island stretch in the direction it blows. When a heat island is well developed, variations can be extreme; in winter, busy streets in cities can be 1.7 ℃warmer than the side streets. Areas near traffic lights can be similarly warmer than the areas between them because of the effect of cars standing in traffic instead of moving. The maximum differences in temperature between neighboring urban and rural environments is called the heat-island intensity for that region. In general, the larger the city, the greater its heat-island intensity. The actual level of intensity depends on such factors as the physical layout, population density, and productive activities of a metropolis. The surface-atmosphere relationships inside metropolitan areas produce a number of climatic peculiarities. For one thing, the presence or absence of moisture is affected by the special qualities of the urban surface. With much of the built-up landscape impenetrable by water, even gentle rain runs off almost immediately from rooftops, streets, and parking lots. Thus, city surfaces, as well as the air above them, tend to be drier between episodes of rain; with little water available for the cooling process of evaporation, relative humidities are usually lower. Wind movements are also modified in cities because buildings increase the friction on air flowing around them. This friction tends to slow the speed of winds, making them far less efficient at dispersing pollutants. On the other hand, air turbulence increases because of the effect of skyscrapers on airflow. Rainfall is also increased in cities. The cause appears to be in part greater turbulence in the urban atmosphere as hot air rises from the built-up surface. Cities create climatic conditions of their own through their physical structure and urban activities. ● ● ● Answer Choices ○ The amount of heat produced in a city will be reduced when cities use the heat from cars to warm homes. ○ The built-up landscape of the city readily becomes a heat island, with greater water runoff and special climatic conditions such as low relative humidity and increased air turbulence. ○ The materials from which cities are built and the effects of pollution domes help make urban areas warmer than rural areas. ○ Cities tend to be warmer than their surrounding areas, in part because they produce heat by burning fuel for heating, powering vehicles, and industrial production. ○ In most cities, the heating that results from solar radiation is intensified by carbon dioxide, a gas that is present at very high concentrations in cities’ atmospheres. ○ During periods without rainfall, the air in cities heats up and causes winds to slow down, with the result that pollutants are not dispersed. ************************************************************************************* TPO23-2 Seventeenth-Century Dutch Agriculture Agriculture and fishing formed the primary sector of the economy in the Netherlands in the seventeenth century. Dutch agriculture was modernized and commercialized new crops and agricultural techniques raised levels of production so that they were in line with market demands, and cheap grain was imported annually from the Baltic region in large quantities. According to estimates, about 120,000 tons of imported grain fed about 600,000 people: that is about a third of the Dutch population. Importing the grain, which would have been expensive and time consuming for the Dutch to have produced themselves, kept the price of grain low and thus stimulated individual demand for other foodstuffs and consumer goods. Apart from this, being able to give up labor-intensive grain production freed both the land and the workforce for more productive agricultural divisions. The peasants specialized in livestock husbandry and dairy farming as well as in cultivating industrial crops and fodder crops: flax, madder, and rape were grown, as were tobacco, hops, and turnips. These products were bought mostly by urban businesses. There was also a demand among urban consumers for dairy products such as butter and cheese, which, in the sixteenth century, had become more expensive than grain. The high prices encouraged the peasants to improve their animal husbandry techniques; for example, they began feeding their animals indoors in order to raise the milk yield of their cows. In addition to dairy farming and cultivating industrial crops, a third sector of the Dutch economy reflected the way in which agriculture was being modernized - horticulture. In the sixteenth century, fruit and vegetables were to be found only in gardens belonging to wealthy people. This changed in the early part of the seventeenth century when horticulture became accepted as an agricultural sector. Whole villages began to cultivate fruit and vegetables. The produce was then transported by water to markets in the cities, where the consumption of fruit and vegetables was no longer restricted to the wealthy. As the demand for agricultural produce from both consumers and industry increased, agricultural land became more valuable and people tried to work the available land more intensively and to reclaim more land from wetlands and lakes. In order to increase production on existing land, the peasants made more use of crop rotation and, in particular, began to apply animal waste to the soil regularly, rather than leaving the fertilization process up to the grazing livestock. For the first time industrial waste, such as ash from the soap-boilers, was collected in the cities and sold in the country as artificial fertilizer. The increased yield and price of land justified reclaiming and draining even more land. The Dutch battle against the sea is legendary. Noorderkwartier in Holland, with its numerous lakes and stretches of water, was particularly suitable for land reclamation and one of the biggest projects undertaken there was the draining of the Beemster lake which began in 1608. The richest merchants in Amsterdam contributed money to reclaim a good 7,100 hectares of land. Forty-three windmills powered the drainage pumps so that they were able to lease the reclamation to farmers as early as 1612, with the investors receiving annual leasing payments at an interest rate of 17 percent. Land reclamation continued, and between 1590 and 1665, almost 100,000 hectares were reclaimed from the wetland areas of Holland, Zeeland, and Friesland. However, land reclamation decreased significantly after the middle of the seventeenth century because the price of agricultural products began to fall, making land reclamation far less profitable in the second part of the century. Dutch agriculture was finally affected by the general agricultural crisis in Europe during the last two decades of the seventeenth century. However, what is astonishing about this is not that Dutch agriculture was affected by critical phenomena such as a decrease in sales and production, but the fact that the crisis appeared only relatively late in Dutch agriculture. In Europe as a whole, the exceptional reduction in the population and the related fall in demand for grain since the beginning of the seventeenth century had caused the price of agricultural products to fall. Dutch peasants were able to remain unaffected by this crisis for a long time because they had specialized in dairy farming industrial crops, and horticulture. However, toward the end of the seventeenth century, they too were overtaken by the general agricultural crisis. Agriculture formed one of the primary sectors of the economy in seventeenth-century Netherlands. ● ● ● Answer Choices ○ The Baltic region produced large quantities of grain for export to other regions, including the Netherlands. ○ The richest people grew enough fruits and vegetables to supply the entire country with fresh produce. ○ An agricultural crisis that began in Europe did not affect Dutch land-reclamation projects. ○ Specialization in dairy farming, industrial crops, and horticulture allowed the Dutch to be more productive than some other regions in Europe. ○ Land reclamation and improvement allowed the Dutch to meet demands for their agricultural products. ○ Because the Dutch had specialized their agricultural output they were less susceptible to the crisis that Europe experienced from the beginning of the century. ************************************************************************************* Online Test-3 Electricity from Wind Since 1980, the use of wind to produce electricity has been growing rapidly. In 1994 there were nearly 20,000 wind turbines worldwide, most grouped in clusters called wind farms that collectively produced 3,000 megawatts of electricity. Most were in Denmark (which got 3 percent of its electricity from wind turbines) and California (where 17,000 machines produced 1 percent of the state’s electricity, enough to meet the residential needs of a city as large as San Francisco). In principle, all the power needs of the United States could be provided by exploiting the wind potential of just three states—North Dakota, South Dakota, and Texas. Large wind farms can be built in six months to a year and then easily expanded as needed. With a moderate to fairly high net energy yield, these systems emit no heat-trapping carbon dioxide or other air pollutants and need no water for cooling; manufacturing them produces little water pollution. The land under wind turbines can be used for grazing cattle and other purposes, and leasing land for wind turbines can provide extra income for farmers and ranchers. Wind power has a significant cost advantage over nuclear power and has become competitive with coal-fired power plants in many places. With new technological advances and mass production, projected cost declines should make wind power one of the world’s cheapest ways to produce electricity. In the long run, electricity from large wind farms in remote areas might be used to make hydrogen gas from water during periods when there is less than peak demand for electricity. The hydrogen gas could then be fed into a storage system and used to generate electricity when additional or backup power is needed. Wind power is most economical in areas with steady winds. In areas where the wind dies down, backup electricity from a utility company or from an energy storage system becomes necessary. Backup power could also be provided by linking wind farms with a solar cell, with conventional or pumped-storage hydropower, or with efficient natural-gas-burning turbines. Some drawbacks to wind farms include visual pollution and noise, although these can be overcome by improving their design and locating them in isolated areas. Large wind farms might also interfere with the flight patterns of migratory birds in certain areas, and they have killed large birds of prey (especially hawks, falcons, and eagles) that prefer to hunt along the same ridge lines that are ideal for wind turbines. The killing of birds of prey by wind turbines has pitted environmentalists who champion wildlife protection against environmentalists who promote renewable wind energy. Researchers are evaluating how serious this problem is and hope to find ways to eliminate or sharply reduce this problem. Some analysts also contend that the number of birds killed by wind turbines is dwarfed by birds killed by other human-related sources and by the potential loss of entire bird species from possible global warming. Recorded deaths of birds of prey and other birds in wind farms in the United States currently amount to no more than 300 per year. By contrast, in the United States an estimated 97 million birds are killed each year when they collide with buildings made of plate glass, 57 million are killed on highways each year; at least 3.8 million die annually from pollution and poisoning; and millions of birds are electrocuted each year by transmission and distribution lines carrying power produced by nuclear and coal power plants. The technology is in place for a major expansion of wind power worldwide. Wind power is a virtually unlimited source of energy at favorable sites, and even excluding environmentally sensitive areas, the global potential of wind power is much higher than the current world electricity use. In theory, Argentina, Canada, Chile, China, Russia, and the United Kingdom could use wind to meet all of their energy needs. Wind power experts project that by the middle of the twenty-first century wind power could supply more than 10 percent of the world’s electricity and 10-25 percent of the electricity used in the United States. In the future, wind power is likely to become a major source of the world’s energy supply. Answer Choices ○ Wind farms have already produced sufficient amounts of electricity to suggest that wind power could become an important source of electric power. ○ Wind power has several advantages, such as low pollution and projected cost declines, compared to other energy sources. ○ Responding to environmentalists concerned about birds killed by wind turbines, analysts point to other human developments that are even more dangerous to birds. ○ The wind energy produced by just a small number of states could supply all of the power needs of the United States. ○ Although wind power is not economical in areas with steady winds, alternative wind sources can be used to simulate wind power. ○ Smaller countries, which use less electricity than large countries, are especially suited to use wind power to meet all their energy needs. ************************************************************************************* TPO-4-3 Petroleum Resources Petroleum, consisting of crude oil and natural gas, seems to originate from organic matter in marine sediment. Microscopic organisms settle to the seafloor and accumulate in marine mud. The organic matter may partially decompose, using up the dissolved oxygen in the sediment. As soon as the oxygen is gone, decay stops and the remaining organic matter is preserved. Continued sedimentation—the process of deposits’ settling on the sea bottom—buries the organic matter and subjects it to higher temperatures and pressures, which convert the organic matter to oil and gas. As muddy sediments are pressed together, the gas and small droplets of oil may be squeezed out of the mud and may move into sandy layers nearby. Over long periods of time (millions of years), accumulations of gas and oil can collect in the sandy layers. Both oil and gas are less dense than water, so they generally tend to rise upward through water-saturated rock and sediment. Oil pools are valuable underground accumulations of oil, and oil fields are regions underlain by one or more oil pools. When an oil pool or field has been discovered, wells are drilled into the ground. Permanent towers, called derricks, used to be built to handle the long sections of drilling pipe. Now portable drilling machines are set up and are then dismantled and removed. When the well reaches a pool, oil usually rises up the well because of its density difference with water beneath it or because of the pressure of expanding gas trapped above it. Although this rise of oil is almost always carefully controlled today, spouts of oil, or gushers, were common in the past. Gas pressure gradually dies out, and oil is pumped from the well. Water or steam may be pumped down adjacent wells to help push the oil out. At a refinery, the crude oil from underground is separated into natural gas, gasoline, kerosene, and various oils. Petrochemicals such as dyes, fertilizer, and plastic are also manufactured from the petroleum. As oil becomes increasingly difficult to find, the search for it is extended into more-hostile environments. The development of the oil field on the North Slope of Alaska and the construction of the Alaska pipeline are examples of the great expense and difficulty involved in new oil discoveries. Offshore drilling platforms extend the search for oil to the ocean’s continental shelves—those gently sloping submarine regions at the edges of the continents. More than one-quarter of the world’s oil and almost one-fifth of the world’s natural gas come from offshore, even though offshore drilling is six to seven times more expensive than drilling on land. A significant part of this oil and gas comes from under the North Sea between Great Britain and Norway. Of course, there is far more oil underground than can be recovered. It may be in a pool too small or too far from a potential market to justify the expense of drilling. Some oil lies under regions where drilling is forbidden, such as national parks or other public lands. Even given the best extraction techniques, only about 30 to 40 percent of the oil in a given pool can be brought to the surface. The rest is far too difficult to extract and has to remain underground. Moreover, getting petroleum out of the ground and from under the sea and to the consumer can create environmental problems anywhere along the line. Pipelines carrying oil can be broken by faults or landslides, causing serious oil spills. Spillage from huge oil-carrying cargo ships, called tankers, involved in collisions or accidental groundings (such as the one off Alaska in 1989) can create oil slicks at sea. Offshore platforms may also lose oil, creating oil slicks that drift ashore and foul the beaches, harming the environment. Sometimes, the ground at an oil field may subside as oil is removed. The Wilmington field near Long Beach, California, has subsided nine meters in 50 years; protective barriers have had to be built to prevent seawater from flooding the area. Finally, the refining and burning of petroleum and its products can cause air pollution. Advancing technology and strict laws, however, are helping control some of these adverse environmental effects. “Petroleum” is a broad term that includes both crude oil and natural gas. ● ● ● Answer choices ○ Petroleum formation is the result of biological as well as chemical activity. ○ The difficulty of finding adequate sources of oil on land has resulted in a greater number of offshore drilling sites. ○ Petroleum extraction can have a negative impact on the environment. ○ Petroleum tends to rise to the surface, since it is lower in density than water. ○ Current methods of petroleum extraction enable oil producers to recover about half of the world’s petroleum reserves. ○ Accidents involving oil tankers occur when tankers run into shore reefs or collide with other vessels. ************************************************************************************* TPO-21-1 Geothermal Energy Earth's internal heat, fueled by radioactivity, provides the energy for plate tectonics and continental drift, mountain building, and earthquakes. It can also be harnessed to drive electric generators and heat homes. Geothermal energy becomes available in a practical form when underground heat is transferred by water that is heated as it passes through a subsurface region of hot rocks (a heat reservoir) that may be hundreds or thousands of feet deep. The water is usually naturally occurring groundwater that seeps down along fractures in the rock; less typically, the water is artificially introduced by being pumped down from the surface. The water is brought to the surface, as a liquid or steam, through holes drilled for the purpose. By far the most abundant form of geothermal energy occurs at the relatively low temperatures of 80° to 180° centigrade. Water circulated through heat reservoirs in this temperature range is able to extract enough heat to warm residential, commercial, and industrial spaces. More than 20,000 apartments in France are now heated by warm underground water drawn from a heat reservoir in a geologic structure near Paris called the Paris Basin. Iceland sits on a volcanic structure known as the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. Reykjavik, the capital of Iceland, is entirely heated by geothermal energy derived from volcanic heat. Geothermal reservoirs with temperatures above 180° centigrade are useful for generating electricity. They occur primarily in regions of recent volcanic activity as hot, dry rock; natural hot water; or natural steam. The latter two sources are limited to those few areas where surface water seeps down through underground faults or fractures to reach deep rocks heated by the recent activity of molten rock material. The world's largest supply of natural steam occurs at The Geysers, 120 kilometers north of San Francisco, California. In the 1990s enough electricity to meet about half the needs of San Francisco was being generated there. This facility was then in its third decade of production and was beginning to show signs of decline, perhaps because of over development. By the late 1990s some 70 geothermal electric-generating plants were in operation in California, Utah, Nevada, and Hawaii, generating enough power to supply about a million people. Eighteen countries now generate electricity using geothermal heat. Extracting heat from very hot, dry rocks presents a more difficult problem: the rocks must be fractured to permit the circulation of water, and the water must be provided artificially. The rocks are fractured by water pumped down at very high pressures. Experiments are under way to develop technologies for exploiting this resource. Like most other energy sources, geothermal energy presents some environmental problems. The surface of the ground can sink if hot groundwater is withdrawn without being replaced. In addition, water heated geothermally can contain salts and toxic materials dissolved from the hot rock. These waters present a disposal problem if they are not returned to the ground from which they were removed. The contribution of geothermal energy to the world's energy future is difficult to estimate. Geothermal energy is in a sense not renewable, because in most cases the heat would be drawn out of a reservoir much more rapidly than it would be replaced by the very slow geological processes by which heat flows through solid rock into a heat reservoir. However, in many places (for example, California, Hawaii, the Philippines, Japan, Mexico, the rift valleys of Africa)the resource is potentially so large that its future will depend on the economics of production. At present, we can make efficient use of only naturally occurring hot water or steam deposits. Although the potential is enormous, it is likely that in the near future geothermal energy can make important local contributions only where the resource is close to the user and the economics are favorable, as they are in California, New Zealand, and Iceland. Geothermal energy probably will not make large-scale contributions to the world energy budget until well into the twenty-first century, if ever. Heat reservoirs in the form of hot rock far beneath Earth's surface are a potential source of usable geothermal energy. ○ ○ ○ Answer Choices ○ Heat reservoirs with a temperature from 80° to 180° centigrade can be used, as in France and Iceland, to heat buildings. ○ A number of countries now use geothermal reservoirs that contain water or steam above 180° centigrade to generate electricity. ○ Most heat reservoirs with a temperature above 180° centigrade cannot be used for energy because they are usually too close to recent volcanic activity. ○ The sinking of land above heat reservoirs and other environmental problems arise when water is pumped into a heat reservoir under high pressure. ○ Experiments are under way to determine if geothermally heated waters could be used as a source of certain minerals that have been dissolved out of hot rocks deep within Earth. ○ A number of issues, including how to extract heat from reservoirs that do not have a natural supply of water, will significantly limit the use of geothermal energy for the foreseeable future. *************************************************************************************tTPO 3-2 Depletion of the Ogallala Aquifer The vast grasslands of the High Plains in the central United States were settled by farmers and ranchers in the 1880s. This region has a semiarid climate, and for 50 years after its settlement, it supported a low-intensity agricultural economy of cattle ranching and wheat farming. In the early twentieth century, however, it was discovered that much of the High Plains was underlain by a huge aquifer (a rock layer containing large quantities of groundwater). This aquifer was named the Ogallala aquifer after the Ogallala Sioux Indians, who once inhabited the region. The Ogallala aquifer is a sandstone formation that underlies some 583,000 square kilometers of land extending from northwestern Texas to southern South Dakota. Water from rains and melting snows has been accumulating in the Ogallala for the past 30,000 years. Estimates indicate that the aquifer contains enough water to fill Lake Huron, but unfortunately, under the semiarid climatic conditions that presently exist in the region, rates of addition to the aquifer are minimal, amounting to about half a centimeter a year. The first wells were drilled into the Ogallala during the drought years of the early 1930s. The ensuing rapid expansion of irrigation agriculture, especially from the 1950s onward, transformed the economy of the region. More than 100,000 wells now tap the Ogallala. Modern irrigation devices, each capable of spraying 4.5 million liters of water a day, have produced a landscape dominated by geometric patterns of circular green islands of crops. Ogallala water has enabled the High Plains region to supply significant amounts of the cotton, sorghum, wheat, and corn grown in the United States. In addition, 40 percent of American grain-fed beef cattle are fattened here. This unprecedented development of a finite groundwater resource with an almost negligible natural recharge rate—that is, virtually no natural water source to replenish the water supply—has caused water tables in the region to fall drastically. In the 1930s, wells encountered plentiful water at a depth of about 15 meters; currently, they must be dug to depths of 45 to 60 meters or more. In places, the water table is declining at a rate of a meter a year, necessitating the periodic deepening of wells and the use of ever-more-powerful pumps. It is estimated that at current withdrawal rates, much of the aquifer will run dry within 40 years. The situation is most critical in Texas, where the climate is driest, the greatest amount of water is being pumped, and the aquifer contains the least water. It is projected that the remaining Ogallala water will, by the year 2030, support only 35 to 40 percent of the irrigated acreage in Texas that is supported in 1980. The reaction of farmers to the inevitable depletion of the Ogallala varies. Many have been attempting to conserve water by irrigating less frequently or by switching to crops that require less water. Others, however, have adopted the philosophy that it is best to use the