导图社区 Northern Ireland
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Northern Ireland
英语国家社会与文化入门，Unit2学习笔记，适用于预习、复习的参照。适用于考前复习，也可以综合其他资料使用。
编辑于2022-12-04 11:50:21 安徽- 北爱尔兰
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Northern Ireland
Troubles(domestically)
Understandably resentment grew, and armed conflict between the two communities, known as the "Troubles".
About a third of the population Republican or Nationalist（in favour of union with the Republic of Ireland，Roman Catholic in religion）resented the North's separation.
The Protestants(Loyalist and Unionist), being the majority, controlled the local democratically民主的-elected parliament, and used that power to support their own economic and social dominance in the province.
Catholics found it harder to get jobs, or to benefit from social programmes such as public housing，Communal公共的 tension and segregation种族隔离 were obvious.
Unionists and nationalists tended to live and work in dtiferent areas, attend diferent schools, socialise with people from their own community and read different newspapers.
Catholics were regularly harassed疲惫不堪的 by a Protestant police-force and any indication of nationalist sentiment was ruthlessly repressed.
the Civil Rights Movement in the United States triggers触发 a popular revolt by Catholics（in 1970s, TV helps them to know how the blacks fight for their equal rights）→originally pacifist和平主义的 campaign（conducted by means of marches游行，speeches，and sit-ins静坐抗议）
rioting暴乱 Protestant mobs暴徒attacked Catholic areas. The Royal Ulster Constabulary警察，RUC were overwhelmed，and the Northern Irish Prime Minister asked London to send soldiers to help restore order.
In 1969, the first British soldiers were there and where not withdraw until 2007（38years)
They came first to protect the Catholic people→long after，they were seen as the symbol of British rule in Northern Ireland.
In 1970, the IRA split.
the Official IRA thought they could concentrate on a political progress，and run candidates for elections
the Provisional IRA armed struggle was the only way to get the British out.
Northern Ireland cities bacome ghettoised成集聚区的 into exclusively唯一地 Protestant or Catholic areas.——1971，北爱government took the desperate step of imprisoning terrorist suspects from both sides without trial（policy“interment”）mainly Catholic men in the North——ended in 1975（seen as mistake）
In early 1970s the IRA carried out a campaign of bombing and shooting （targeting the security forces，often bombing city-centres）
British security forces were strengthened（20,000 soldiers and 10,000 armed police in the province）patrol in bullet-proof armoured武装的 car and to fortify筑防于 police-stations and barracks
the Protestant formed their own illegal“paramilitary半军事化的”groups——take revenge on Catholics（murder individuals at random）
1972，468 people were killed（the worst year of the troubles）
includes 13 Catholics（took part in a peaceful civil rights march游行示威）——key event strengthened Catholic opposition to the British presence. The day has been termed as“Bloody Sunday”
The Conservative government under Prime Minister Edward Heath decided a“direct-rule”from London（ended in 1998）
the IRA's bombing campaign extended to the mainland of Great Britain
1984，Prime Minister Mrs Thatcher and most of her cabinet内阁 escaped from IRA's bomb in the Conservative Party Conference in Brighton（5dead and 2 seriously injured，senior ministers）
After 1994 IRA ceasefire停火，the most serious attack was the Real IRA's Omagh bombing（killed 29 civilians）in 1998
Solution
power-sharing devolution分权（power would be shared by both unionist and nationalist communities）
The 1973 Sunningdale Agreement proposed the setting up of a new form of parliament——an assembly议会 elected by proportional representation, and a powe-sharing executive to allow the minority Catholic population political influence. Also, a Council of Ireland for cross-border cooperation.
The Protestant loyalist majority was outraged愤怒
In 1980s，convicted IRA prisoners started a hunger strike绝食斗争，fight against the removal of “political prisoner”status.
One of them，Bobby Sands ran for parliament and elected before he died.
