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Evidence Law
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编辑于2022-12-04 21:35:29 山东省- 美国证据法
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Evidence Law
general considerations
something about admissibility
admissibility
materiality
substantive legal issues
如果被证明的主张不具有关键性或实质性的法律争议点，那么该证据将不被采信
relevance
also called "probativeness"
probative evidence contributes to proving or disproving a material issue (一个有证明力的证据可以证明也可以反驳一个法律问题)
federal rules
the Federal Rules of Evidence联邦证据规则
materiality and probativeness combined
competence
not violate an exclusionary rule
可采信的证据首先应该是不违反任何排除规则的
limited admissibility证据的有限可采信性
admissible for one purpose but not another 某个证据对一种主张是不可采信的，而对另一种主张是可采信的，这时就需要根据该证据是否和该主张有关来确定该证据是否具有可采信性
eg：如果一个有犯罪前科的人被要求作证，那么不能以他的前科为依据来证明他在该项指控中也是有罪的
admissible against one party but not another 对一方是可采信的，对另一方是不可采信的
eg:如果一位卡车司机过失侵权了，那么在针对卡车司机的过失侵权中的证据是可采信的，但是对于针对其雇主的诉讼中是不可采信的
如果该证据从一方面来说是可采信的，但也不排除陪审团从其他方面认为其不可采信的可能（法院也要对该证据的适用范围对陪审团进行指导）
evidence classifications
类型
direct evidence直接证据
without intervention of an inferential process不需要推理过程的介入
actual knowledge by means of their senses. eg:目击证人的亲身感知
circumstantial evidence间接证据/旁证
relies on inference依靠推理才能得出结论
jury must make a presumption
在有陪审团审理的案件中，陪审团负责审理证据的重要性，法官负责审理证据的相关性
需要一个事实链才能推理出来（a subsidiary or collateral fact injunction with a cluster or other facts）
比如：要证明是否有人经过大雪覆盖的桥，证人没看见经过的人，但是他说看见一连串脚印，这就是circumstantial evidence
all pyhsical evidence is circumstantial,because: 1.no eyewitness(not be substantiated证实) 2.connotation(meaning) of unntrustworthiness该种证据给人一种不可相信的感觉 3.往往目击证人给的证据具有结论性(conclusive)
admissibility of circumstantial evidence
inadmissible/be excluded
not have any probative value证明价值
admissible
形成了证据链时
形式
testimonial evidence言词证据---witness testimony(oral or written statements)
documentary evidence书面证据---a letter, blog post, document，contract, confession
real evidence物证---tangible things
demonstrative evidence展示证据---used to illustrate, demonstrate or recreate a prior event (videotapes, photos, models)
Relevance(相关性) and Judicial Notice(司法认知)
relevance
1.会影响其证明力：因为证据可以支持或反驳某个关键性的问题（可以使证据证明的事实更真实，也可以使证据证明的事实更不真实）---两方面的问题 2.relevance 更加关注证据的实质和内容，而非提供的形式
证据对某个事实的证明或否定的倾向性问题
determining relevance一个人提供的证据和他的主张之间的相关性
是指，与没有该证据相比，更有可能对确定诉讼产生影响的任何事实的任何倾向性（支持或反驳）证据
一般人们在考虑相关性的问题时会有三个问题
what proposition主张 is the evidence being used to prove?这个证据被用来证明的是什么主张
该主张是不是一个关键性的问题
该证据对该主张是否具有证明力probative
logical relevance
与正在处于争议中的事件是相似的或相关的的情况下，只要是其证明价值＞混淆陪审团视听和不公正的偏见，也可以被采信
eg：1.A的房屋爆破，把邻居B的房屋也损坏了，这就可以证明B的房屋损毁是A的行为造成的
eg:2.在一个有磨坊粉尘的区域里，A（原告）和邻居B都可以主张遭受了粉尘污染，来证明是该磨坊制造的污染等
原告和被告是处于同一个area，遭受了相似的事
例外情况：当该证据对于混淆陪审团视听和造成不公正的偏见的危险大于其可采信性价值时，便不被采信。
discretionary exclusion of relevant evidence(progmatic relevance) 法官对于是否排除相关证据的自由裁量权
这些情形是可能被排除的：
undue prejudice
evidence affects the jury emotionally so much so that they can not think rationally
propersity evidence习性证据
一个人的生活习性
张三是懒癌患者，十次会议九次迟到，但是今天突然提前来了。
confusion of the issues
misleading the jury
by consideration of undue delay