water while it is still economically profitable to do so and to concentrate on high-value crops such as cotton. The incentive of the farmers who wish to conserve water is reduced by their knowledge that many of their neighbors are profiting by using great amounts of water, and in the process are drawing down the entire region’s water supplies. In the face of the upcoming water supply crisis, a number of grandiose schemes have been developed to transport vast quantities of water by canal or pipeline from the Mississippi, the Missouri, or the Arkansas rivers. Unfortunately, the cost of water obtained through any of these schemes would increase pumping costs at least tenfold, making the cost of irrigated agricultural products from the region uncompetitive on the national and international markets. Somewhat more promising have been recent experiments for releasing capillary water (water in the soil) above the water table by injecting compressed air into the ground. Even if this process proves successful, however, it would almost triple water costs. Genetic engineering also may provide a partial solution, as new strains of drought-resistant crops continue to be developed. Whatever the final answer to the water crisis may be, it is evident that within the High Plains, irrigation water will never again be the abundant, inexpensive resource it was during the agricultural boom years of the mid-twentieth century. The Ogallala aquifer is a large underground source of water in the High Plains region of the United States. ● ● ● Answer choices ○ The use of the Ogallala for irrigation has allowed the High Plains to become one of the most productive agricultural regions in the United States. ○ Given the aquifer’s low recharge rate, its use for irrigation is causing water tables to drop and will eventually lead to its depletion. ○ Releasing capillary water and introducing drought-resistant crops are less-promising solutions to the water supply crisis than bringing in river water ○ The periodic deepening of wells and the use of more-powerful pumps would help increase the natural recharge rate of the Ogallala. ○ In Texas, a great deal of attention is being paid to genetic engineering because it is there that the most critical situation exists. ○ Several solutions to the upcoming water supply crisis have been proposed, but none of them promises to keep the costs of irrigation low. ************************************************************************************* TPO19-1 The Roman Army's Impact on Britain In the wake of the Roman Empire's conquest of Britain in the first century A.D., a large number of troops stayed in the new province, and these troops had a considerable impact on Britain with their camps, fortifications, and participation in the local economy. Assessing the impact of the army on the civilian population starts from the realization that the soldiers were always unevenly distributed across the country. Areas rapidly incorporated into the empire were not long affected by the military. Where the army remained stationed, its presence was much more influential. The imposition of a military base involved the requisition of native lands for both the fort and the territory needed to feed and exercise the soldiers' animals. The imposition of military rule also robbed local leaders of opportunities to participate in local government, so social development was stunted and the seeds of disaffection sown. This then meant that the military had to remain to suppress rebellion and organize government. Economic exchange was clearly very important as the Roman army brought with it very substantial spending power. Locally a fort had two kinds of impact. Its large population needed food and other supplies. Some of these were certainly brought from long distances, but demands were inevitably placed on the local area. Although goods could be requisitioned, they were usually paid for, and this probably stimulated changes in the local economy. When not campaigning, soldiers needed to be occupied; otherwise they represented a potentially dangerous source of friction and disloyalty. Hence a writing tablet dated 25 April tells of 343 men at one fort engaged on tasks like shoemaking, building a bathhouse, operating kilns, digging clay, and working lead. Such activities had a major effect on the local area, in particular with the construction of infrastructure such as roads, which improved access to remote areas. Each soldier received his pay, but in regions without a developed economy there was initially little on which it could be spent. The pool of excess cash rapidly stimulated a thriving economy outside fort gates. Some of the demand for the services and goods was no doubt fulfilled by people drawn from far afield, but some local people certainly became entwined in this new economy. There was informal marriage with soldiers, who until AD 197 were not legally entitled to wed, and whole new communities grew up near the forts. These settlements acted like small towns, becoming centers for the artisan and trading populations. The army also provided a mean of personal advancement for auxiliary soldiers recruited from the native peoples, as a man obtained hereditary Roman citizenship on retirement after service in an auxiliary regiment. Such units recruited on an ad hoc (as needed) basis from the area in which they were stationed, and there was evidently large-scale recruitment within Britain. The total numbers were at least 12,500 men up to the reign of the emperor Hadrian (A.D. 117-138), with a peak around A.D. 80. Although a small proportion of the total population, this perhaps had a massive local impact when a large proportion of the young men were removed from an area. Newly raised regiments were normally transferred to another province from whence it was unlikely that individual recruits would ever return. Most units raised in Britain went elsewhere on the European continent, although one is recorded in Morocco. The reverse process brought young men to Britain, where many continued to live after their 20 to 25 years of service, and this added to the cosmopolitan Roman character of the frontier population. By the later Roman period, frontier garrisons (groups of soldiers) were only rarely transferred, service in units became effectively hereditary, and forts were no longer populated or maintained at full strength. This process of settling in as a community over several generations, combined with local recruitment, presumably accounts for the apparent stability of the British northern frontier in the later Roman period. It also explains why some of the forts continued in occupation long after Rome ceased to have any formal authority in Britain, at the beginning of the fifth century A.D. The circumstances that had allowed natives to become Romanized also led the self-sustaining military community of the frontier area to become effectively British. The Roman army’s occupation of Britain influenced and changed the local population. ● ● ● Answer Choices ○ Although the presence of the army in certain areas caused resentment among the local population, it provided important services such as building infrastructure. ○ By recruiting unemployed young men for its auxiliary units, the army made it possible for them to stay in their home towns and provide financial support for their families. ○ Large quantities of cash from soldiers’ pay stimulated development, but also drove up prices, making it hard for local residents to afford goods and services. ○ Though the army appropriated land and some goods, it also paid for many supplies, stimulating local economic growth. ○ The forts contributed to the quality of local crafts by bringing in artisans from distant places who brought with them new skills and techniques. ○ Roman soldiers started families with local inhabitants, and over the generations, the military community became a stable part of British society.
        • - 对象说明文：“对象/物体" 的3个【特征：外形、结构、作用等】
          • - Groundwater - Architecture - Chinese Pottery (TPO-10-1) - Ancient Egyptian Sculpture - Spartina - The Allende Meteorite - Lake Water 结构、外形、作用 ********************************************************************************** TPO-11-1 Ancient Egyptian Sculpture In order to understand ancient Egyptian art, it is vital to know as much as possible of the elite Egyptians' view of the world and the functions and contexts of the art produced for them. Without this knowledge we can appreciate only the formal content of Egyptian art, and we will fail to understand why it was produced or the concepts that shaped it and caused it to adopt its distinctive forms. In fact, a lack of understanding concerning the purposes of Egyptian art has often led it to be compared unfavorably with the art of other cultures: Why did the Egyptians not develop sculpture in which the body turned and twisted through space like classical Greek statuary? Why do the artists seem to get left and right confused? And why did they not discover the geometric perspective as European artists did in the Renaissance? The answer to such questions has nothing to do with a lack of skill or imagination on the part of Egyptian artists and everything to do with the purposes for which they were producing their art. The majority of three-dimensional representations, whether standing, seated, or kneeling, exhibit what is called frontality: they face straight ahead, neither twisting nor turning. When such statues are viewed in isolation, out of their original context and without knowledge of their function, it is easy to criticize them for their rigid attitudes that remained unchanged for three thousand years. Frontality is, however, directly related to the functions of Egyptian statuary and the contexts in which the statues were set up. Statues were created not for their decorative effect but to play a primary role in the cults of the gods, the king, and the dead. They were designed to be put in places where these beings could manifest themselves in order to be the recipients of ritual actions. Thus it made sense to show the statue looking ahead at what was happening in front of it, so that the living performer of the ritual could interact with the divine or deceased recipient. Very often such statues were enclosed in rectangular shrines or wall niches whose only opening was at the front, making it natural for the statue to display frontality. Other statues were designed to be placed within an architectural setting, for instance, in front of the monumental entrance gateways to temples known as pylons, or in pillared courts, where they would be placed against or between pillars: their frontality worked perfectly within the architectural context. Statues were normally made of stone, wood, or metal. Stone statues were worked from single rectangular blocks of material and retained the compactness of the original shape. The stone between the arms and the body and between the legs in standing figures or the legs and the seat in seated ones was not normally cut away. From a practical aspect this protected the figures against breakage and psychologically gives the images a sense of strength and power, usually enhanced by a supporting back pillar. By contrast, wooden statues were carved from several pieces of wood that were pegged together to form the finished work, and metal statues were either made by wrapping sheet metal around a wooden core or cast by the lost wax process. The arms could be held away from the body and carry separate items in their hands; there is no back pillar. The effect is altogether lighter and freer than that achieved in stone, but because both perform the same function, formal wooden and metal statues still display frontality. Apart from statues representing deities, kings, and named members of the elite that can be called formal, there is another group of three-dimensional representations that depicts generic figures, frequently servants, from the nonelite population. The function of these is quite different. Many are made to be put in the tombs of the elite in order to serve the tomb owners in the afterlife. Unlike formal statues that are limited to static poses of standing, sitting, and kneeling, these figures depict a wide range of actions, such as grinding grain, baking bread, producing pots, and making music, and they are shown in appropriate poses, bending and squatting as they carry out their tasks. The distinctive look of ancient Egyptian sculpture was determined largely by its function. ● ● ● Answer Choices ○ The twisted forms of Egyptian statues indicate their importance in ritual actions. ○ The reason Egyptian statues are motionless is linked to their central role in cultural rituals. ○ Stone, wood, and metal statues all display the feature of frontality. ○ Statues were more often designed to be viewed in isolation rather than placed within buildings. ○ The contrasting poses used in statues of elite and nonelite Egyptians reveal their difference in social status. ○ Although the appearances of formal and generic statues differ, they share the same function. ********************************************************************************** TPO-1-1 Groundwater Groundwater is the word used to describe water that saturates the ground, filling all the available spaces. By far the most abundant type of groundwater is meteoric water; this is the groundwater that circulates as part of the water cycle. Ordinary meteoric water is water that has soaked into the ground from the surface, from precipitation (rain and snow) and from lakes and streams. There it remains, sometimes for long periods, before emerging at the surface again. At first thought it seems incredible that there can be enough space in the “solid” ground underfoot to hold all this water. The necessary space is there, however, in many forms.The commonest spaces are those among the particles—sand grains and tiny pebbles—of loose, unconsolidated sand and gravel. Beds of this material, out of sight beneath the soil, are common. They are found wherever fast rivers carrying loads of coarse sediment once flowed. For example, as the great ice sheets that covered North America during the last ice age steadily melted away, huge volumes of water flowed from them. The water was always laden with pebbles, gravel, and sand, known as glacial outwash, that was deposited as the flow slowed down. The same thing happens to this day, though on a smaller scale, wherever a sediment-laden river or stream emerges from a mountain valley onto relatively flat land, dropping its load as the current slows: the water usually spreads out fanwise, depositing the sediment in the form of a smooth, fan-shaped slope. Sediments are also dropped where a river slows on entering a lake or the sea, the deposited sediments are on a lake floor or the seafloor at first, but will be located inland at some future date, when the sea level falls or the land rises; such beds are sometimes thousands of meters thick. In lowland country almost any spot on the ground may overlie what was once the bed of a river that has since become buried by soil; if they are now below the water’s upper surface (the water table), the gravels and sands of the former riverbed, and its sandbars, will be saturated with groundwater. So much for unconsolidated sediments. Consolidated (or cemented) sediments, too, contain millions of minute water-holding pores. This is because the gaps among the original grains are often not totally plugged with cementing chemicals; also, parts of the original grains may become dissolved by percolating groundwater, either while consolidation is taking place or at any time afterwards. The result is that sandstone, for example, can be as porous as the loose sand from which it was formed. Thus a proportion of the total volume of any sediment, loose or cemented, consists of empty space. Most crystalline rocks are much more solid; a common exception is basalt, a form of solidified volcanic lava, which is sometimes full of tiny bubbles that make it very porous. The proportion of empty space in a rock is known as its porosity. But note that porosity is not the same as permeability, which measures the ease with which water can flow through a material; this depends on the sizes of the individual cavities and the crevices linking them. Much of the water in a sample of water-saturated sediment or rock will drain from it if the sample is put in a suitable dry place. But some will remain, clinging to all solid surfaces. It is held there by the force of surface tension without which water would drain instantly from any wet surface, leaving it totally dry. The total volume of water in the saturated sample must therefore be thought of as consisting of water that can, and water that cannot, drain away. The relative amount of these two kinds of water varies greatly from one kind of rock or sediment to another, even though their porosities may be the same. What happens depends on pore size. If the pores are large, the water in them will exist as drops too heavy for surface tension to hold, and it will drain away; but if the pores are small enough, the water in them will exist as thin films, too light to overcome the force of surface tension holding them in place; then the water will be firmly held. Much of the ground is actually saturated with water. ● ● ● Answer choices ○ Sediments that hold water were spread by glaciers and are still spread by rivers and streams. ○ Water is stored underground in beds of loose sand and gravel or in cemented sediment. ○ The size of a saturated rock’s pores determines how much water it will retain when the rock is put in a dry place. ○ Groundwater often remains underground for a long time before it emerges again. ○ Like sandstone, basalt is a crystalline rock that is very porous. ○ Beds of unconsolidated sediments are typically located at inland sites that were once underwater. ********************************************************************************** TPO-3-1 Architecture Architecture is the art and science of designing structures that organize and enclose space for practical and symbolic purposes. Because architecture grows out of human needs and aspirations, it clearly communicates cultural values. Of all the visual arts, architecture affects our lives most directly for it determines the character of the human environment in major ways. Architecture is a three-dimensional form. It utilizes space, mass, texture, line, light, and color. To be architecture, a building must achieve a working harmony with a variety of elements. Humans instinctively seek structures that will shelter and enhance their way of life. It is the work of architects to create buildings that are not simply constructions but also offer inspiration and delight. Buildings contribute to human life when they provide shelter, enrich space, complement their site, suit the climate, and are economically feasible. The client who pays for the building and defines its function is an important member of the architectural team. The mediocre design of many contemporary buildings can be traced to both clients and architects. In order for the structure to achieve the size and strength necessary to meet its purpose, architecture employs methods of support that, because they are based on physical laws, have changed little since people first discovered them—even while building materials have changed dramatically. The world’s architectural structures have also been devised in relation to the objective limitations of materials. Structures can be analyzed in terms of how they deal with downward forces created by gravity. They are designed to withstand the forces of compression (pushing together), tension (pulling apart), bending, or a combination of these in different parts of the structure. Even development in architecture has been the result of major technological changes. Materials and methods of construction are integral parts of the design of architecture structures. In earlier times it was necessary to design structural systems suitable for the materials that were available, such as wood, stone, brick. Today technology has progressed to the point where it is possible to invent new building materials to suit the type of structure desired. Enormous changes in materials and techniques of construction within the last few generations have made it possible to enclose space with much greater ease and speed and with a minimum of material. Progress in this area can be measured by the difference in weight between buildings built now and those of comparable size built one hundred years ago. Modern architectural forms generally have three separate components comparable to elements of the human body: a supporting skeleton or frame, an outer skin enclosing the interior spaces, and equipment, similar to the body’s vital organs and systems. The equipment includes plumbing, electrical wiring, hot water, and air-conditioning. Of course in early architecture—such as igloos and adobe structures—there was no such equipment, and the skeleton and skin were often one. Much of the world’s great architecture has been constructed of stone because of its beauty, permanence, and availability. In the past, whole cities grew from the arduous task of cutting and piling stone upon. Some of the world’s finest stone architecture can be seen in the ruins of the ancient Inca city of Machu Picchu high in the eastern Andes Mountains of Peru. The doorways and windows are made possible by placing over the open spaces thick stone beams that support the weight from above. A structural invention had to be made before the physical limitations of stone could be overcome and new architectural forms could be created. That invention was the arch, a curved structure originally made of separate stone or brick segments. The arch was used by the early cultures of the Mediterranean area chiefly for underground drains, but it was the Romans who first developed and used the arch extensively in aboveground structures. Roman builders perfected the semicircular arch made of separate blocks of stone. As a method of spanning space, the arch can support greater weight than a horizontal beam. It works in compression to divert the weight above it out to the sides, where the weight is borne by the vertical elements on either side of the arch. The arch is among the many important structural breakthroughs that have characterized architecture throughout the centuries. Architecture uses forms and space to express cultural values. ● ● ● ○ Architects seek to create buildings that are both visually appealing and well suited for human use. ○ Over the course of the history of building, innovations in material and methods of construction have given architects ever greater freedom to express themselves. ○ Throughout history buildings have been constructed like human bodies, needing distinct “organ” systems in order to function. ○ Both clients and architects are responsible for the mediocre designs of some modern buildings. ○ Modern buildings tend to lack the beauty of ancient stone buildings such as those of Machu Picchu. ○ The discovery and use of the arch typifies the way in which architecture advances by developing more efficient types of structures. ********************************************************************************** TPO-10-1 Chinese Pottery China has one of the world's oldest continuous civilizations—despite invasions and occasional foreign rule. A country as vast as China with so long-lasting a civilization has a complex social and visual history, within which pottery and porcelain play a major role. The function and status of ceramics in China varied from dynasty to dynasty, so they may be utilitarian, burial, trade-collectors', or even ritual objects, according to their quality and the era in which they were made. The ceramics fall into three broad types—earthenware, stoneware, and porcelain—for vessels, architectural items such as roof tiles, and modeled objects and figures. In addition, there was an important group of sculptures made for religious use, the majority of which were produced in earthenware. The earliest ceramics were fired to earthenware temperatures, but as early as the fifteenth century B.C., high-temperature stonewares were being made with glazed surfaces. During the Six Dynasties period (AD 265-589), kilns in north China were producing high-fired ceramics of good quality. Whitewares produced in Hebei and Henan provinces from the seventh to the tenth centuries evolved into the highly prized porcelains of the Song dynasty (AD. 960-1279), long regarded as one of the high points in the history of China's ceramic industry. The tradition of religious sculpture extends over most historical periods but is less clearly delineated than that of stonewares or porcelains, for it embraces the old custom of earthenware burial ceramics with later religious images and architectural ornament. Ceramic products also include lead-glazed tomb models of the Han dynasty, three-color lead-glazed vessels and figures of the Tang dynasty, and Ming three-color temple ornaments, in which the motifs were outlined in a raised trail of slip—as well as the many burial ceramics produced in imitation of vessels made in materials of higher intrinsic value. Trade between the West and the settled and prosperous Chinese dynasties introduced new forms and different technologies. One of the most far-reaching examples is the impact of the fine ninth-century AD. Chinese porcelain wares imported into the Arab world. So admired were these pieces that they encouraged the development of earthenware made in imitation of porcelain and instigated research into the method of their manufacture. From the Middle East the Chinese acquired a blue pigment—a purified form of cobalt oxide unobtainable at that time in China—that contained only a low level of manganese. Cobalt ores found in China have a high manganese content, which produces a more muted blue-gray color. In the seventeenth century, the trading activities of the Dutch East India Company resulted in vast quantities of decorated Chinese porcelain being brought to Europe, which stimulated and influenced the work of a wide variety of wares, notably Delft. The Chinese themselves adapted many specific vessel forms from the West, such as bottles with long spouts, and designed a range of decorative patterns especially for the European market. Just as painted designs on Greek pots may seem today to be purely decorative, whereas in fact they were carefully and precisely worked out so that at the time, their meaning was clear, so it is with Chinese pots. To twentieth-century eyes, Chinese pottery may appear merely decorative, yet to the Chinese the form of each object and its adornment had meaning and significance. The dragon represented the emperor, and the phoenix, the empress; the pomegranate indicated