Margaret Thatcher's government did not give in to the demand for political status（11 prisoners were starved）——revitalised the political campaign of Sinn Fein——They spoke of a twin campaign for union with Ireland（policy“The Bullet and the Ballot Box”）
The Irish government did not support IRA（in the civil war following independence in 1921，Irish government's force executed 3times as many IRA men as British ever had）
The Irish do seek to protect the rights of Catholics in 北爱尔兰
1985，the Anglo-Irish Agreement，given the Irish a right to consultation协商 on Northern Irish matters through an intergovernmental body——the Republic of Ireland had a legitimate interest in the concerns of the Catholics minority in北爱尔兰. Also, the agreement aimed to defeat terrorism through cross-border cooperation.
It guaranteed the loyalist Protestant community their right to decided their future（but they rejected it）——“Ulster Says No”campaign，but the government did not give in（In late 1980s and early 1990s，big bombs in London increase the pressure on the British government to resolve it）
In 1993，John Major and the Irish Prime Minister jointly to produce the Dowing Street Declaration（only Irish people together can decide its future——all parties witch established “a commitment to exclusively peaceful methods“were invited to talk about the future.
In August 1994，the IRA declared a ceasefire（through the action of a constitutional Nationalist politician宪政民族主义政治家，John Hume，leader of SDLP，and leader of Sinn Fein，Gerry Adams）
In February 1995，British and Irish governments published the Joint Framework Documents(reaffirming the need for self-determination in the North)——foreshadow most of the details of the Good Friday Agreement of 1998.
The Good Friday Agreement（the Belfast Agreement）
April 10th 1998，it was signed by the British government，the Irish government and eight parties of Northern Ireland.
David Trimble，leader of Northern Ireland's main Protestant part the Ulster Unionists， and John Hume，leader of the moderate Catholic party Nationalist Social Democratic and Labour Party——awarded the Nobel Prize of Peace in 1998“find a peaceful solution to the conflict in Northern Ireland”.
内容
It assured the loyalist community that Northern Ireland“remains part of the Unite Kingdom and shall not cease to be so without the consent of the people”——Britain would repeal its 1920 Ireland Act and acknowledge the possibility of the unification of Southern and Northern Ireland on the precondition that it should be approved by most people in Northern Ireland.
The Irish government revises articles of its Constitution that claimed jurisdiction司法权 over the North and expressed the hope that Ireland would once more be united as an Ireland.
a basic framework for the solution of Northern Ireland.
Established a devolved Northern Ireland Assembly of 108 members with legislative functions（elected by proportional representation ，Executive consisting of 10 ministers headed jointly by a First Minister and Deputy First Minster）
North-South Ministerial Council with certain executive powers for the Northern Ireland administration and the Irish government to cooperate on cross-border issues
an inter-governmental“British-Irish Council”to ensure internal cooperation within the British Isles as a whole.
跌宕起伏的过程：The IRA did not fully decommission its arms until September 2005→The British government suspended the Northern Ireland Assembly and Executive and reimposed重新实施 direct rule on four occasions as disputes争论 over decommission continued（longest，October 2002 to May 2007）→The 2006 St Andrews Agreement restored the Northern Ireland Assembly→May 2007，a new Northern Ireland Executive，Sinn Fein support the Police Service，courts，and rule of law→long term peace and stable power-sharing
结果：Thus Northern Ireland today must be the only area in the world which is recognised as an independent entity but which is governed by three separate jurisdictions: that of the Republic of Ireland, that of Great Britain, and that of its own elected executive government of ten ministers.
Future Prospects
Yet the North still has far to go，the economy remains stagnant and unemployment high. As demographic人口的 trend that the Catholic population is growing faster than the Protestant，it seems likely to result in a Nationalist Northern Ireland.
Political problems(between Ireland and Britain)
来源：Resulted from conflict between Protestants新教徒 and Catholics天主教徒（historical problem left over by British colonial殖民地的 rule in the past）.
1169，British began to invade Ireland——the conquest was completed in 1603
1801，Ireland was unified with Great British under the 1801 Act of Union（The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland）.