fertility, and a pair of fish, happiness; mandarin ducks stood for wedded bliss; the pine tree, peach, and crane are emblems of long life; and fish leaping from waves indicated success in the civil service examinations. Only when European decorative themes were introduced did these meanings become obscured or even lost. From early times pots were used in both religious and secular contexts. The imperial court commissioned work and in the Yuan dynasty (A.D. 1279-1368) an imperial ceramic factory was established at Jingdezhen. Pots played an important part in some religious ceremonies. Long and often lyrical descriptions of the different types of ware exist that assist in classifying pots, although these sometimes confuse an already large and complicated picture. Ceramics have been produced in China for a very long time. ● ● ● Answer choices ○ The Chinese produced earthenware, stoneware, and porcelain pottery and they used their ceramics for a variety of utilitarian, architectural, and ceremonial purposes. ○ The shape and decoration of ceramics produced for religious use in China were influenced by Chinese ceramics produced for export. ○ As a result of trade relations, Chinese ceramic production changed and Chinese influenced the ceramics production of other countries. ○ Chinese burial ceramics have the longest and most varied history of production and were frequently decorated with written texts that help scholars date them. ○ Before China had contact with the West, the meaning of various designs used to decorate Chinese ceramics was well understood. ○ Ceramics made in imperial factories were used in both religious and non-religious contexts. ********************************************************************************** TPO-22-1 Spartina Spartina alterniflora, known as cordgrass, is a deciduous, perennial flowering plant native to the Atlantic coast and the Gulf Coast of the United States. It is the dominant native species of the lower salt marshes along these coasts, where it grows in the intertidal zone (the area covered by water some parts of the day and exposed others). These natural salt marshes are among the most productive habitats in the marine environment. Nutrient-rich water is brought to the wetlands during each high tide, making a high rate of food production possible. As the seaweed and marsh grass leaves die, bacteria break down the plant material, and insects, small shrimplike organisms, fiddler crabs, and marsh snails eat the decaying plant tissue, digest it, and excrete wastes high in nutrients. Numerous insects occupy the marsh, feeding on living or dead cordgrass tissue, and redwing blackbirds, sparrows, rodents, rabbits, and deer feed directly on the cordgrass. Each tidal cycle carries plant material into the offshore water to be used by the subtidal organisms. Spartina is an exceedingly competitive plant. It spreads primarily by underground stems; colonies form when pieces of the root system or whole plants float into an area and take root or when seeds float into a suitable area and germinate. Spartina establishes itself on substrates ranging from sand and silt to gravel and cobble and is tolerant of salinities ranging from that of near freshwater (0.05 percent) to that of salt water (3.5 percent). Because they lack oxygen, marsh sediments are high in sulfides that are toxic to most plants. Spartina has the ability to take up sulfides and convert them to sulfate, a form of sulfur that the plant can use; this ability makes it easier for the grass to colonize marsh environments. Another adaptive advantage is Spartina’s ability to use carbon dioxide more efficiently than most other plants. These characteristics make Spartina a valuable component of the estuaries where it occurs naturally. The plant functions as a stabilizer and a sediment trap and as a nursery area for estuarine fish and shellfish. Once established, a stand of Spartina begins to trap sediment, changing the substrate elevation, and eventually the stand evolves into a high marsh system where Spartina is gradually displaced by higher-elevation, brackish-water species. As elevation increases, narrow, deep channels of water form throughout the marsh. Along the east coast Spartina is considered valuable for its ability to prevent erosion and marshland deterioration; it is also used for coastal restoration projects and the creation of new wetland sites. Spartina was transported to Washington State in packing materials for oysters transplanted from the east coast in 1894. Leaving its insect predators behind, the cordgrass has been spreading slowly and steadily along Washington’s tidal estuaries on the west coast, crowding out the native plants and drastically altering the landscape by trapping sediment. Spartina modifies tidal mudflats, turning them into high marshes inhospitable to the many fish and waterfowl that depend on the mudflats. It is already hampering the oyster harvest and the Dungeness crab fishery, and it interferes with the recreational use of beaches and waterfronts. Spartina has been transplanted to England and to New Zealand for land reclamation and shoreline stabilization. In New Zealand the plant has spread rapidly, changing mudflats with marshy fringes to extensive salt meadows and reducing the number and kinds of birds and animals that use the marsh. Efforts to control Spartina outside its natural environment have included burning, flooding, shading plants with black canvas or plastic, smothering the plants with dredged materials or clay, applying herbicide, and mowing repeatedly. Little success has been reported in New Zealand and England; Washington State’s management program has tried many of these methods and is presently using the herbicide glyphosphate to control its spread. Work has begun to determine the feasibility of using insects as biological controls, but effective biological controls are considered years away. Even with a massive effort, it is doubtful that complete eradication of Spartina from nonnative habitats is possible, for it has become an integral part of these shorelines and estuaries during the last 100 to 200 years. Spanina alrerniflora, or cordgrass, is the dominant native species in salt marshes along the Atlantic coast and the Gulf Coast of the United States. ○ Spartina is very well adapted to conditions in salt marshes, where it plays a valuable role in stabilizing them and making them highly productive marine habitats. ○ Spartina expands by growing root systems that float on the water’s surface and descend underground, where it finds the nutrients that it needs to germinate. ○ As a result of its spread in Washington State over the past hundred years. Spartina has now become a threat to native oysters by releasing sediments that contain sulfides into the waters. ○ The dead leaves of Spartina become food for a wide variety of marine organisms. ○ Outside its native regions, Spartina can pose serious problems by turning mudflats into high marshes that are inhospitable to many native fish and birds. ○ Spartina has physiological adaptations that allow it to grow in environments where other plants cannot, making it a very strong competitor that is difficult to control once it is established. **********************************************************************************
      • 【3】记叙文阅读策略
        • 所谓记叙文，是以叙述表达方式为主，以写人物的经历和事物发展变化为主要内容的一种文体。 - William Smith - Loie Fuller - Development of the Periodic Table - The Birth of Photography - Early Cinema - Transition to Sound in Film - Agriculture, Iron, and the Bantu Peoples - Fossil Preservation - The Arrival of Plant Life in Hawaii - Glacier Formation - Discovering the Ice Ages 段落 TS 位置： CCTV 体 - 奠定基础 / 做出贡献 / 影响深远 / 创新创造 / 探索发现 .... allow, permits, make…possible… William Smith In 1769 in a little town in Oxfordshire, England, a child with the very ordinary name of William Smith was born into the poor family of a village blacksmith. He received rudimentary village schooling, but mostly he roamed his uncle's farm collecting the fossils that were so abundant in the rocks of the Cotswold hills. When he grew older, William Smith taught himself surveying from books he bought with his small savings, and at the age of eighteen he was apprenticed to a surveyor of the local parish. He then proceeded to teach himself geology, and when he was twenty-four, he went to work for the company that was excavating the Somerset Coal Canal in the south of England. This was before the steam locomotive, and canal building was at its height. The companies building the canals to transport coal needed surveyors to help them find the coal deposits worth mining as well as to determine the best courses for the canals. This job gave Smith an opportunity to study the fresh rock outcrops created by the newly dug canal. He later worked on similar jobs across the length and breadth of England, all the while studying the newly revealed strata and collecting all the fossils he could find. Smith used mail coaches to travel as much as 10,000 miles per year. In 1815 he published the first modern geological map, “A Map of the Strata of England and Wales with a Part of Scotland,” a map so meticulously researched that it can still be used today. In 1831 when Smith was finally recognized by the Geological Society of London as the “father of English geology,” it was not only for his maps but also for something even more important. Ever since people had begun to catalog the strata in particular outcrops, there had been the hope that these could somehow be used to calculate geological time. But as more and more accumulations of strata were cataloged in more and more places, it became clear that the sequences of rocks sometimes differed from region to region and that no rock type was ever going to become a reliable time marker throughout the world. Even without the problem of regional differences, rocks present a difficulty as unique time markers. Quartz is quartz—a silicon ion surrounded by four oxygen ions—there’s no difference at all between two-million-year-old Pleistocene quartz and Cambrian quartz created over 500 million years ago. As he collected fossils from strata throughout England, Smith began to see that the fossils told a different story from the rocks. Particularly in the younger strata, the rocks were often so similar that he had trouble distinguishing the strata, but he never had trouble telling the fossils apart. While rock between two consistent strata might in one place be shale and in another sandstone, the fossils in that shale or sandstone were always the same. Some fossils endured through so many millions of years that they appear in many strata, but others occur only in a few strata, and a few species had their births and extinctions within one particular stratum. Fossils are thus identifying markers for particular periods in Earth's history. Not only could Smith identify rock strata by the fossils they contained, he could also see a pattern emerging: certain fossils always appear in more ancient sediments, while others begin to be seen as the strata become more recent. By following the fossils, Smith was able to put all the strata of England's earth into relative temporal sequence. About the same time, Georges Cuvier made the same discovery while studying the rocks around Paris. Soon it was realized that this principle of faunal (animal) succession was valid not only in England or France but virtually everywhere. It was actually a principle of floral succession as well, because plants showed the same transformation through time as did fauna. Limestone may be found in the Cambrian or—300 million years later—in the Jurassic strata, but a trilobite—the ubiquitous marine arthropod that had its birth in the Cambrian—will never be found in Jurassic strata, nor a dinosaur in the Cambrian. William Smith’s contributions to geology have increased our knowledge of the Earth’s history. ● ● ● Answer Choices ○ Smith found success easily in his profession because he came from a family of geologists and surveyors. ○ Smith’s work on canals allowed him to collect fossils and study rock layers all over England. ○ Smith found that fossils are much more reliable indicators of geological time than rock strata are. ○ Smith was named “the father of English geology” for his maps rather than for his other contributions to the field. ○ Smith and Cuvier discovered that fossil patterns are easier to observe in ancient rock strata than in younger rock strata. ○ The discovery of the principle of faunal succession allowed geologists to establish the relative age of Earth’s rock layers. Loie Fuller The United States dancer Loie Fuller (1862–1928) found theatrical dance in the late nineteenth century artistically unfulfilling. She considered herself an artist rather than a mere entertainer, and she, in turn, attracted the notice of other artists. Fuller devised a type of dance that focused on the shifting play of lights and colors on the voluminous skirts or draperies she wore, which she kept in constant motion principally through movements of her arms, sometimes extended with wands concealed under her costumes. She rejected the technical virtuosity of movement in ballet, the most prestigious form of theatrical dance at that time, perhaps because her formal dance training was minimal. Although her early theatrical career had included stints as an actress, she was not primarily interested in storytelling or expressing emotions through dance; the drama of her dancing emanated from her visual effects. Although she discovered and introduced her art in the United States, she achieved her greatest glory in Paris, where she was engaged by the Folies Bergère in 1892 and soon became “La Loie,” the darling of Parisian audiences. Many of her dances represented elements or natural objects—Fire, the Lily, the Butterfly, and so on—and thus accorded well with the fashionable Art Nouveau style, which emphasized nature imagery and fluid, sinuous lines. Her dancing also attracted the attention of French poets and painters of the period, for it appealed to their liking for mystery, their belief in art for art’s sake, a nineteenth-century idea that art is valuable in itself rather than because it may have some moral or educational benefit, and their efforts to synthesize form and content. Fuller had scientific leanings and constantly experimented with electrical lighting (which was then in its infancy), colored gels, slide projections, and other aspects of stage technology. She invented and patented special arrangements of mirrors and concocted chemical dyes for her draperies. Her interest in color and light paralleled the research of several artists of the period, notably the painter Seurat, famed for his Pointillist technique of creating a sense of shapes and light on canvas by applying extremely small dots of color rather than by painting lines. One of Fuller’s major inventions was underlighting, in which she stood on a pane of frosted glass illuminated from underneath. This was particularly effective in her Fire Dance (1895), performed to the music of Richard Wagner’s “Ride of the Valkyries.” The dance caught the eye of artist Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec, who depicted it in a lithograph. As her technological expertise grew more sophisticated, so did the other aspects of her dances. Although she gave little thought to music in her earliest dances, she later used scores by Gluck, Beethoven, Schubert, Chopin, and Wagner, eventually graduating to Stravinsky, Fauré, Debussy, and Mussorgsky, composers who were then considered progressive. She began to address more ambitious themes in her dances such as The Sea, in which her dancers invisibly agitated a huge expanse of silk, played upon by colored lights. Always open to scientific and technological innovations, she befriended the scientists Marie and Pierre Curie upon their discovery of radium and created a Radium Dance, which simulated the phosphorescence of that element. She both appeared in films—then in an early stage of development—and made them herself; the hero of her fairy-tale film Le Lys de la Vie (1919) was played by René Clair, later a leading French film director. At the Paris Exposition in 1900, she had her own theater, where, in addition to her own dances, she presented pantomimes by the Japanese actress Sada Yocco. She assembled an all-female company at this time and established a school around 1908, but neither survived her. Although she is remembered today chiefly for her innovations in stage lighting, her activities also touched Isadora Duncan and Ruth St. Denis, two other United States dancers who were experimenting with new types of dance. She sponsored Duncan’s first appearance in Europe. Her theater at the Paris Exposition was visited by St. Denis, who found new ideas about stagecraft in Fuller’s work and fresh sources for her art in Sada Yocco’s plays. In 1924 St. Denis paid tribute to Fuller with the duet Valse à la Loie. Loie Fuller was an important and innovative dancer. ● ● ● Answer Choices ○ Fuller believed that audiences in the late nineteenth century had lost interest in most theatrical dance. ○ Fuller transformed dance in part by creating dance interpretations of works by poets and painters. ○ Fuller’s work influenced a number of other dancers who were interested in experimental dance. ○ Fuller introduced many technical innovations to the staging of theatrical dance. ○ Fuller continued to develop throughout her career, creating more complex works and exploring new artistic media. ○ By the 1920’s, Fuller’s theater at the Paris Exhibition had become the world center for innovative dance. Powering the Industrial Revolution In Britain one of the most dramatic changes of the Industrial Revolution was the harnessing of power. Until the reign of George Ⅲ (1760-1820), available sources of power for work and travel had not increased since the Middle Ages. There were three sources of power: animal or human muscles; the wind, operating on sail or windmill; and running water. Only the last of these was suited at all to the continuous operating of machines, and although waterpower abounded in Lancashire and Scotland and ran grain mills as well as textile mills, it had one great disadvantage: streams flowed where nature intended them to, and water-driven factories had to be located on their banks whether or not the location was desirable for other reasons. Furthermore, even the most reliable waterpower varied with the seasons and disappeared in a drought. The new age of machinery, in short, could not have been born without a new source of both movable and constant power. The source had long been known but not exploited. Early in the eighteenth century, a pump had come into use in which expanding steam raised a piston in a cylinder, and atmospheric pressure brought it down again when the steam condensed inside the cylinder to form a vacuum. This “atmospheric engine,” invented by Thomas Savery and vastly improved by his partner, Thomas Newcomen, embodied revolutionary principles, but it was so slow and wasteful of fuel that it could not be employed outside the coal mines for which it had been designed. In the 1760s, James Watt perfected a separate condenser for the steam, so that the cylinder did not have to be cooled at every stroke; then he devised a way to make the piston turn a wheel and thus convert reciprocating (back and forth) motion into rotary motion. He thereby transformed an inefficient pump of limited use into a steam engine of a thousand uses. The final step came when steam was introduced into the cylinder to drive the piston backward as well as forward, thereby increasing the speed of the engine and cutting its fuel consumption. Watt's steam engine soon showed what it could do. It liberated industry from dependence on running water. The engine eliminated water in the mines by driving efficient pumps, which made possible deeper and deeper mining. The ready availability of coal inspired William Murdoch during the 1790s to develop the first new form of nighttime illumination to be discovered in a millennium and a half. Coal gas rivaled smoky oil lamps and flickering candles, and early in the new century, well-to-do Londoners grew accustomed to gaslit houses and even streets. Iron manufacturers, which had starved for fuel while depending on charcoal, also benefited from ever-increasing supplies of coal: blast furnaces with steam-powered bellows turned out more iron and steel for the new machinery. Steam became the motive force of the Industrial Revolution as coal and iron ore were the raw materials. By 1800 more than a thousand steam engines were in use in the British Isles, and Britain retained a virtual monopoly on steam engine production until the 1830s. Steam power did not merely spin cotton and roll iron; early in the new century, it also multiplied ten times over the amount of paper that a single worker could produce in a day. At the same time, operators of the first printing presses run by steam rather than by hand found it possible to produce a thousand pages in an hour rather than thirty. Steam also promised to eliminate a transportation problem not fully solved by either canal boats or turnpikes. Boats could carry heavy weights, but canals could not cross hilly terrain; turnpikes could cross the hills, but the roadbeds could not stand up under great weights. These problems needed still another solution, and the ingredients for it lay close at hand. In some industrial regions, heavily laden wagons, with flanged wheels, were being hauled by horses along metal rails; and the stationary steam engine was puffing in the factory and mine. Another generation passed before inventors succeeded in combining these ingredients, by putting the engine on wheels and the wheels on the rails, so as to provide a machine to take the place of the horse. Thus the railroad age sprang from what had already happened in the eighteenth century. The Industrial Revolution would not have been possible without a new source of power that was efficient, movable, and continuously available. ● ● ● Answer Choices ○ In the early eighteenth century, Savery and Newcomen discovered that expanding steam could be used to raise a piston in a cylinder. ○ Watt’s steam engine played a leading role in greatly increasing industrial production of all kinds. ○ Until the 1830s, Britain was the world’s major producer of steam engines. ○ In the mid-1700s James Watt transformed an inefficient steam pump into a fast, flexible, fuel-efficient engine. ○ In the 1790s William Murdoch developed a new way of lighting houses and streets using coal gas. ○ The availability of steam engines was a major factor in the development of railroads, which solved a major transportation problem. Development of the Periodic Table The periodic table is a chart that reflects the periodic recurrence of chemical and physical properties of the elements when the elements are arranged in order of increasing atomic number (the number of protons in the nucleus). It is a monumental scientific achievement, and its development illustrates the essential interplay between observation, prediction, and testing required for scientific progress. In the 1800's scientists were searching for new elements. By the late 1860's more than 60 chemical elements had been identified, and much was known about their descriptive chemistry. Various proposals were put forth to arrange the elements into groups based on similarities in chemical and physical properties. The next step was to recognize a connection between group properties (physical or chemical similarities) and atomic mass (the measured mass of an individual atom of an element). When the elements known at the time were ordered by increasing atomic mass, it was found that successive elements belonged to different chemical groups and that the order of the groups in this sequence was fixed and repeated itself at regular intervals. Thus when the series of elements was written so as to begin a new horizontal row with each alkali metal, elements of the same groups were automatically assembled in vertical columns in a periodic table of the elements. This table was the forerunner of the modern table. When the German chemist Lothar Meyer and (independently) the Russian Dmitry Mendeleyev first introduced the periodic table in 1869-70, one-third of the naturally occurring chemical elements had not yet been discovered. Yet both chemists were sufficiently farsighted to leave gaps where their analyses of periodic physical and chemical properties indicated that new elements should be located. Mendeleyev was bolder than Meyer and even assumed that if a measured atomic mass put an element in the wrong place in the table, the atomic mass was wrong. In some cases this was true. Indium, for example, had previously been assigned an atomic mass between those of arsenic and selenium. Because there is no space in the periodic table between these two elements, Mendeleyev suggested that the atomic mass of indium be changed to a completely different value, where it would fill an empty space between cadmium and tin. In fact, subsequent work has shown that in a periodic table, elements should not be ordered strictly by atomic mass. For example, tellurium comes before iodine in the periodic table, even though its atomic mass is slightly greater. Such anomalies are due to the relative abundance of the "isotopes" or varieties of each element. All the isotopes of a given element have the same number of protons, but differ in their number of neutrons, and hence in their atomic mass. The isotopes of a given element have the same chemical properties but slightly different physical properties. We now know that atomic number (the number of protons in the nucleus), not atomic mass number (the number of protons and neutrons), determines chemical behavior. Mendeleyev went further than Meyer in another respect: he predicted the properties of six elements yet to be discovered. For example, a gap just below aluminum suggested a new element would be found with properties analogous to those of aluminum. Mendeleyev designated this element "eka-aluminum" (eka is the Sanskrit word for "next") and predicted its properties. Just five years later an element with the proper atomic mass was isolated and named gallium by its discoverer. The close correspondence between the observed properties of gallium and Mendeleyev’s predictions for eka-aluminum lent strong support to the periodic law. Additional support came in 1885 when eka-silicon, which had also been described in advance by Mendeleyev, was discovered and named germanium. The structure of the periodic table appeared to limit the number of possible elements. It was therefore quite surprising when John William Strut (Lord Rayleigh, discovered a gaseous element in 1894 that did not fit into the previous classification scheme. A century earlier, Henry Cavendish had noted the existence of a residual gas when oxygen and nitrogen are removed from air, but its importance had not been realized. Together with William Ramsay, Rayleigh isolated the gas (separating it from other substances into its pure state) and named it argon. Ramsay then studied a gas that was present in natural gas deposits and discovered that it was helium, an element whose presence in the Sun had been noted earlier in the spectrum of sunlight but that had not previously been known on Earth. Rayleigh and Ramsay postulated the existence of a new group of elements, and in 1898 other members of the series (neon, krypton, and xenon) were isolated. The periodic table introduced by Meyer and Mendeleyev was the forerunner of the modern table of elements. ● ● ● Answer Choices ○ Lord Rayleigh provided evidence that the structure of the I—Ramsay and Lord Rayleigh challenged the importance of the periodic table limited the potential number of elements. ○ Chemical research that Henry Cavendish had done a century earlier. ○ Isotopes of a given element have exactly the same physical properties, but their chemical properties are slightly different. ○ Mendeleyev and Meyer organized the known elements into a F chart that revealed periodic recurrences of chemical and physical properties. ○ Mendeleyev's successful prediction of the properties of then- r unknown elements lent support to the acceptance of the periodic law. ○ In the 1890's, Ramsay and Lord Rayleigh isolated argon and proposed the existence of a new series of elements. The Birth of Photography Perceptions of the visible world were greatly altered by the invention of photography in the middle of the nineteenth century. In particular, and quite logically, the art of painting was forever changed, though not always in the ways one might have expected. The realistic and naturalistic painters of the mid- and late-nineteenth century were all intently aware of photography—as a thing to use, to learn from, and react to. Unlike most major inventions, photography had been long and impatiently awaited. The images produced by the camera obscura, a boxlike device that used a pinhole or lens to throw an image onto a ground-glass screen or a piece of white paper, were already familiar—the device had been much employed by topographical artists like the Italian painter Canaletto in his detailed views of the city of Venice. What was lacking was a way of giving such images permanent form. This was finally achieved by Louis Daguerre (1787-1851), who perfected a way of fixing them on a silvered copper plate. His discovery, the "daguerreotype," was announced in 1839. A second and very different process was patented by the British inventor William Henry Talbot (1800-1877) in 1841. Talbot's "calotype" was the first negative-to-positive process and the direct ancestor of the modern photograph. The calotype was revolutionary in its use of chemically treated paper in which areas hit by light became dark in tone, producing a negative image. This "negative," as Talbot called it, could then be used to print multiple positive images on another piece of treated paper. The two processes produced very different results. The daguerreotype was a unique image that reproduced what was in front of the camera lens in minute, unselective detail and could not be duplicated. The calotype could be made in series, and was thus the equivalent of an etching or an engraving. Its general effect was soft edged and tonal. One of the things that most impressed the original audience for photography was the idea of authenticity. Nature now seemed able to speak for itself, with a minimum of interference. The title Talbot chose for his book, The Pencil of Nature (the first part of which was published in 1844), reflected this feeling. Artists were fascinated by photography because it offered a way of examining the world in much greater detail. They were also afraid of it, because it seemed likely to make their own efforts unnecessary. Photography did indeed make certain kinds of painting obsolete—the daguerreotype virtually did away with the portrait miniature. It also made the whole business of making and owning images democratic. Portraiture, once a luxury for the privileged few, was suddenly well within the reach of many more people. In the long term, photography's impact on the visual arts was far from simple. Because the medium was so prolific, in the sense that it was possible to produce a multitude of images very cheaply, it was soon treated as the poor relation of fine art, rather than its destined successor. Even those artists who were most dependent on photography became reluctant to admit that they made use of it, in case this compromised their professional standing. The rapid technical development of photography—the introduction of lighter and simpler equipment, and of new emulsions that coated photographic plates, film, and paper and enabled images to be made at much faster speeds—had some unanticipated consequences. Scientific experiments made by photographers such as Eadweard Muybridge (1830-1904) and Etienne-Jules Marey (1830-1904) demonstrated that the movements of both humans and animals differed widely from the way they had been traditionally represented in art. Artists, often reluctantly, were forced to accept the evidence provided by the camera. The new candid photography—unposed pictures that were made when the subjects were unaware that their pictures were being taken—confirmed these scientific results, and at the same time, thanks to the radical cropping (trimming) of images that the camera often imposed, suggested new compositional formats. The accidental effects obtained by candid photographers were soon being copied by artists such as the French painter Degas. The invention of photography had a significant impact on the art of painting in the nineteenth century. ● ● ● Answer Choices ○ For a brief time, artists preferred not to paint natural or realistic images that would have to compete with photographs. ○ Before photography, Canaletto had used the camera obscura to project scenes onto a paper or glass plate. ○ The photographic processes of Louis Daguerre and William Henry Talbot both made permanent images, but only Talbot's process allowed making multiple copies. ○ The work of Eadweard Muybridge and Etienne-Jules Marey established photography both as a science and as an art. ○ Photography made accurate images widely and inexpensively available, but this popular success also had the effect of lowering its perceived value in relation to the fine arts. ○ Photography eliminated the painted portrait miniature, led artists to accurately represent movement, and affected pictorial composition, but did not replace traditional visual arts. Early Cinema The cinema did not emerge as a form of mass consumption until its technology evolved from the initial "peepshow" format to the point where images were projected on a screen in a darkened theater. In the peepshow format, a film was viewed through a small opening in a machine that was created for that purpose. Thomas Edison's peepshow device, the Kinetoscope, was introduced to the public in 1894. It was designed for use in Kinetoscope parlors, or arcades, which contained only a few individual machines and permitted only one customer to view a short, 50-foot film at any one time. The first Kinetoscope parlors contained five machines. For the price of 25 cents (or 5 cents per machine), customers moved from machine to machine to watch five different films (or, in the case of famous prizefights, successive rounds of a single fight). These Kinetoscope arcades were modeled on phonograph parlors, which had proven successful for Edison several years earlier. In the phonograph parlors, customers listened to recordings through individual ear tubes, moving from one machine to the next to hear different recorded speeches or pieces of music. The Kinetoscope parlors functioned in a similar way. Edison was more interested in the sale of Kinetoscopes (for roughly $1,000 apiece) to these parlors than in the films that would be run in them (which cost approximately $10 to $15 each). He refused to develop projection technology, reasoning that if he made and sold projectors, then exhibitors would purchase only one machine-a projector-from him instead of several. Exhibitors, however, wanted to maximize their profits, which they could do more readily by projecting a handful of films to hundreds of customers at a time (rather than one at a time) and by charging 25 to 50 cents admission. About a year after the opening of the first Kinetoscope parlor in 1894, showmen such as Louis and Auguste Lumiere, Thomas Armat and Charles Francis Jenkins, and Orville and Woodville Latham (with the assistance of Edison's former assistant, William Dickson) perfected projection devices. These early projection devices were used in vaudeville theaters, legitimate theaters, local town halls, makeshift storefront theaters, fairgrounds, and amusement parks to show films to a mass audience. With the advent of projection in 1895-1896, motion pictures became the ultimate form of mass consumption. Previously, large audiences had viewed spectacles at the theater, where vaudeville, popular dramas, musical and minstrel shows, classical plays, lectures, and slide-and-lantern shows had been presented to several hundred spectators at a time. But the movies differed significantly from these other forms of entertainment, which depended on either live performance or (in the case of the slide-and-lantern shows) the active involvement of a master of ceremonies who assembled the final program. Although early exhibitors regularly accompanied movies with live acts, the substance of the movies themselves is mass-produced, prerecorded material that can easily be reproduced by theaters with little or no active participation by the exhibitor. Even though early exhibitors shaped their film programs by mixing films and other entertainments together in whichever way they thought would be most attractive to audiences or by accompanying them with lectures, their creative control remained limited. What audiences came to see was the technological marvel of the movies; the lifelike reproduction of the commonplace motion of trains, of waves striking the shore, and of people walking in the street; and the magic made possible by trick photography and the manipulation of the camera. With the advent of projection, the viewer's relationship with the image was no longer private, as it had been with earlier peepshow devices such as the Kinetoscope and the Mutoscope, which was a similar machine that reproduced motion by means of successive images on individual photographic cards instead of on strips of celluloid. It suddenly became public—an experience that the viewer shared with dozens, scores, and even hundreds of others. At the same time, the image that the spectator looked at expanded from the minuscule peepshow dimensions of 1 or 2 inches (in height) to the life-size proportions of 6 or 9 feet. The technology for modern cinema evolved at the end of the nineteenth century. ● ● ● Answer Choices ○ Kinetoscope parlors for viewing films were modeled on phonograph parlors. ○ Thomas Edison's design of the Kinetoscope inspired the development of large screen projection. ○ Early cinema allowed individuals to use special machines to view films privately. ○ Slide-and-lantern shows had been presented to audiences of hundreds of spectators. ○ The development of projection technology made it possible to project images on a large screen. ○ Once film images could be projected, the cinema became form of mass consumption. **************************************************************************************** TPO-19-3 Discovering the Ice Ages In the middle of the nineteenth century, Louis Agassiz, one of the first scientists to study glaciers, immigrated to the United States from Switzerland and became a professor at Harvard University, where he continued his studies in geology and other sciences. For his research, Agassiz visited many places in the northern parts of Europe and North America, from the mountains of Scandinavia and New England to the rolling hills of the American Midwest. In all these diverse regions, Agassiz saw signs of glacial erosion and sedimentation. In flat plains country, he saw moraines (accumulations of earth and loose rock that form at the edges of glaciers) that reminded him of the terminal moraines found at the end of valley glaciers in the Alps. The heterogeneous material of the drift (sand, clay, and rocks deposited there) convinced him of its glacial origin. The areas covered by this material were so vast that the ice that deposited it must have been a continental glacier larger than Greenland or Antarctica. Eventually, Agassiz and others convinced geologists and the general public that a great continental glaciation had extended the polar ice caps far into regions that now enjoy temperate climates. For the first time, people began to talk about ice ages. It was also apparent that the glaciation occurred in the relatively recent past because the drift was soft, like freshly deposited sediment. We now know the age of the glaciation accurately from radiometric dating of the carbon-14 in logs buried in the drift. The drift of the last glaciation was deposited during one of the most recent epochs of geologic time, the Pleistocene, which lasted from 1.8 million to 10,000 years ago. Along the east coast of the United States, the southernmost advance of this ice is recorded by the enormous sand and drift deposits of the terminal moraines that form Long Island and Cape Cod. It soon became clear that there were multiple glacial ages during the Pleistocene, with warmer interglacial intervals between them. As geologists mapped glacial deposits in the late nineteenth century, they became aware that there were several layers of drift, the lower ones corresponding to earlier ice ages. Between the older layers of glacial material were well-developed soils containing fossils of warm-climate plants. These soils were evidence that the glaciers retreated as the climate warmed. By the early part of the twentieth century, scientists believed that four distinct glaciations had affected North America and Europe during the Pleistocene epoch. This idea was modified in the late twentieth century, when geologists and oceanographers examining oceanic sediment found fossil evidence of warming and cooling of the oceans. Ocean sediments presented a much more complete geologic record of the Pleistocene than continental glacial deposits did. The fossils buried in Pleistocene and earlier ocean sediments were of foraminifera—small, single-celled marine organisms that secrete shells of calcium carbonate, or calcite. These shells differ in their proportion of ordinary oxygen (oxygen-16) and the heavy oxygen isotope (oxygen-18). The ratio of oxygen-16 to oxygen-18 found in the calcite of a foraminifer's shell depends on the temperature of the water in which the organism lived. Different ratios in the shells preserved in various layers of sediment reveal the temperature changes in the oceans during the Pleistocene epoch. Isotopic analysis of shells allowed geologists to measure another glacial effect. They could trace the growth and shrinkage of continental glaciers, even in parts of the ocean where there may have been no great change in temperature—around the equator, for example. The oxygen isotope ratio of the ocean changes as a great deal of water is withdrawn from it by evaporation and is precipitated as snow to form glacial ice. During glaciations, the lighter oxygen-16 has a greater tendency to evaporate from the ocean surface than the heavier oxygen-18 does. Thus, more of the heavy isotope is left behind in the ocean and absorbed by marine organisms. From this analysis of marine sediments, geologists have learned that there were many shorter, more regular cycles of glaciation and deglaciation than geologists had recognized from the glacial drift of the continents alone. 14. Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2 points. Louis Agassiz was the first to note signs of glacial erosion and sedimentation in diverse regions of Europe and North America. ● ● ● Answer Choices ○ Evidence of a pattern of glacier-like deposits eventually convinced most geologists that an enormous continental glacier had extended into the temperate zone. ○ Glacial research showed that many layers of ice were deposited, with each new period of glaciation extending farther south than the one before. ○ Isotopic analysis of marine sediments showed that periods of glaciation and deglaciation were more frequent, shorter, and more cyclic than previously thought. ○ Nineteenth-century geologists came to accept the idea that the areas covered by polar ice had reached as far as the equator, a far larger area than Agassiz had thought. ○ Nineteenth-century geologists studying the layers of drift concluded that during the Pleistocene epoch, several glaciations had occurred with warm periods between them. ○ Research involving foraminifera fossil shells show that ocean temperatures in the Northern Hemisphere varied greatly during the most extensive periods of glaciation. **************************************************************************************** TPO 29-R-3 The History of Waterpower Moving water was one of the earliest energy sources to be harnessed to reduce the workload of people and animals. No one knows exactly when the water wheel was invented, but irrigation systems existed at least 5,000 years ago, and it seems probable that the earliest waterpower device was the noria, a waterwheel that raised water for irrigation in attached jars. This device appears to have evolved no later than the fifth century B.C., perhaps independently in different regions of the Middle and Far East. The earliest waterpower mills were probably vertical-axis mills for grinding corn, known as Norse or Greek mills, which seem to have appeared during the first or second century B.C. in the middle East and a few centuries later in Scandinavia. In the following centuries, increasingly sophisticated waterpower mills were built throughout the Roman Empire and beyond its boundaries in the Middle East and northern Europe, In England, the Saxons are thought to have used both horizontal and vertical-axis wheels. The first documented English mill was in the eighth century, but three centuries later about 5,000 were recorded, suggesting that every settlement of any size had its mill. Raising water and grinding com were by no means the only uses of the waterpower mill, and during the following centuries, the applications of waterpower kept pace with the developing technologies of mining, iron working, paper making, and the wool and cotton industries. Water was the main source of mechanical power, and by the end of the seventeenth century, England alone is though to have had some 20,000 working mills. There was much debate on the relative efficiencies of different types of waterwheels. ■ The period from about 1650 until 1800 saw some excellent scientific and technical investigations of different designs. ■ They revealed output powers ranging from about 1 horsepower to perhaps 60 for the largest wheels and confirmed that for maximum efficiency, the water should pass across the blades as smoothly as possible and fall away with minimum speed, having given up almost all of its kinetic energy. ■ (They also proved that, in principle, the overshot wheel, a type of wheel in which an overhead stream of water powers the wheel, should win the efficiency competition.)■ But when steam power entered the scene, putting the whole future of waterpower in doubt, An energy analyst writing in the year 1800 would have painted a very pessimistic picture of the future for waterpower. The coal-fired steam engine was taking over, and the waterwheel was fast becoming obsolete. However, like many later experts, this one would have suffered from an inability to see into the future. A century later the picture was completely different: by then, the world had an electric industry, and a quarter of its generating capacity was water powered. The growth of the electric-power industry was the result of a remarkable series of scientific discoveries and developments in electrotechnology during the nineteenth century, but significant changes in what we might now call hydro (water) technology also played their part. In 1832, the year of Michael Faraday’s discovery that a changing magnetic field produces an electric field, a young French engineer patented a new and mor efficient waterwheel. His name was Benoit Fourneyron, and his device was the first successful water turbine. (The word turbine comes from the Latin turbo: something that spins). The waterwheel, unaltered for nearly 2,000 years, had finally been superseded. Half a century of development was needed before Faraday’s discoveries in electricity were translated into full-scale power stations. In 1881 the Godalming power station in Surrey, England, on the banks of the Wey River, created the world’s first public electricity supply. The power source of this most modern technology was a traditional waterwheel. Unfortunately this early plant experienced the problem common to many forms of renewable energy: the flow in the Wey River was unreliable, and the waterwheel was soon replaced by a steam engine. From this primitive start, the electric industry grew during the final 20 years of the nineteenth century at a rate seldom if ever exceeded by any technology. The capacity of individual power stations, many of them hydro plants, rose from a few kilowatts to over a megawatt in less than a decade. There was much debate on the relative efficiencies of different types of waterwheels. ■ The period from about 1650 until 1800 saw some excellent scientific and technical investigations of different designs. ■ They revealed output powers ranging from about 1 horsepower to perhaps 60 for the largest wheels and confirmed that for maximum efficiency, the water should pass across the blades as smoothly as possible and fall away with minimum speed, having given up almost all of its kinetic energy. ■ (They also proved that, in principle, the overshot wheel, a type of wheel in which an overhead stream of water powers the wheel, should win the efficiency competition.)■ Q14 Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2 points. Drag your answer choices to the spaces where they belong. To remove an answer choice, click on it. To review the passage, click VIEW NEXT. Ever since the development of the waterwheel. Which occurred no later than 500 B.C., people have used moving water as a source of power. A. The first water-powered machines were probably used to grind corn, and as technology advanced, waterwheels were used as the main source of power in many industries. B. Almost every large town in England had a water power mill, allowing England to become the world’s leader in industries that depended on water for their power. C. In the nineteenth century and electric power station in England began using water power from a nearby river, creating a dependable source of power that quickly replaced the steam engine. D. Waterpower mills were probably invented about the same time in the Middle East and Scandinavia and then spread to England by about the second century B.C. E. In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, design improvements in waterwheels led to discoveries of how to increase their efficiency and power output. F. After declining in importance in the early 1800’s, waterpower came back into demand by the end of the century as a means to power electric power plants and water turbines. ****************************************************************************************
        • 人物自传
        • 事物发展
    • 【2】拉滚动条，观察段落数量
      • 3/6内在含义：全文3个理论/证据/批判（议论文）、对象的3个特点（说明文）、现象的3个原因或结果（说明文）、事物发展的3个重要阶段（记叙文）、人物做出的3个重大贡献（记叙文） 【1】
      • 段落数量: 3-4-5-6-7-8-9-10 (实际考试以4-7段式为多)【2】
      • 实际考试中，段落中心合并情况较多，例如P3和P4在叙述同一个内容【3】
      • 判读段落数量的同时，也可关注一下长短段落，可以辅助判断出题数量【4】
    • 【3】文章结构速读及解題训练
      • 【1】阅读题干
        • 大段分层
          • General concern about misleading tactics that advertisers employ is centered on the use of exaggeration. Consumer protection groups and parents believe that children are largely ill-equipped to recognize such techniques and that often exaggeration is used at the expense of product information. Claims such as "the best" or "better than" can be subjective and misleading; even adults may be unsure as to their meaning. They represent the advertiser's opinions about the qualities of their products or brand and, as a consequence, are difficult to verify . Advertisers sometimes offset or counterbalance an exaggerated claim with a disclaimer—a qualification or condition on the claim. For example, the claim that breakfast cereal has a health benefit may be accompanied by the disclaimer "when part of a nutritionally balanced breakfast." However, research has shown that children often have difficulty understanding disclaimers: children may interpret the phrase "when part of a nutritionally balanced breakfast" to mean that the cereal is required as a necessary part of a balanced breakfast. The author George Comstock suggested that less than a quarter of children between the ages of six and eight years old understood standard disclaimers used in many toy advertisements and that disclaimers are more readily comprehended when presented in both audio and visual formats. Nevertheless, disclaimers are mainly presented in audio format only. 2. The word “verify” in the passage is closest in meaning to ○ establish the truth of ○ approve of ○understand ○criticize 3.In paragraph 2, what is one reason that claims such as “the best” or “better than” can be misleading? ○ They represent the opinions of adults, which are often different from those of children. ○ They generally involve comparisons among only a small group of products. ○ They reflect the attitudes of consumer protection groups rather than those of actual consumers. ○ They reflect the advertiser's viewpoint about the product. 4.Cereal advertisements that include the statement “when part of a nutritionally balanced breakfast” are trying to suggest that ○ the cereal is a desirable part of a healthful, balanced breakfast ○ the cereal contains equal amounts of all nutrients ○ cereal is a healthier breakfast than other foods are ○ the cereal is the most nutritious part of the breakfast meal 5. According to paragraph 2, all of the following are true of disclaimers made in advertisements EXCEPT: ○ They are qualifications or conditions put on a claim. ○ They may be used to balance exaggerations. ○ They are usually presented in both audio and visual formats. ○ They are often difficult for children to understand.