To strength British control of it，British government encouraged people from Scotland and Northern England to emigrate to Ireland（a"plantation policy"殖民政策）Many settled in the north.
冲突开始From the time of Queen Elizabeth I (the late 1590s) the new settlers（loyal to the British crown and Protestants in religious persuasion信仰）were granted land, position, and privileges which had been systematically taken away from the indigenous本土的, Roman Catholic population.
19th century（1845-1852 The Great Famine饥荒）
Leads to massacre， exile，systematic repression，and deprivation屠杀、流放、系统性镇压和剥夺
Many people died and a great number of others crossed the Atlantic to America.
1840-1900，population in most parts of Europe increased dramatically.
the population of England 16million→32million
the population of Ireland 8.5million→4.5million
Irish people hate England since then（systematic and ingrained 根深蒂固的resentment愤恨）
After 1801，Irish always want an independent Irish state.（反抗）
In late 19th century，"home-Rule"——a campaign in parliament，Irish political control Irish affairs.
The Home Rule Bill，passed in 1914. But it was suspended for the duration of World War I
Groups followed a more direct method of pursuing Irish independence——engaging in guerrilla游击队activities against British institutions and the British military forces——brutally suppressed by British forces.
The Easter Rising of 1916，the rebels反叛者 took over Dublin's Post Office（The British retake it by military means）——the leaders of the rebellion were executed.
In 1915, Sinn Fein（"ourselves"）was founded by Arthur Griffith
In 1919, Irish Republican Army(IRA)—a nationalist guerrilla游击的 force，Sinn Fein supported，expanded the fighting+ Sinn Fein gained most of the Irish seats in the British parliament in 1918→Irish independence became inevitable
Irish people have a ethnically distinct from the majority of British people
The majority of Irish people were descendants后裔 of the original Celtic people who inhabited占据 the British Isles before the Romans arrived 2000 years ago.
Ireland was not invaded by the Romans，nor settled by the Anglo-Saxons. religious difference：most Irish people are Catholics，while most British people had become Protestants.
特例Northeastern Ireland，large number of British settlers there，many people were Protestants，thought of themselves as British，and wished the area to remain a part of the British state.
解决方案In 1921,the Anglo-Irish Treaty，bringing an end to 700 years of British rule in southern Ireland. The southern 26 counties would form an independent Irish Free State，the 6 northeastern counties would remain a part of the UK.
The Irish Free State was a dominion英联邦自治领 within the British Empire，but left the Commonwealth at the end of 1948→the Republic of Ireland in 1949.
Between 1921 and 1972，Northern Ireland was given its own devolved Parliament to deal with Northern Irish internal affairs，based at Stormont just outside Belfast.
General introdiction
It was called "Ulster"，and it's the smallest of the four nation of the UK(both in area and population).
Geographic feature
It has six counties and its capital is Belfast.
Mostly rural, with low hills and a beautiful lake district in the southwest.
Rugged costline——Most famous landmark--the Giant's Causeway(a rocky promontory-black hexagonal columns formed by cooling lava). In the legend, giant Finn MacCool built it to cross the sea to Scotland.
Cultural feature
There are many theatres, restaurants, pubs, and museums.
Its best know poet Seamus Heaney, won the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1995.
Film-maker Neil Jordan won an Oscar award for the“Best Original Screenplay" in1992 with his film The Crying Game.
Van Morrison is an internationally famous pop musician.
Brian Friel is a playwright whose stage plays are acclaimed称赞 in London and Dublin as well as other places of the world.
Finacial feature
Its wealth per head is the lowest in the UK region——relatively, the living costs are also comparatively low.
Industrial companies
Short Brothers——builds small commuter通勤 aircraft
Boeing
UK's largest shipbuilder--Harland and Wolff
It built the famous RMS Titanic .
In recent years, it has been focus on offshore renewable energy(wind and marine-generated海洋生成的 electricity).