          • 带着问题读文章，快速把握段落关键词，预测段落中心
          • 可以记录题干的关键信息，避免遗忘 Q1 where-faster?
        • 小段通读
          • Each of the preceding techniques provides the researcher with evidence that the infant can detect or discriminate between stimuli. With these sophisticated observational assessment and electro-physiological measures, we know that the neonate of only a few days is far more perceptive than previously suspected. However, these measures are only "indirect" indicators of the infant's perceptual abilities. 1. Paragraph 5 indicates that researchers who used the techniques described in the passage discovered that ○ infants find it difficult to perceive some types of stimuli ○ neonates of only a few days cannot yet discriminate between stimuli ○ observational assessment is less useful for studying infant perception than researchers previously believed ○ a neonate is able to perceive stimuli better than researchers once thought 答案：D ************************************************************************* The fossil record shows at least five mass extinctions in which many families of marine organisms died out. The rates of extinction happening today are as great as the rates during these mass extinctions. Many scientists have therefore concluded that a sixth great mass extinction is currently in progress. 2. According to paragraph 2, scientists base their belief that a mass extinction is going on at present on which of the following? ○ The speed with which mass extinctions are happening today is similar to the speed of past extinctions. ○ The number of species that have died out since the last extinction event is extremely large. ○ Mass extinctions occur with regularity and it is time for another one. ○ Fossil records of many marine species have disappeared. 答案：A ************************************************************************* ►Once all this information has been gathered, it becomes possible to judge whether a lake’s flow is mainly due to its surface inputs and outputs or to its underground inputs and outputs. If the former are greater, the lake is a surface-water-dominated lake; if the latter, it is a seepage-dominated lake. Occasionally, common sense tells you which of these two possibilities applies. For example, a pond in hilly country that maintains a steady water level all through a dry summer in spite of having no streams flowing into it must obviously be seepage dominated. Conversely, a pond with a stream flowing in one end and out the other, which dries up when the stream dries up, is clearly surface water dominated. 3. According to paragraph 3, which of the following best describes a seepage-dominated lake? ○ A lake that is fed by streams but still has fluctuating water levels ○ A lake with a constant water level that has no streams or rivers as input ○ A lake with a stream flowing into it and a stream flowing out of it ○ A lake that has surface and underground inputs but loses water during dry seasons 答案：B ************************************************************************* The probability that actual remains of soft tissue will be preserved is improved if the organism dies in an environment of rapid deposition and oxygen deprivation. Under such conditions, the destructive effects of bacteria are diminished. The Middle Eocene Messel Shale (from about 48 million years ago) of Germany accumulated in such an environment. The shale was deposited in an oxygen-deficient lake where lethal gases sometimes bubbled up and killed animals. Their remains accumulated on the floor of the lake and were then covered by clay and silt. Among the superbly preserved Messel fossils are insects with iridescent exoskeletons (hard outer coverings), frogs with skin and blood vessels intact, and even entire small mammals with preserved fur and soft tissue. 4. According to paragraph 7, how do environments containing oxygen affect fossil preservation? ○ They increase the probability that soft-tissued organisms will become fossils. ○ They lead to more bacteria production. ○ They slow the rate at which clay and silt are deposited. ○ They reduce the chance that animal remains will be preserved. 答案：D ************************************************************************* ►While some European countries, such as England and Germany, began to industrialize in the eighteenth century, the Netherlands and the Scandinavian countries of Denmark, Norway, and Sweden developed later. All four of these countries lagged considerably behind in the early nineteenth century. However, they industrialized rapidly in the second half of the century, especially in the last two or three decades. In view of their later start and their lack of coal—undoubtedly the main reason they were not among the early industrializers—it is important to understand the sources of their success. 5. Paragraph 1 supports which of the following ideas about England and Germany? ○ They were completely industrialized by the start of the nineteenth century. ○ They possessed plentiful supplies of coal. ○ They were overtaken economically by the Netherlands and Scandinavia during the early nineteenth century. ○ They succeeded for the same reasons that the Netherlands and Scandinavia did. 答案：B ************************************************************************* ►Spartina is an exceedingly competitive plant. It spreads primarily by underground stems; colonies form when pieces of the root system or whole plants float into an area and take root or when seeds float into a suitable area and germinate. Spartina establishes itself on substrates ranging from sand and silt to gravel and cobble and is tolerant of salinities ranging from that of near freshwater (0.05 percent) to that of salt water (3.5 percent). Because they lack oxygen, marsh sediments are high in sulfides that are toxic to most plants. Spartina has the ability to take up sulfides and convert them to sulfate, a form of sulfur that the plant can use; this ability makes it easier for the grass to colonize marsh environments. Another adaptive advantage is Spartina’s ability to use carbon dioxide more efficiently than most other plants. 4. What is the organizational structure of paragraph 3? ○ It makes a general claim about Spartina and then provides specific evidence to defend that claim against objections to the claim. ○ It presents a general characterization of Spartina and then describes particular features on which this characterization is based. ○ It reports a widely held view about Spartina and then considers evidence both for and against that view. ○ It presents a general hypothesis about Spartina and then lists specific evidence that disputes that hypothesis. 5. According to paragraph 3, one reason that Spanina is able to compete in marsh environments so successfully is its ability to ○ alter the substrate in which it grows ○ convert sulfides into a usable form of sulfur ○ grow and produce seeds while floating on the surface of the water ○ produce carbon dioxide with great efficiency 答案：B ************************************************************************* Clements and other early ecologists saw almost lawlike regularity in the order of succession, but that has not been substantiated. A general trend can be recognized, but the details are usually unpredictable. Succession is influenced by many factors: the nature of the soil, exposure to sun and wind, regularity of precipitation, chance colonizations, and many other random processes. 6. According to paragraph 2, which of the following is a criticism of Clements’ view of succession? ○ The principles of succession are more lawlike than Clements thought they are. ○ More evidence is needed to establish Clements’ predictions about succession. ○ The details of succession are affected by random processes. ○ Many of the factors that determine which plants will grow in an environment, such as the nature of the soil and the exposure to sun, do not change at all. 答案：C ************************************************************************* ►Think back to your childhood and try to identify your earliest memory. How old were you? Most people are not able to recount memories for experiences prior to the age of three years, a phenomenon called infantile amnesia. The question of why infantile amnesia occurs has intrigued psychologists for decades, especially in light of ample evidence that infants and young children can display impressive memory capabilities. Many find that understanding the general nature of autobiographical memory, that is, memory for events that have occurred in one's own life, can provide some important clues to this mystery. Between ages three and four, children begin to give fairly lengthy and cohesive descriptions of events in their past. What factors are responsible for this developmental turning point? 7. The word "ample" in the passage is closest in meaning to ○ surprising ○ convincing ○ plentiful ○ questionable 8. According to paragraph 1, infantile amnesia has intrigued psychologists because ○ the ability to recount memories prior to three years of age seems to be connected to intelligence in adulthood ○ psychologists do not understand why some people are able to recount memories from before the age of three years, while others are not able do so ○ psychologists do not understand the connection between infantile amnesia and autobiographical memory ○ although psychologists have evidence that infants have memory abilities, most people cannot remember life events that happened before the age of three years 答案：D 9. According to paragraph 1, what is the evidence that a child has developed autobiographical memory? ○ The child is able to remember past events from before the age of three years. ○ The child is able to describe past events in a sufficiently lengthy and cohesive manner. ○ The child is aware that he or she does not remember experiences from before the age of three years. ○ The child is able to give a basic description of the nature of autobiographical memory. 答案：D ************************************************************************* ►An ecologist who studies a pond today may well find it relatively unchanged in a year’s time. Individual fish may be replaced, but the number of fish will tend to be the same from one year to the next. We can say that the properties of an ecosystem are more stable than the individual organisms that compose the ecosystem. 10. According to paragraph 2, which of the following principles of ecosystems can be learned by studying a pond? ○ The stability of an ecosystem tends to change as individuals are replaced. ○ Individual organisms are stable from one year to the next. ○ Ecosystem properties change more slowly than individuals in the system. ○ A change in the members of an organism does not affect an ecosystem’s properties. 答案：C ************************************************************************* ►Hills and mountains are often regarded as the epitome of permanence, successfully resisting the destructive forces of nature, but in fact they tend to be relatively short-lived in geological terms. As a general rule, the higher a mountain is, the more recently it was formed; for example, the high mountains of the Himalayas are only about 50 million years old. Lower mountains tend to be older, and are often the eroded relics of much higher mountain chains. About 400 million years ago, when the present-day continents of North America and Europe were joined, the Caledonian mountain chain was the same size as the modern Himalayas. Today, however, the relics of the Caledonian orogeny (mountain-building period) exist as the comparatively low mountains of Greenland, the northern Appalachians in the United States, the Scottish Highlands, and the Norwegian coastal plateau. 11. Which of the following can be inferred from paragraph 2 about the mountains of the Himalayas? ○ Their current height is not an indication of their age. ○ At present, they are much higher than the mountains of the Caledonian range. ○ They were a uniform height about 400 million years ago. ○ They are not as high as the Caledonian mountains were 400 million years ago. 答案：B ************************************************************************* ►Groundwater is stored in a variety of rock types. A groundwater reservoir from which water can be extracted is called an aquifer. We can effectively think of an aquifer as a deposit of water. Extraction of water depends on two properties of the aquifer: porosity and permeability. Between sediment grains are spaces that can be filled with water. This pore space is known as porosity and is expressed as a percentage of the total rock volume. Porosity is important for water-storage capacity, but for water to flow through rocks, the pore spaces must be connected. The ability of water, or other fluids, to flow through the interconnected pore spaces in rocks is termed permeability. Fractures and joint have very high permeability. In the intergranular spaces of rocks, however, fluid must flow around and between grains in a tortuous path; this winding path causes a resistance to flow. The rate at which the flowing water overcomes this resistance is related to the permeability of rock. 12. According to paragraph 2, what is the relationship between permeability and porosity? ○ The more pores a rock has, the higher its porosity but the lower its permeability ○ Rocks with many internal spaces that are not connected with each other will have high porosity but low permeability ○ If water flows through a rock easily, it has high permeability but low porosity ○ Rocks that have high permeability have high porosity and vice versa 答案：B ************************************************************************* The formation of the channel is initiated when electrons surge from the cloud base toward the ground. When a stream of these negatively charged electrons comes within 100 meters of the ground it is met by a stream of positively charged particles that comes up from the ground. When the negatively and positively charged streams meet, a complete channel connecting the cloud and the ground is formed. The channel is only a few centimeters in diameter, but that is wide enough for electrons to follow the channel to the ground in the visible form of a flash of lightning. The stream of positive particles that meets the surge of electrons from the cloud often arises from a tall pointed structure such as a metal flagpole or a tower. That is why the subsequent lightning that follows the completed channel often strikes a tall structure. 13. Which of the following claims about lightning strikes can be inferred from paragraph 5 ? ○ During a lightning strike the diameter of the channel the electrons follow is considerably enlarged beyond a few centimeters ○ A building is unlikely to be hit by lightning unless it is at least 100 meters tail ○ A building is hit by a lightning strike because the building itself has first determined the path the lightning then takes to it ○ The light of a lightning strike first appears at the point where the streams of negative and positive particles meet 答案：C ************************************************************************* Evolutionary biologists believe that speciation, the formation of a new species, often begins when some kind of physical barrier arises and divides a population of a single species into separate subpopulations. Physical separation between subpopulations promotes the formation of new species because once the members of one subpopulation can no longer mate with members of another subpopulation, they cannot exchange variant genes that arise in one of the subpopulations. In the absences of gene flow between the subpopulations, genetic differences between the groups begin to accumulate. Eventually the subpopulations become so genetically distinct that they cannot interbreed even if the physical barriers between them were removed. At this point the subpopulations have evolved into distinct species. This route to speciation is known as allopatry (“allo-” means “different”, and “patria” means “homeland”). 14. According to paragraph 1, allopatric speciation involves which of the following? ○ The division of a population into subspecies. ○ The reuniting of separated populations after they have become distinct species. ○ The movement of a population to a new homeland. ○ The absence of gene flow between subpopulations. 答案：D ************************************************************************* The function and status of ceramics in China varied from dynasty to dynasty, so they may be utilitarian, burial, trade-collectors', or even ritual objects, according to their quality and the era in which they were made. The ceramics fall into three broad types—earthenware, stoneware, and porcelain—for vessels, architectural items such as roof tiles, and modeled objects and figures. In addition, there was an important group of sculptures made for religious use, the majority of which were produced in earthenware. 15. According to paragraph 2, which of the following is true of Chinese ceramics? ○ The function of ceramics remained the same from dynasty to dynasty. ○ The use of ceramics as trade objects is better documented than the use of ceramics as ritual objects. ○ There was little variation in quality for any type of ceramics over time. ○ Some religious sculptures were made using the earthenware type of ceramics. 答案：D *************************************************************************
          • 預防比較邏輯
          • 預防舉例成分
      • 【2】读首次句
        • 段首句为过渡句:There exists another theory./This has been holding a series of paradoxes. 【1】
        • 段落第二句为转折句 S1. But S2./ S1. S2. But S3-形成批判关系 【2】
        • 首句为疑问句（起到引发中心的作用），读完首句后，向后找问句的答句【3】
        • 段首句没读懂: Many signals that animals make seem to impose on the signalers costs that are overly damaging.【4】
      • 【3】段中段末
        • 詳讀段落中心
          • 议论文： 理論假設/證據總結/觀點批判
          • 说明文：因果/结果性概念
          • 記敘文：奠定基础 / 做出贡献 / 影响深远 / 创新创造 / 探索发现
        • 重要內容提醒
          • 是否為中心、有題、邏輯？
        • 次要內容提醒
          • 是否為过渡、抽象、无题？
      • 【4】主干定位
        • 题干和选项关系
        • 主句和从句关系
        • 主句和从句的主谓宾快速跳读：参考15所述语法结构速讀橴ꃺߐĀ툰ǖ
      • 【5】逻辑原则
        • 因果/转折/比较/并列/否定
          • 题干存在【否定概念】，定位原文中的【否定概念】如：fail to do/discourage/difficulty of…【1】
            • Wildman and Niles were particularly interested in investigating the conditions under which reflection might flourish-a subject on which there is little guidance in the literature. They designed an experimental strategy for a group of teachers in Virginia and worked with 40 practicing teachers over several years. They were concerned that many would be "drawn to these new, refreshing conceptions of teaching only to find that the void between the abstractions and the realities of teacher reflection is too great to bridge." Reflection on a complex task such as teaching is not easy. The teachers were taken through a program of talking about teaching events, moving on to reflecting about specific issues in a supported, and later an independent, manner. 1. According to paragraph 2, Wildman and Niles worried that the teachers they were working with might feel that ○ the number of teachers involved in their program was too large ○ the concepts of teacher reflection were so abstract that they could not be applied ○ the ideas involved in reflection were actually not new and refreshing ○ several years would be needed to acquire the habit of reflecting on their teaching 答案：B *************************************************************************************************** Wildman and Niles observed that systematic reflection on teaching required a sound ability to understand classroom events in an objective manner. They describe the initial understanding in the teachers with whom they were working as being "utilitarian...and not rich or detailed enough to drive systematic reflection." Teachers rarely have the time or opportunities to view their own or the teaching of others in an objective manner. Further observation revealed the tendency of teachers to evaluate events rather than review the contributory factors in a considered manner by, in effect, standing outside the situation. 2 . According to paragraph 3, what did the teachers working with Wildman and Niles often fail to do when they attempted to practice reflection? ○ Correctly calculate the amount of time needed for reflection ○ Provide sufficiently detailed descriptions of the methods they used to help them reflect ○ Examine thoughtfully the possible causes of events in their classrooms ○ Establish realistic goals for themselves in practicing reflection 答案：C *************************************************************************************************** The work of Wildman and Niles suggests the importance of recognizing some of the difficulties of instituting reflective practice. Others have noted this, making a similar point about the teaching profession's cultural inhibitions about reflective practice. Zeichner and Liston (1987) point out the inconsistency between the role of the teacher as a (reflective) professional decision maker and the more usual role of the teacher as a technician, putting into practice the ideas of others. More basic than the cultural issues is the matter of motivation. Becoming a reflective practitioner requires extra work (Jaworski, 1993) and has only vaguely defined goals with, perhaps, little initially perceivable reward and the threat of vulnerability. Few have directly questioned what might lead a teacher to want to become reflective. Apparently, the most obvious reason for teachers to work toward reflective practice is that teacher educators think it is a good thing. There appear to be many unexplored matters about the motivation to reflect-for example, the value of externally motivated reflection as opposed to that of teachers who might reflect by habit. 3. According to paragraph 6, teachers may be discouraged from reflecting because ○ it is not generally supported by teacher educators ○ the benefits of reflection may not be apparent immediately ○ it is impossible to teach and reflect on one's teaching at the same time ○ they have often failed in their attempts to become reflective practitioners 答案：B ********************************************************************************* Spartina was transported to Washington State in packing materials for oysters transplanted from the east coast in 1894. Leaving its insect predators behind, the cordgrass has been spreading slowly and steadily along Washington’s tidal estuaries on the west coast, crowding out the native plants and drastically altering the landscape by trapping sediment. Spartina modifies tidal mudflats, turning them into high marshes inhospitable to the many fish and waterfowl that depend on the mudflats. It is already hampering the oyster harvest and the Dungeness crab fishery, and it interferes with the recreational use of beaches and waterfronts. Spartina has been transplanted to England and to New Zealand for land reclamation and shoreline stabilization. In New Zealand the plant has spread rapidly, changing mudflats with marshy fringes to extensive salt meadows and reducing the number and kinds of birds and animals that use the marsh. 11. According to paragraph 5, Spartina negatively affects wildlife in estuaries by ○ trapping fish and waterfowl in sediment ○ preventing oysters from transplanting successfully ○ turning mudflats into high marshes and salt meadows ○ expanding the marshy fringes of salt meadows 答案：C 【=grassland=prairie fodder=graze=browse 】 ********************************************************************************* In the wake of the Roman Empire's conquest of Britain in the first century A.D., a large number of troops stayed in the new province, and these troops had a considerable impact on Britain with their camps, fortifications, and participation in the local economy. Assessing the impact of the army on the civilian population starts from the realization that the soldiers were always unevenly distributed across the country. Areas rapidly incorporated into the empire were not long affected by the military. Where the army remained stationed, its presence was much more influential. The imposition of a military base involved the requisition of native lands for both the fort and the territory needed to feed and exercise the soldiers' animals. The imposition of military rule also robbed local leaders of opportunities to participate in local government, so social development was stunted and the seeds of disaffection sown. This then meant that the military had to remain to suppress rebellion and organize government. 5. According to paragraph 1, what effect did military occupation have on the local population? ○ It encouraged more even distribution of the population and the settlement of previously undeveloped territory. ○ It created discontent and made continuing military occupation necessary. ○ It required local labor to construct forts and feed and exercise the soldiers’ animals. ○ It provided local leaders with opportunities to participate in governance. 答案：B ********************************************************************************** In order to understand ancient Egyptian art, it is vital to know as much as possible of the elite Egyptians' view of the world and the functions and contexts of the art produced for them. Without this knowledge we can appreciate only the formal content of Egyptian art, and we will fail to understand why it was produced or the concepts that shaped it and caused it to adopt its distinctive forms. In fact, a lack of understanding concerning the purposes of Egyptian art has often led it to be compared unfavorably with the art of other cultures: Why did the Egyptians not develop sculpture in which the body turned and twisted through space like classical Greek statuary? Why do the artists seem to get left and right confused? And why did they not discover the geometric perspective as European artists did in the Renaissance? The answer to such questions has nothing to do with a lack of skill or imagination on the part of Egyptian artists and everything to do with the purposes for which they were producing their art. 6. Paragraph 1 suggests that one reason Egyptian art is viewed less favorably than other art is that Egyptian art lacks ○ a realistic sense of human body proportion ○ a focus on distinctive forms of varying sizes ○ the originality of European art ○ the capacity to show the human body in motion 答案：D ***************************************************************************************** Statues were normally made of stone, wood, or metal. Stone statues were worked from single rectangular blocks of material and retained the compactness of the original shape. The stone between the arms and the body and between the legs in standing figures or the legs and the seat in seated ones was not normally cut away. From a practical aspect this protected the figures against breakage and psychologically gives the images a sense of strength and power, usually enhanced by a supporting back pillar. By contrast, wooden statues were carved from several pieces of wood that were pegged together to form the finished work, and metal statues were either made by wrapping sheet metal around a wooden core or cast by the lost wax process. The arms could be held away from the body and carry separate items in their hands; there is no back pillar. The effect is altogether lighter and freer than that achieved in stone, but because both perform the same function, formal wooden and metal statues still display frontality. 7. According to paragraph 3, why were certain areas of a stone statue left uncarved? ○To prevent damage by providing physical stability ○To emphasize that the material was as important as the figure itself ○To emphasize that the figure was not meant to be a real human being ○To provide another artist with the chance to finish the carving 答案：D ***************************************************************************************** Groundwater is stored in the pore spaces and joints of rocks and unconsolidated (unsolidified) sediments or in the openings widened through fractures and weathering. The water-saturated rock or sediment is known as an "aquifer". Because they are porous, sedimentary rocks, such as sandstones and conglomerates, are important potential sources of groundwater. Large quantities of water may also be stored in limestones when joints and cracks have been enlarged to form cavities. Most limestone and sandstone aquifers are deep and extensive but may contain groundwaters that are not being recharged. Most shallow aquifers in sand and gravel deposits produce lower yields, but they can be rapidly recharged. Some deep aquifers are known as "fossil waters”. The term "fossil" describes water that has been present for several thousand years. These aquifers became saturated more than 10,000 years ago and are no longer being recharged. 8. According to paragraph 6, the aquifers called fossil waters ○ contain fossils that are thousands of years old ○ took more than 10,000 years to become saturated with water ○ have not gained or lost any water for thousands of years ○ have been collecting water for the past 10,000 years 答案：C *********************************************************************************
          • 题干存在【积极概念】，定位原文中的【积极概念】如：benefit/ importance/ advantage【2】橴ꃺߐĀቀࣶ
            • The rapid technical development of photography—the introduction of lighter and simpler equipment, and of new emulsions that coated photographic plates, film, and paper and enabled images to be made at much faster speeds—had some unanticipated consequences. Scientific experiments made by photographers such as Eadweard Muybridge (1830-1904) and Etienne-Jules Marey (1830-1904) demonstrated that the movements of both humans and animals differed widely from the way they had been traditionally represented in art. Artists, often reluctantly, were forced to accept the evidence provided by the camera. The new candid photography—unposed pictures that were made when the subjects were unaware that their pictures were being taken—confirmed these scientific results, and at the same time, thanks to the radical cropping (trimming) of images that the camera often imposed, suggested new compositional formats. The accidental effects obtained by candid photographers were soon being copied by artists such as the French painter Degas. 1. Which of the following is mentioned in paragraph 8 as a benefit that artists derived from photography? ○ It inspired artists to use technological themes in their painting. ○ It lent prestige to those artists who used photographs as models for paintings ○ It provided artists with new types of equipment to speed up the painting process. ○ It motivated artists to think about new ways to compose images in their paintings. 答案：D ************************************************************************************* The development of banking and other financial services contributed to the expansion of trade. By the middle of the sixteenth century, financiers and traders commonly accepted bills of exchange in place of gold or silver for other goods. Bills of exchange, which had their origins in medieval Italy, were promissory notes (written promises to pay a specified amount of money by a certain date) that could be sold to third parties. In this way, they provided credit. At mid-century, an Antwerp financier only slightly exaggerated when he claimed, “One can no more trade without bills of exchange than sail without water." Merchants no longer had to carry gold and silver over long, dangerous journeys. An Amsterdam merchant purchasing soap from a merchant in Marseille could go to an exchanger and pay the exchanger the equivalent sum in guilders, the Dutch currency. The exchanger would then send a bill of exchange to a colleague in Marseille, authorizing the colleague to pay the Marseille merchant in the merchant's own currency after the actual exchange of goods had taken place. 2. According to paragraph 6, merchants were able to avoid the risk of carrying large amounts of gold and silver by ○ using third parties in Marseille to buy goods for them ○ doing all their business by using Dutch currency ○ paying for their purchases through bills of exchange ○ waiting to pay for goods until the goods had been delivered 答案：C *************************************************************************************
          • 题干存在【批判关系】，定位原文中的【转折关系】如：challenge/criticize/question/call into question/doubt…【3】橴ꃺߐĀ氰⅐
            • There is evidence of agriculture in Africa prior to 3000 B.C. It may have developed independently, but many scholars believe that the spread of agriculture and iron throughout Africa linked it to the major centers of the Near East and Mediterranean world. The drying up of what is now the Sahara desert had pushed many peoples to the south into sub-Sahara Africa. These peoples settled at first in scattered hunting-and-gathering bands, although in some places near lakes and rivers, people who fished, with a more secure food supply, lived in larger population concentrations. 1. According to paragraph 1, why do researchers doubt that agriculture developed independently in Africa? ○ African lakes and rivers already provided enough food for people to survive without agriculture. ○ The earliest examples of cultivated plants discovered in Africa are native to Asia. ○ Africa’s native plants are very difficult to domesticate. ○ African communities were not large enough to support agriculture. 答案：B *************************************************************************************************** It has long been accepted that the Americas were colonized by a migration of peoples from Asia, slowly traveling across a land bridge called Beringia (now the Bering Strait between northeastern Asia and Alaska) during the last Ice Age. The first water craft theory about the migration was that around 11,000-12,000 years ago there was an ice-free corridor stretching from eastern Beringia to the areas of North America south of the great northern glaciers. It was the midcontinental corridor between two massive ice sheets-the Laurentide to the west-that enabled the southward migration. But belief in this ice-free corridor began to crumble when paleoecologist Glen MacDonald demonstrated that some of the most important radiocarbon dates used to support the existence of an ice-free corridor were incorrect. He persuasively argued that such an ice-free corridor did not exist until much later, when the continental ice began its final retreat. 2. According to paragraph 1, the theory that people first migrated to the Americans by way of an ice-free corridor was seriously called into question by ○ paleoecologist Glen MacDonald's argument that the original migration occurred much later than had previously been believed ○ the demonstration that certain previously accepted radiocarbon dates were incorrect ○ evidence that the continental ice began its final retreat much later than had previously been believed ○ research showing that the ice-free corridor was not as long lasting as had been widely assumed 答案：B ********************************************************************************* 3. 
          • 题干存在【比较关系】，定位原文中的【比较级/对比关系while/whereas...】如：compare/smaller... 【4】
            • ************************************************************************************** Hills and mountains are often regarded as the epitome of permanence, successfully resisting the destructive forces of nature, but in fact they tend to be relatively short-lived in geological terms. As a general rule, the higher a mountain is, the more recently it was formed; for example, the high mountains of the Himalayas are only about 50 million years old. Lower mountains tend to be older, and are often the eroded relics of much higher mountain chains. About 400 million years ago, when the present-day continents of North America and Europe were joined, the Caledonian mountain chain was the same size as the modern Himalayas. Today, however, the relics of the Caledonian orogeny (mountain-building period) exist as the comparatively low mountains of Greenland, the northern Appalachians in the United States, the Scottish Highlands, and the Norwegian coastal plateau. 6. Which of the following can be inferred from paragraph 2 about the mountains of the Himalayas? ○ Their current height is not an indication of their age. ○ At present, they are much higher than the mountains of the Caledonian range. ○ They were a uniform height about 400 million years ago. ○ They are not as high as the Caledonian mountains were 400 million years ago. 答案：B ************************************************************************************** In the wake of the Roman Empire's conquest of Britain in the first century A.D., a large number of troops stayed in the new province, and these troops had a considerable impact on Britain with their camps, fortifications, and participation in the local economy. Assessing the impact of the army on the civilian population starts from the realization that the soldiers were always unevenly distributed across the country. Areas rapidly incorporated into the empire were not long affected by the military. Where the army remained stationed, its presence was much more influential. The imposition of a military base involved the requisition of native lands for both the fort and the territory needed to feed and exercise the soldiers' animals. The imposition of military rule also robbed local leaders of opportunities to participate in local government, so social development was stunted and the seeds of disaffection sown. This then meant that the military had to remain to suppress rebellion and organize government. 2. According to paragraph 1, the Roman army had the most influence on those areas of Britain that were ○ conquered first ○ near population centers ○ used as military bases ○ rapidly incorporated into the empire 答案：C ************************************************************************************** Paragraph 4: Even development in architecture has been the result of major technological changes. Materials and methods of construction are integral parts of the design of architecture structures. In earlier times it was necessary to design structural systems suitable for the materials that were available, such as wood, stone, brick. Today technology has progressed to the point where it is possible to invent new building materials to suit the type of structure desired. Enormous changes in materials and techniques of construction within the last few generations have made it possible to enclose space with much greater ease and speed and with a minimum of material. Progress in this area can be measured by the difference in weight between buildings built now and those of comparable size built one hundred years ago. 6. The word “integral” is closet in meaning to ○ essential ○ variable ○ practical ○ independent 7. According to paragraph 4, which of the following is true about materials used in the construction of buildings? ○ Because new building materials are hard to find, construction techniques have changed very little from past generations. ○ The availability of suitable building materials no longer limits the types of structures that may be built. ○ The primary building materials that are available today are wood, stone, and brick. ○ Architects in earlier times did not have enough building materials to enclose large spaces. 8. In paragraph 4, what does the author imply about modern buildings? ○ They occupy much less space than buildings constructed one hundred years ago. ○ They are not very different from the building of a few generations ago. ○ They weigh less in relation to their size than buildings constructed one hundred years ago. ○ They take a long time to build as a result of their complex construction methods. Paragraph 5: Modern architectural forms generally have three separate components comparable to elements of the human body: a supporting skeleton or frame, an outer skin enclosing the interior spaces, and equipment, similar to the body’s vital organs and systems. The equipment includes plumbing, electrical wiring, hot water, and air-conditioning. Of course in early architecture—such as igloos and adobe structures—there was no such equipment, and the skeleton and skin were often one. 9. Which of the following correctly characterizes the relationship between the human body and architecture that is described in paragraph 5? ○Complex equipment inside buildings is the one element in modern architecture that resembles a component of the human body. ○The components in early buildings were similar to three particular elements of the human body. ○Modern buildings have components that are as likely to change as the human body is. ○In general, modern buildings more closely resemble the human body than earlier buildings do. **************************************************************************************   
          • 原文存在【以上关系】，正确选项存在【以上关系】，但请注意原文到选项的反义同义替换和概括具体的同义替换【5】
            • In the wake of the Roman Empire's conquest of Britain in the first century A.D., a large number of troops stayed in the new province, and these troops had a considerable impact on Britain with their camps, fortifications, and participation in the local economy. Assessing the impact of the army on the civilian population starts from the realization that the soldiers were always unevenly distributed across the country. Areas rapidly incorporated into the empire were not long affected by the military. Where the army remained stationed, its presence was much more influential. The imposition of a military base involved the requisition of native lands for both the fort and the territory needed to feed and exercise the soldiers' animals. The imposition of military rule also robbed local leaders of opportunities to participate in local government, so social development was stunted and the seeds of disaffection sown. This then meant that the military had to remain to suppress rebellion and organize government. 1. According to paragraph 1, what effect did military occupation have on the local population? ○ It encouraged more even distribution of the population and the settlement of previously undeveloped territory. ○ It created discontent and made continuing military occupation necessary. ○ It required local labor to construct forts and feed and exercise the soldiers’ animals. ○ It provided local leaders with opportunities to participate in governance. ******************************************************************** Trade and the Ancient Middle East Paragraph 1: Trade was the mainstay of the urban economy in the Middle East, as caravans negotiated( 越过/ 绕过) the surrounding desert, restricted only by access to water and by mountain ranges. This has been so since ancient times , partly due to the geology of the area, which is mostly limestone and sandstone, with few deposits of metallic ore and other useful materials Ancient demands for obsidian (a black volcanic rock useful for making mirrors and tools) led to trade with Armenia to the north, while jade for cutting tools was brought from Turkistan, and the precious stone lapis lazuli was imported from Afghanistan. One can trace such expeditions back to ancient Sumeria, the earliest known Middle Eastern civilization. Records show merchant caravans and trading posts set up by the Sumerians in the surrounding mountains and deserts of Persia and Arabia, where they traded grain for raw materials, such as timber and stones, as well as for metals and gems. 2. According to paragraph 1, why has trade been so important throughout the history of the Middle East? ○ The rare and valuable metals and stones found in Middle Eastern deserts have always been in high demand in surrounding areas. ○ Growing conditions throughout the Middle East are generally poor, forcing Middle Eastern people to depend on imported grain. ○ Many useful and decorative raw materials cannot be found naturally in the Middle East but are available from neighboring regions. ○ Frequent travel, due to limited water supplies in the Middle East, created many opportunities for trade with neighboring societies. 答案：C *************************************************************************************    
      • 【6】句子功能
        • 背景句
        • 定义句
          • be定义
            • what-why-HOW
          • v 定义
            • what-why-HOW
        • 中心句
          • 议论文
            • 理论假设
            • 证据总结
            • 观点批判
          • 说明文
            • 对象特点
            • 产生原因
            • 产生结果
          • 记叙文
            • 重要发展
            • 重要发现
            • 重要贡献
        • 解释句
          • 举例/实验
          • if/when
          • 时空递进
          • 细节展开
          • 注意：感情色彩/强调句/否定等逻辑句穴ꄱߐĀꥐ◪
        • 过渡句
          • 本身不会导致
          • 不是唯一原因
          • 需要其他解释
          • 没有具体内容
      • 【7】排除法則
        • 首先扫读动词
        • 错误选项特征
          • 多出极端
          • 多出否定
          • 多出比较
          • 概念扩大
          • 概念缩小
    • 【4】 结构笔记法(適合3+個月)
      • 【1】验证笔记法有效性的方法
        • 速讀笔记符号【1】
          • 因为∵
          • 所以∴
          • 句间并列 ||
          • 转折对比 ^
          • 定义：
          • 使得 →
          • 源于 ←
          • 信息关联 —
          • 省略并列信息 ….
          • 上升 ↑
          • 下降 ↓
          • 错误批判 X
          • 同意 √
          • 单词简化 mark.
          • 重要！
        • 题干 100% 对应在所记录的笔记上【2】
        • 细节题、目的题、推理题、 EXCEPT 题、六选三题、结构题： 100% 以上题目，不经定位，单通过笔记，即可解决【3】
        • 做题时间： Reading+Note-taking+ 做题+验证每个题目，控制在15分钟之内【4】
        • 笔记完成 + 题目完成 = 可以大致了解每段重要信息【4】
      • 【2】结构笔记法训练三个阶段
        • 1. 只多不少，时间把控
        • 2. 关注逻辑，简化内容
        • 3. 期待阅读，检讨笔记
• 16. 阅读常考题材
  • 托福阅读常考文章题材分类 90 篇文章 : TPO1-26 (3*25)+OG10+ETS 在线测试题 x3+ 在线测试题 x2 - 天文地理24篇 资源利用：【地下水、沙漠中的水源、玛雅的水源问题、奥加拉拉蓄水层的枯竭、风力发电、石油资源、地热能】 地质形成：【沙漠的形成、冰川的形成、绿色冰山】 天文地质：【阿伦德陨星、太阳系中的行星、火星上的流水、火星表面的地质特征】 演变历史：【发现冰河时代、寒武纪大爆发、地中海的地质历史】 自然现象：【地理和地貌、气候变化、化石如何保存下来、闪电、湖水的更替】 地质人物：【威廉 • 史密斯 - 地质学之父】 人文地理：【城市气候】 - 动植物22篇 起源终结:【鲸类起源、夏威夷植物的到来、植物起源进化史、恐龙灭绝、大规模物种灭绝、陨石撞击和恐龙灭绝】 共生共存:【生态系统的长期稳定、机会主义者和竞争者、演替顶级群落与生态系统、共生关系、山上树带界线的植被、矿物质和植物、沙漠坏境下的动植物生存】 动植物行为:【鸟类定位和导航、雏鸟的乞食行为、雨林中的动物信号、动物生物钟】 动植物现象：【温血海龟、米草属植物、游泳机器 ( 鱼类 ) 、普吉特海湾的鹿群、东非草食动物的饮食】 - 人类及艺术21篇 艺术产生及发展(艺术发展史):【早期影院、戏剧的起源、摄影术的诞生、电影声音的演变、实用艺术和创造艺术、 Loie Fuller 的舞蹈工艺艺术】 人类历史及社会关系:【太平洋群岛居民的起源、从西海岸殖民美洲、西南亚早期定居点、古代罗马和希腊、社会群组的类型、迁入普韦布洛 ( 印第安人的群居生活 ) 】 文化艺术:【中国陶瓷、古埃及雕塑、建筑、拉斯科岩洞画、欧洲岩洞艺术、澳洲土著的石画艺术】 人类行为:【打哈欠的奥秘、睡眠时的呼吸、他们到底用哪只手？ ( 岩洞作画人类行为学 ) 】 - 经济历史政治17篇 经济发展：【古代中东与贸易、欧亚地区早期的海洋贸易、古代内欧的畜牧主义、 17 世纪的欧洲经济增长、工匠和工业化、农业铁器和班图人、荷兰和斯堪的纳维亚半岛的工业化进程、农业的起源、驱动工业革命、能源与工业革命、罗马军队对不列颠的影响、美国西进运动、十七世纪的荷兰农业、威尼斯航海的衰落】 城市发展史：【特奥蒂瓦坎的崛起、苏美尔人和古近东地区的城市群】 政治：【十九世纪美国政治】 心理学6篇 【婴幼儿健忘症、研究婴儿感知能力的方法、儿童和广告、童年自传式记忆 ( 婴儿遗忘 ) 、侵略性行为、情感的表达】
  • 托福阅读常考文章题材分类OG+TPO1-30
    • 天文地理 24 篇【1】
      • 【地下水、沙漠中的水源、玛雅的水源问题、奥加拉拉蓄水层的枯竭、风力发电、石油资源、地热能】资源利用
        • 能源
          • 产生过程
          • 具体功能
          • 开发过程
          • 环境问题
      • 【沙漠的形成、冰川的形成、绿色冰山】地质形成
      • 【阿伦德陨星、太阳系中的行星、火星上的流水、火星表面的地质特征】天文地质
        • 火星话题
          • 火星上最大的一次降雨及其引起的径流要追溯到35亿年前——大洪荒径流源被认为是接近地表的冰融化而来的。火星的北半球似乎仍然存在着由尘土覆盖的冰川
          • 火星上的流水痕迹：run-off channel和outflow channel——风蚀erosion by wind造成的错觉
            •  
          • 陨石坑crater：火星和月亮陨石坑对比——月亮上又多又大，火星少且小——原因火星上的风吹平了一切伤痕
            • MARS —— wind as an efficient erosive agent  MOON
          • 永冻层：它们或者被固定在火星两极的冰帽中,或者散逸到太空中,余下的则可能以永冻层的形式储存在地下。
          • 火星上的火山和地球、月亮上的火山特征比较
        • 陨石话题
          • 物种灭绝：撞击地球
          • 陨石含有罕见元素: Ir铱等
          • 内含元素为研究太阳系、各星体成因提供参考
        • 太阳星系
          • 八大行星：水星Mercury、金星Venus、地球Earth、火星Mars、木星Jupiter、土星Saturn、天王星Uranus、海王星Neptune
            •  
          • 类地行星：水星，金星，地球和火星—— 体积小；密度的平均值大概是水的密度的五倍;大多固态
          • 类木行星：木星，土星，天王星，海王星——体积大；密度大概只有水的密度的1.5倍；大多液态
          • 逃逸速度：Velocity of Escape —— 决定类木和类地行星大气紧密与稀薄的原因
        • 彗星话题
          • 彗星(Comet)是太阳系中小天体之一,是冰冻物质和尘埃的凝结物。
            •   
          • 由彗核、彗发和彗云组成；彗星和其他行星一样绕太阳公转，但其路径更长更夸张。当它靠近太阳时即为可见。
          • 太阳的热使彗星物质蒸发，在冰核周围形成朦胧的彗发和一条稀薄物质流构成的彗尾。由于太阳风的压力，彗尾总是指向背离太阳的方向。
          • 彗核的平均密度为每立方厘米1克。彗发和彗尾的物质极为稀薄，其质量只占总质量的1%~5%，甚至更小。彗星物质主要由水、氨、甲烷、氰、氮、二氧化碳等组成，而彗核则由凝结成冰的水、二氧化碳(干冰)、氨和尘埃微粒混杂组成，是个“脏雪球”！
      • 【发现冰河时代、寒武纪大爆发、地中海的地质历史】演变历史
      • 【地理和地貌、气候变化、化石如何保存下来、闪电、湖水的更替】自然现象
      • 【威廉 • 史密斯 - 地质学之父】地质人物
      • 【城市气候】人文地理
    • 动植物 22 篇【2】
      • 【鲸类起源、夏威夷植物的到来、植物起源进化史、恐龙灭绝、大规模物种灭绝、陨石撞击和恐龙灭绝】起源终结橴ꃺߐĀ謐६
      • 【生态系统的长期稳定、机会主义者和竞争者、演替顶级群落与生态系统、共生关系、山上树带界线的植被、矿物质和植物、沙漠坏境下的动植物生存】共生共存
      • 【鸟类定位和导航、雏鸟的乞食行为、雨林中的动物信号、动物生物钟、动物的玩耍行为】动植物行为
      • 【温血海龟、米草属植物、游泳机器 (鱼类) 、普吉特海湾的鹿群、东非草食动物的饮食】动植物现象
    • 人类及艺术 21 篇【3】
      • 【早期影院、戏剧的起源、摄影术的诞生、电影声音的演变、实用艺术和创造艺术、 Loie Fuller 的舞蹈工艺艺术】艺术产生及发展 ( 艺术发展史 )
      • 【太平洋群岛居民的起源、从西海岸殖民美洲、西南亚早期定居点、古代罗马和希腊、社会群组的类型、迁入普韦布洛 ( 印第安人的群居生活 ) 】人类历史及社会关系
      • 【中国陶瓷、古埃及雕塑、建筑、拉斯科岩洞画、欧洲岩洞艺术、澳洲土著的石画艺术】文化艺术
      • 【打哈欠的奥秘、睡眠时的呼吸、他们到底用哪只手？ ( 岩洞作画人类行为学 ) 】人类行为
    • 经济历史政治 17 篇【4】
      • 【古代中东与贸易、欧亚地区早期的海洋贸易、古代内欧的游牧生活、 17 世纪的欧洲经济增长、工匠和工业化、农业铁器和班图人、荷兰和斯堪的纳维亚半岛的工业化进程、农业的起源、驱动工业革命、能源与工业革命、罗马军队对不列颠的影响、美国西进运动、十七世纪的荷兰农业、威尼斯航海的衰落、特奥蒂瓦坎的崛起、苏美尔人和古近东地区的城市群】 经济发展
        • 1. 自然资源
          • 古代：奢侈品资源obsidian
          • 近現代：礦產資源copper/iron/tin
          • 化石燃料：coal/fuel
          • 食物：古人
        • 2. 自然气候
          • 降雨充足：遷徙
          • 气候干旱：迁徙/irrigation
          • 火山喷发
        • 3. 地理位置
          • 沿海地区
          • 交通要塞
        • 4. 劳动人民
          • 解放劳动力
          • 提高识字率
          • 提高劳动率
        • 5. 交通发展
          • 蒸汽机车铁路
          • 大型船运
        • 6. 市场经济
          • 国内外市场
          • 自由市场
          • 竞争机制
        • 7. 政府政策
          • 政策宽松
          • 社会稳定
          • 海洋法规
          • 社会公平
          • 独立自由
        • 8. 科学技术
          • 蒸汽机
          • 导航设备: 星盘、地图
          • 灌溉技术
          • 施肥技术
          • 轮耕技术
          • 填海造田
        • 9. 宗教影响
          • 成为宗教中心
          • 贵族群体的兴起
      • OG：【十九世纪美国政治】政治
    • 心理学 6 篇【5】
      • 【婴幼儿健忘症、研究婴儿感知能力的方法、儿童和广告、童年自传式记忆 ( 婴儿遗忘 ) 、侵略性行为、情感的表达】
        • 做实验证明
        • 左右大脑的分析
        • 言语及动作对儿童影响
  • (3*25)+OG10+ETS 在线测试题 x3+在线测试题 x2
  • 阅读背景知识补充的辅助材料：百度and谷歌
• 17. 机经与加试题
  • 一、机经的简单介绍： 1. 托福机经是什么？ 整个托福考试是大题库在重覆着。而同学上考场后，回来在网上分享考试的内容，就是机经。而亚洲、欧洲和美国有各自的题库，因为现在的考【试出题速度】严重滞后于【考试速度】。亚洲通常是考旧的机经题 ( 也就是前一年左右欧美的考题 ) ，欧美通常是考新题 ( 刚刚研发出来的题目 ) 。例如： 2011 年 08 月时北美同学留下的机经，就会 2012 年时的亚洲重覆考到。 2. 什么时候看机经最好 ? - 考前 2-3 个月：应该就要把口说与写作机经都先练过一遍； - 考前 2 个月：把听力与阅读机经快速看过一遍，增加背景知识； - 考前 1 个月：上『新托福考前点题班』快速梳理托福常考题材、阅读听力题型。 3. 为何托福机经比较重要 ? 因为托福考试内容有一定的难度，尤其是专业背景知识。 - 以阅读与听力机经来说：同学能透过中文的机经先行了解其知识的话，考试时自然有机会能发挥的更好。 - 以口说与写作机经而言：各路神仙已经狠完整地将题库整理出来，尤其是写作与口说题，同学应该考前就先把把机经内的题目都先练习过至少一遍。这样考试时就不会担心无思路、词穷的问题。 二、托福机经预测应该怎么用？ 首先值得大家注意的是：机经预测不是万能，在托福备考过程中不能只单纯的依赖机经去应对考试，全面地复习还是很重要的。 1 、托福阅读和听力机经的使用方法 (1) 了解听力和阅读文章的话题。熟悉话题的好处使考场上能更集中文章的注意力。 (2) 熟悉文章 Outline （结构）。大体上的结构有助于文字信息识别和筛选 (3) 记忆重点细节。考生能回忆出的细节一定都是重要的细节，非常值得我们记住甚至背诵，细节为一些文章的知识点，带着细节的了解再去听、读文章的效果是事半功倍的。 (4) 牢记考点。按照每篇文章考生的回忆考点题目，背诵答案！ (5) 熟记词汇。词汇是文章最微小的元素，提前掌握词汇会让你在考场上如有神助，所向披靡的！ —— 词汇都遇到了自己熟悉的词汇，你会觉得无比擅长文章的！（具体见 Eric 整理的机经题库） 2 、写作机经使用建议 (1) 提前准备思路和模板。根据话题大致将要书写的内容或者例子准备好，到考场上迅速精准的释放； (2) 提前些好范文。就算不中标，也毕竟是真题，锻炼自己的写作能力。写作机经后面附有参考答案，大家可以参考作者的思路和写作语言； (3) 对于综合写作提前了解听的和阅读的文章的要点更能让你的综合写作在考场上信手拈来！ 3 、口语机经使用建议 重中之重是 —— 要限时练习并反复录音，直至背诵流利连贯。 为什么这是重中之重？很多考生只是把口语话题在表面上看一下，简单写一写，根本就不背诵下来，也不录音纠正自己。导致失败的例子层出不穷比比皆是：到了考场发现中标了，结果无法自由流利的作答口语，这是预测界最大的遗憾和悲哀。你不知道不可怕，可怕的是你上了考场发现你知道被自己 “ 不知道了 ” 。 三、高效利用TOEFL机经的秘诀： TOEFL 考试的机经泛指前人对于 TOEFL 考试后的考试总结，我们在网络上可以找到机经，但是，很少会找到具体的机经使用指南，在此，建议机经使用如下： 1 、根据机经，具体地找到某些名词的表达，特别是常用的单词，比如 “ 恐龙 ”“ 蚜虫 ” 或者马达加斯加的某种特殊的猴子 ( 狐猴 lemur) ，或者是类人猿等，那么，这样可以积累我们的相关的词汇表达，在考试中就不会因为不懂专业的词汇而丢分。 2 、据机经明白此类 lecture 的具体的分类及考点，一定要明白类似的考题是否出现过，如出现过，具体的考点是否有类似的题目类型，那么，通过自己的总结，就会明白具体的本类型题的具体考点，这样可以有备而来去准备 TOEFL 考试。 3 、当所有的机经基本可以按照以上两步做了之后，下一步的工作就是自己结合 TPO 去具体的分析 TOEFL 真题和机经的异同点，以修正自己对于 TOEFL 听力不成熟的想法。 四、托福听力加试题组合拳： (1) 鸟类迁徙 + 大王花 + 雷格泰姆音乐史 Ragtime Music (2) 男 / 女同学弄丟 ID 卡 + 神经胶质系统 + 浪漫主义诗歌 PS. 目前整个亚洲考试只考听力加试题，题目固定为以上两套。如果很不幸遇到了听力非经典加试（可以被认为是新题），孩子，还是实力重要啊！
• 18. 訓練步驟梳理
  • 新托福阅读高分备考规划 听说读写备考流程之词汇及阅读： 一、词汇准备篇 - 词汇备考资料： 【机经词表 1600 】 —— 新 / 老托历年同义词真题总结，总词汇量约为 2000 ，要求【考前七天之前】完全掌握！ 【词汇题 440 】 —— 老托福词汇题精选；机经词表 1600 的补充资料，以选择题形式出现，文档最后几页附答案，要求在【考前七天之前】完全掌握！ 【王玉梅词汇 5800 】 —— 动词优先记，其次形容词、连词，最后过名词。（注意：四六级词汇尚未搞定的孩子，请优先准备四六级所有词汇，因为一些基本的词汇还是强烈要求掌握的。）要求在【考前七天之前】完全搞定！ ps. 上述资料所在位置：【 RLSW_packs_ 机经备考包 _v3.0 】 \ 【 NO.01 】【 R 阅读单项】 \ 【 R-01 】【阅读备考核心资料 _ 作业】 \[R-01-02] [ 专题 _ 词汇题 ] 2. 如果背单词陷入了 “ 背了忘忘了背 ” 的恶性循环， Eric 推荐大家使用以下两种高科技产品： (1) 百词斩： www.baicizhan.com ，在线或 app 客户端背单词。 优势：图片形象记忆 缺点：缺少检测方式；缺少托福常考的同义词 (2) 新东方背单词，下载地址：http://simplecd.me/entry/vb6ddIFa/ （第 4 版），http://simplecd.me/entry/vh0TdQjE/（第 5 版） 优势：单词 + 发音 + 词根等帮记方法 + 各种检测模式（中英文互选择题、单词拼写、单词听写等等） 缺点：不玩儿炫的 - 具体背单词流程： 1 、词汇 1 ：四级词汇 -> 四级词组 -> 托福词汇 -> 托福听力习惯用语 -> 托福学科词汇【逐级背单词 + 主要单词检测手段：听写和看中文选英文；每天过 300 个单词】 2 、词汇 2 ：机经词汇 +440 词汇题【每天各背 40 组、做 40 题】 3 、 Delta+Barron+Longman ：每天三篇文章【训练抓段落信息链的能力、查单词】 4 、长难句 400 句每天 20 句分析语法结构【标出语法结构并翻译整句，用较少的汉语快速总结句意】 5 、每天阅读思维笔记第 14-17 部分 二、阅读准备篇 1. 阅读：单词是先行官自不必多说，四六级单词务必先搞定，然后刷托福单词，另外务必刷好上面提到的两份词汇机经词汇资料。 2. 读文章方面，只用 TPO ，具体用法如下： 第一遍：严格按照规定时间至少提前 5 分钟做题，完整做完一套中的三个阅读，状态不好烦了也要做。 第二遍：对答案，即使做对的题目也要再看一下，自己选它的原因在哪，与答案所给的解题点和原文对应点是否一致，干扰选项错在哪，干扰点在哪（正确选项出题思路，和错误选项出题思路）。做错了的题目自然更不在话下。 第三遍：研读原文，单词遇到不认识或者拿不准的一定要重视，看是否影响了对文章的理解，如果是，务必背下来，再次出现的时候就不是问题了。句子不仅要理解意思，也要理解句子与句子之间的逻辑联系，好多题都会考这些，而且托福考试的文章结构和说理方式很像，完全可以举一反三。段落亦是如此。总之， TPO 绝对的阅读复习神器，反正我自己考试的时候，一直觉得三篇文章都看过的感觉，看到出的题目甚至不禁会心一笑。 3. 具体考前规划： 3.1 考前 20-30 天托福阅读复习规划 预备段：各项句法结构 + 动词核心原则（与动词相关要素） => 托福常考逻辑梳理（因果、转折、比较、并列、递进及否定） => 明了整篇文章的处理方式 ( 标题 + 数段 + 首段及各段处理方式 ) => 各种题型的出题原则和解题原则 => 错误选项的出题原则 + 正确选项的出题原则 => 同义替换原则。 第一步：先把第 1 、 2 套 TPO 的阅读，每套题按规定时间 60 分钟做完。看看自己的真实水平，找到考试的感觉。 第二步：把这里面所有不认识的核心单词查出来，背熟！这是你真正接近新托福考试的关键。 第三步：按照课堂上讲过的各题型的解题思路逐一训练各专题，增加对每一种题型的辨识度以及快速解题熟练度。 根据所做文章体裁到【学科词汇】（位置：【 RLSW_packs_ 机经备考包 _V.2.0 】 \ 【 NO.01 】【 R 阅读单项】 \ 【 R-03 】【新托福必备专业分类词汇】） 阅读该类别下所有单词。记住！【学科词汇】是一本工具书，是用来查询的，不是拿来一页一页背的。强烈建议的方式是这样的：比如你做了一篇 Groundwater ，分析好所有题目后，查完文中所有单词含义，最后到词以类记中去阅读有关地质的所有词汇。人就是这样一种动物，对伤害自己的事物是难以忘怀的，这些生词你会在第一次邂逅就牢牢记住，后面你还会做一篇叫做 the depletion of OG aquifer ，会发现有些词其实已经查过了，这时应该能记住了。小童鞋们， TPO 现在已经出了第 26 套了，考前一定要做完，查完所有单词，你会发现，这 75 篇文章中，不断有题材类似的文章，词汇也在不停重现，想记不住都难啊！ 第四步：把重点的长难句搞懂，并整篇文章全都翻译一遍（对照参考翻译），然后对比一下我后面给出的译文，看看自己到底哪里理解错误。这个看自己对文章的理解到底达到什么程度而定，这里面特别提示海外留学生与国际学校里面的学生，这一步特别重要！因为这些学生往往就是不注重细节的理解，但是新托福考试一个很重要的考察点，就是细节的考察。把每道题的出题点和解题点一一找到，然后分析出题者的出题思路。将每一道题，而不仅仅是做错的题目，分析到底原文是怎么说，以及原文到底哪一句话得出了这道题的正确答案，如果是这道题你做错了你还要弄清一开始你为什么把这道题做错了，当时你是怎么理解的。这在我们课堂上经常提出的概念，如果还有疑问联系 Eric ，你懂的 : P 这里的第一步其实没有给你带来任何的提高，但是很多人仅仅做了第一步。这里面给人的英语水平带来提高的，或者说能提升你考试分数的其实是在【第 2 、 3 、 4 步】。 接下来就要多自己的水平做一个评估了，如果你感觉正确率在 80% 以上，同时翻译的正确率 90% 以上。那么你就应该坚持把 TPO 当做你准备托福考试的唯一材料。但是如果你没有在这个水平线之上，那么你就应该先做老托福阅读，拿老托福阅读重复前面的 1-4 步来提高自己的能力，尤其是第 3 步和第 4 步对你的理解水平提升是最为明显的！一定要坚持下来。 但是如果你能在 TPO1 、 2 套能大到 85% 以上正确率。那么请你再移步 TPO8 、 11 两套，再次验证自己的能力，因为 Tpo1 、 2 套还是低于真正考试的难度， TPO8 、 11 两套，才基本上是与现行的新托福考试难度平行的。 Now let`s get started! 开动咯！ 3.2 考前 7 天托福阅读突破训练 第一天： 如果上过培训班，就把 ERIC 上课讲过的题型（对照思维导图笔记）解题思路和方法技巧复习一遍，复习的方法是逐一询问。就是说：托福阅读的主要题型逐一询问自己是否清楚题型的解题思路。 1. 单词题和指代题： 看单词，读语境，找线索。最重要的是依赖单词量，所以考前 7 天强烈建议把托福单词题机经单词（ 1667 组词汇 +440 词汇题）过一遍。 2. 句子插入题：找代词指代线索，找逻辑关联点。 3. 句子简化题：读懂句子的核心意思 + 核心逻辑，再注意使用排除法来解题。 4. 细节类题目：认真读题干，回原文定位，仔细阅读考点，排除干扰选项。 5. 修辞目的题：定位原文，从前后文寻找作者意在证明的观点句。 6. 推理题：定位原文，分析原文考点，作出合理推断，排除再现原文的干扰项，选择和原文有交集但同时保留了推理空间的选项。 7. 六选三主旨题：一定把【文章标题】放在心里做标尺，一切选项围绕【文章主旨中心句 + 所记笔记】展开选择。 第二天： 拿出一套 TPO 的题目（最好是没有做过的），抽出完整时间（推荐上午 9:00-10:00 ）来做 3 篇文章，要求无间断，按照考试要求限制时间作答（ 1 小时）。完成后核对答案。总结错误题目和自己的弱点： (1) 单词量； (2) 读题不仔细； (3) 题型不熟悉； (4) 选项迷惑性大。 前三个问题都是自己的问题，最后一个问题可以寻求老师的帮助和解答。 第三天： 针对自己的弱项进行有针对性的训练。 如果是单词弱，请按照社科文，自然科学，天文学，农业，工业革命，考古等常考题材各抽一篇【 TPO 文章】进行精读。 精读的要求：生单词务必背过，长难句务必搞懂，句子和句子之间的关系（因果，转折，比较，递进，并列，否定）一定明了。 各题型专题扫描缺陷。 第四天： 如果第三天的任务没有完成，请继续。但是，第四天，对于阅读科目的建议就是继续抽一套完整的 TPO （最好是做过的，而且是错误率较高的，或者干脆是原来自己或者老师给总结的错题本和难题本上的题目，或者阅读专题作业中的内容）来做。 要求：完整时间段。可以不限制时间，因为有些学生做完题目记得答案，所以就没必要一定限制时间完成。完成这套题目之后看看原来容易做错的题目是不是都能够做懂（注意，我用做懂一词的意识是完全理解正确答案的正确和错误答案的错误）。如果还是错误率很高，或者有些错误题目百思不得其解，这时候请再次寻求 Eric 的帮助。这一天重点用来扭转思维定式，强化对于托福阅读难题模型和迷惑选项规律的认识。 第五天： 如果第四天的任务没有完成，继续。第五天有 2 个建议： 1. 建议把原来的生词本和长难句本上总结的重点单词再过一遍，长难句不懂的地方在对照托福阅读的翻译文本理解清晰透彻。 2. 把 TPO 模考软件中认为自己觉得很难的文章（题材，题目）重新做一遍。 第六天： 这个时候可以把 TPO 中认为比较简单，或者难度适中，或者无所谓难度的题目拿出来一套完整的，再次抽出完整时间段（建议上午 9:00-10:00 ）来完成限时模考，最好是机考软件（强烈推荐）测试类型，目的是为了快速适应考试的机考形式。如果，按照正常发挥，模考的比较理想，对自己是个很大的信心鼓励。这个自信心有的时候比什么都重要。 第七天： 明天就要考试了，建议考过 1 次和没有考过托福的同学也熟悉一下（看看思维笔记课件，心里默念）托福阅读的机考流程，功能键的操作方法。 这个时候，能得一分是一分，所以， 10 种题目类型中，最简单的莫属词汇题了，今天可以再把【托福单词题机经汇总】再过一遍，期待祈祷能够在真实考试中遇到。 今天也可以去网站上看看机经的预测神马的，不过，实际上，托福阅读的机经就是大多数考生的读后感，对真实考试的指导性作用不大，不可以太过于执着于托福阅读机经的预测。如果在阅读 / 做题时仍然存在问题，请联络【 QQ : 372499715 】或在新浪微博发问：【 SAT_TOEFL 苏剑南】 4. 考前训练 / 模考顺序问题： TPO01-12 考前 20-30 天专项训练（见：【 Eric 阅读课】【阅读备考核心资料】） TPO13-16 第一次考试：考前 10 天、 4 套题模考（安排 60 分钟，无干扰情况下考前每隔一天一套） TPO17-20 第二次考试：考前 10 天、 4 套题模考（安排 60 分钟，无干扰情况下考前每隔一天一套） TPO21-26 第三次考试：考前 10 天、 4 套题模考（安排 60 分钟，无干扰情况下考前每隔一天一套）
  • 【1】 完成任意專題段落，或TPO文章後，標出題幹在原文中的位置
  • 【2】 完成任意專題段落，或TPO文章後，標出答案在原文中的位置
  • 【3】 详细分析出題點和解題點之間，存在的位置關係，及邏輯關係
  • 【4】 详细分析句内出现答案、句间出现答案的情况，具体参考12 -2
  • 【5】 标出六选三答案在原文中的位置，并分析这些位置句子的特点
  • 【6】 分析六选三正确和错误选项之间，是否存在相反或相同的内容
  • 【7】 分析六选三的正确选项、错误选项及引导句之间存在何种关系
  • 【8】 分析所有题型的同义替换原则——具体参考思维笔记第13部分
  • 【9】 训练快速跳读文章、找出段落中心、快速分析句子功能的能力
    • 详读段落中心
      • 议论文：理论假设/证据总结/观点批判
      • 说明文：因果/结果性概念
      • 記敘文：奠定基础/做出贡献/影响深远/创新创造/探索发现
    • 重要内容提醒
      • 是否為中心、有題、邏輯？
    • 次要内容提醒
      • 是否為过渡、抽象、无题？
  • 【10】不要用單一詞匯排除或選出選項！動詞為中心的原理多做分析
  • 【11】按照TPO结构分类做题(议论/说明/记叙)，严禁根据题材做题!
• 19. 懂得如何发问
  •    菅旎同学的提问： 发现题目下面有解析那我汇报一下我的情况吧老师您看看给个建议啥的 模考里面第一篇说河 唉， 2 题词汇题错了 gain 我选成了 savings 当时在 increase 和 savings 中纠结 - A gain in the wit. 吃一堑长一智；获得increase 8 选了 B 因为看到了 shallow-less - 并不是看到less的原因所以选错；B选项之所以为错，是因为说反了，应该是Erie的水浅，它说的是Ontario水浅。 - 文中首先说，虽然Erie湖水area larger, 但Erie的总水量低，低的原因是因为湖水浅，所以Eire湖水residence time 低的原因应该为其总水量低。C选项说Ontario的湖水比Erie的总量大，反过来就是Erie的总量低。 - 细节题采用二维定位可加快定位速度（寻找一动词+具体名词，或两具体名词）；用Lake Erie + Lake Ontario 定位 - 定位找到出题点，然后分析解题点和出题点之间的关系：因果关系 第二篇说睡觉的 4 细节题选了 A 因为它说 metabolic …has elusive control over breathing 看 A 里有 increase 就选了 - 这个first 和second 是有时间顺承关系的；看到second, once sleep is fully obtained, 证明前面的first是没有fully obtained，first中说到when falling asleep as the sleeper, 说明是刚睡着。第一个选项The automatic, metabolic system may是during NREM sleep的，所以果断排除。 还有哇题干说 before NREM 段中没有定位只有 during… 定位花时间了 - 该题目稍微有点trick, 但一定要看到下文的two things, 前面的Also, during sleep the automatic metabolic system也是说的NREM过程中。 8 细节题告诉了我要背熟单词 13 表格题错了 sleep 中的一个我选得是 upper airways 没选 rib cage 话说已经花了 20 多分钟了虽然知道要回去看原文但就凭印象选了唉老师做这种题的时候是不是先凭印象选一个在跟原文对照？它会不会总结一个特别难定位的点啊？ - 在睡与醒之间，通常情况下会交织论述；根据表格中的sleep和wake；结合六个选项，在文章中寻找位置，然后逐一排除定位。后面我会抽出时间来讲解一下分类题的做法。 第三篇 community 这篇时间紧张的说 9 这题您给讲一下吧 - 第一定位：Little Ice Age + farmers As the Little Ice Age progressed, farmers probably moved their fields to lower elevations, infringing on the lands of other farmers and pushing people together, thus contributing to the aggregations. Archaeologists identify a corresponding shift in populations toward the south and west toward Mesa Verde and away from higher elevations. 说little ice age到来，农民就搬到了low elevation地区，而四个选项中都没有提到low evaluation, 则说明还得接着往后看，直到看到Archeologists说population toward the south and west toward Mesa…则看到D选项提到了Mesa。 - 提示：若找定位点最近位置还是无法找到选项，则建议向后看一句，因为句子存在顺承和转折关系的缘故，下一句必将递进、并列或反驳上句，这也就是解题点了。 13 插入题选了 C 这题您也给讲一下吧 - 句子插入题。。。。 先读插入句，看到performing每日家务需要力大。逐一读文中句子（读句子后半句），找哪里出现了家务。--- 这一点你做的比较好，可以直接定位在B和C之间。但看这一句For people in cliff dwellings, hauling water, wood, and food to their homes was a major chore. 最前面是For这个单词，表示引导原因说明前句，而前句And besides the awkwardness of having to share walls with neighbors, living in aggregated pueblos introduced other problems. 并没有说到家务问题；这两句不能承接，所以要插入这一位置。 14 总结题对了两个 …. 错选了 because … 没选 even… - 最后一题还是要分析正确选项的特征，还有错误选项的特征。 菅妮21:22:52 老师ancient Egyptian sculptur那篇文章里第三题为什么选C ？像对应这么一大短的题except 题该怎么做啊？ 老师我还有一个问题orientation and navigation 那篇第8题D选项有什么问题？ 谢谢您啦:-) ---------------------REPLY--------------------- Paragraph 1: In order to understand ancient Egyptian art, it is vital to know as much as possible of the elite Egyptians' view of the world and the functions and contexts of the art produced for them. Without this knowledge we can appreciate only the formal content of Egyptian art, and we will fail to understand why it was produced or the concepts that shaped it and caused it to adopt its distinctive forms. In fact, a lack of understanding concerning the purposes of Egyptian art has often led it to be compared unfavorably with the art of other cultures: Why did the Egyptians not develop sculpture in which the body turned and twisted through space like classical Greek statuary? Why do the artists seem to get left and right confused? And why did they not discover the geometric perspective as European artists did in the Renaissance? The answer to such questions has nothing to do with a lack of skill or imagination on the part of Egyptian artists and everything to do with the purposes for which they were producing their art. 3. In paragraph 1, the author mentions all of the following as necessary in appreciating Egyptian art EXCEPT an understanding of ○ the reasons why the art was made ○ the nature of aristocratic Egyptian beliefs ○ the influences of Egyptian art on later art such as classical Greek art ○ how the art was used 通过题干中的Egyptian art understanding 定位第一句； 向后读句子，然后开始逐一排除：elite Egyptians' view of the world“埃及精英眼中的世界=Egyptian beliefs B” and the functions 功能= how the art was used D and contexts of art “produced” for them = the reasons why the art was “made” A 所以直接排除C选项 注意and连接起到的作用：A, B, C, and D...列举；同时细节题、EXCEPT题、修辞目的题答案均存在同义改写（其实和词汇题特别像，如the functions = how the art was used） EXCEPT题目简单之处在于定位准确后，答案一一列举开来。 如：and连接前后均为列举项，段落一句一句往下写，也是在进行列举。 这类题等我们上课了会进一步详细分析一下的: ) -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Paragraph 5: In experimenting with artificial suns, Kramer made another interesting discovery. If the artificial Sun remained stationary, the birds would shift their direction with respect to it at a rate of about 15 degrees per hour, the Sun's rate of movement across the sky. Apparently, the birds were assuming that the "Sun" they saw was moving at that rate. When the real Sun was visible, however, the birds maintained a constant direction as it moved across the sky. In other words, they were able to compensate for the Sun's movement. This meant that some sort of biological clock was operating-and a very precise clock at that. 8. According to paragraph 5, how did the birds fly when the real Sun was visible? ○ They kept the direction of their flight constant. ○ They changed the direction of their flight at a rate of 15 degrees per hour. ○ They kept flying toward the Sun. ○ They flew in the same direction as the birds that were seeing the artificial Sun. 根据题干birds fly 和real sun定位到第四句，看后面，the birds maintained a constant direction... = They kept the direction of their flight constant. 细节题解题之道在于，通过二维定位（我们课堂上会讲一下这种定位手法）做到精确定位；而后找出解题点（可能在前面的课上我没怎么提出来，下节课会详细论述一下）；其实到时候我们寻找正确选项是通过这样的方式：通过文中的核心内容，一一筛选选项，而不是精读每个选项含义。------ 到我们下节课我会整体讲一下六选三、细节题、推理题、修辞目的题，最近研究了好多TPO，有了新的发现。那么，我们课堂上见啦！ 思凝同学的错题总结及提问 —— 苏剑南错题 TPO 23 urban climate 5 应选 D选了 A 谁知当时咋想的问题明明是 “ 为啥材料在乡下烧比在城里烧热能低？ ”明明能看懂题脑子中却反映出 “ 为啥农村没城里热？ ” 一看 A 觉得挺对的就选了对完答案后发现 A 有一个明显错误 “only” 太绝对了 9 应选 D 而我选了 B看见 lost population 和 slow traffic 两个带有否定信息的单词将 AD 排除当时大脑反应错误将热岛效应下意识反应环境污染就以为 traffic slow 会减少污染现在仔细想想在街上 repair work 会阻碍交通车开得慢自然排放的热量多自然会加剧热岛效应而且 slow 也不是否定词（ slow 在某种情况下算否定词不） 11 词汇题应选 A 我选了 D weakness记错了词义印象中 modified 是个有消极倾向的词所以选 D查词典词义为改良的，在忘记正确答案是什么了情况下再一次选错选了 C increased以为重点在 “ 良 ” 上谁知重点在 “ 改 ” 上应选 A changed 13 粗心应放在第三个空上却放在第四个上明明第三个空的前一句话有和句子中一样单词 stretch 却没看见 TPO 23 Seventeenth-Century Dutch Agriculture 1 应选 A 我选了 D 句子的逻辑关系没分析好，导致自己理解的与原文翻译南辕北辙并且没注意到表示过去时的 would have been 自己做题时还傻傻的以为是同一时态呢（不过原文只说波兰农业技术很牛 B ，但没说比欧洲其他国家牛 B 呀原文中表示的太隐晦了没有 most 等绝对化的词） 我去，第一段主旨翻译错误导致后面一连串错题太失误了 唉 ~~~ 发现自己做题时理解原文总是出错明明自己都认识就是只停留在眼睛里不往脑子里去大脑中反映出来的就不是那个意思语义还丢三落四的，一般在对答案后发现自错了，做第二遍时理解的就很对了（我作题的顺序是先做一遍再对答案把错题题号记下来不记正确答案再回去做第二遍。。。。相当于排除一个错误答案，然后再看正确答案是啥，自己第二遍做对没） 10 传奇的 legendary 和著名的 famous 属于同义词？？？！！！ 12 应该选 B 我选 D 了这是结构题吧？这题有啥标志性的判断词吗？如果没有纯凭英翻中理解句意。。。。。。。。。。。。。好吧我承认。。。。。。。我没仔细看 , 扫了一眼原文就随便选了个 D 很是不慎重 tpo17 Europe's Early Sea Trade with Asia 4 、应该选 A我选了 B 这题嗯。。。那个。。。。讲讲吧 7 、应该选 A我选 B 了回头拿着正确答案看错在哪时仍旧没发现错误最后。。。。。。终于找到了！！！！！！！！！你妹呀那么大的 EXCEPT 你没看见么这题是选非题呀 ~~~~~~~ 8 、应该选 D我选 B 了这题错的太弱智了看见原文中有 the hull to be wider and deeper. 就选 B 了没看见一个是 made it possible 一个是 had 吗！！！ Tpo17 Animal Signals in the Rain Forest 7 应该选 D 我选了 B TPO 13 Biological Clocks 2 、我选了 D 居然选对了太牛逼了 ~~~~~~ 3 、 D 我又对了 5 、 B 又对了 6 、不会 ~~~~~~~ 定位没定到呀 ~~~~~~ 在哪里呀 ~~~~~ 在哪里见过你 ~~ 好像花儿开在春风里，我一时想不起 ~~~ 啊 ~~~ 在梦里 ~~~~ 7 、我选 A 8 、不会 10 、应该选 A我选了 B 11 、 A哦耶 ~~~~ 选对啦 ~~~~