waste of time
needless presentation of cumulative evidence累积证据（cumulative evidence≈corroborating evidence补强证据）
如果已经有证据可以证明一个issue的话，就没必要再出示其他与该issue相关的证据了
ecxclusion of relevant evidence for public policy reasons 因为公共政策的原因使该证据不被采信
eg：对造成伤害的有瑕疵的建筑进行修缮，如果要以该修缮行为来证明先前该建筑的过失侵权，则一般不被采信
liability insurance责任保险
可采信
通过该“责任保险”来证明该作证人员对当时另一方买保险的行为有一个偏见性的认识
不可采信
通过该当事人先前买保险的行为来推断此人对该事件的发生有过失
幼儿园老师给自己买责任险的行为，不能推断出该老师对某事件的发生有过失
subsequent remedial measures随后的补救行为
inadmissible
to prove negligence or culpable conduct(应受罚的行为)
admissible
to prove ownership or control
主张当时造成伤害的物品是他所有的，或当时是由他控制的
to rebut claim that precaution was not feasible
主张当时的预防措施是不可行的
A店先前在一个不显眼的地方放了一个防滑标志，B摔倒了，后来A店改成了一个明显的防滑标志。那么主张A店当时的措施不可行是admissible 的
to prove destruction of evidence
证明他有一个毁灭证据的行为（spoliation毁灭证据）
settlement offers和解提议
以双方的和解提议来作为证据证明一方先前的行为有不当之处是inadmissible的
rationale理据
法律鼓励双方通过完全坦诚的和解来解决争议
withdrawn guilty pleas and offers to plead guilty 将对方的认罪答辩（已经撤回的认罪答辩）作为证明其先前行为的证据是inadmissible的
rationale理据
法律鼓励并保护认罪 (证据确凿时的认罪行为，当然不是自证其罪）行为
types
withdraw guilty pleas
pleas of nolo contendere不辩护也不认罪的答辩
offers to plead guilty做出一种有罪答辩
statement made in negotiating
payment of medical expenses 对方对另一方医疗费用的支付不能作为其有过失行为的证据
rationale理据
法律鼓励并保护humanitarian motives（人道主义动机）
eg：老人倒地，好心人送医并支付医疗费
character evidence品行证据 （reputation公众声誉 and disposition性情)
the purpose用品格证据想要证明什么
the method怎么去证明
what kind of case要用在什么案件中
points
shows the defendant as the type of person that would or would not commit this type of crime
prosecution can not attack character. They can only rebut character evidence provided by defense
prosecution is allowed to introduce past criminial records（前科记录） to test the defendants credibility可信度
major points
purpose for offer of character evidence
character itself is ultimate issue(终极问题) in case
to serve as circumstantial evidence of how a person probably acted
to impeach credibility对证人提出的证据进行反驳 of witness
means of proving character
evidence of specific acts as demonstrating character要根据案件的目的和性质来确定
opinion testimony意见证言
testimony as to person's general reputation in community社会中对该人总体的声誉的评价
generally not admissible in civil cases
reasons
证明价值（probative value）＜混淆陪审团视听（distraction of jury )，不公正的偏见(undue/unfair prejudice)，浪费资源(waste of time)等
exceptions例外
admissible
character itself is ultimate issue(终极问题) in case(especially in civil cases)
诽谤案件中
accused in a criminal case---prosecution can not initiate, but accused can
公诉方prosecution不可以发起品行证据(要用其他更具有证明力的证据，eg:物证），刑事被告方accused可以发起品行证据
rationale
要由陪审团来听取证据做出裁定
因为在刑事案件中，被告往往面临着丧失生命或自由的危险
specific acts of misconduct(特定的不当行为，而非习惯性的不当行为） generally inadmissible
当事人在A案中被指控，则以他在B案中的罪刑和不当行为来做为旁证(extrinsic evidence)来说明他有犯罪倾向（criminal disposition)， 一般是inadmissible的
extrinsic evidence: 并非包含于协议或契约等文件中，而是从其他来源所得的证据
rationale
会不当引导陪审团对该案的裁决
exception
admissible
independently relevant与该案有独立的相关性
所提供的证据与其他的问题相关，而不是与被告的character and disposition 相关时， 是admissible的
complement补充
当在特定情形下做出的与平时性格反常的行为则 inadmissible
eg:兔子(character)急了(particular occasion)还咬人(acted)呢
judicial notice（of fact/law）
法庭对于众所周知的且无争议的事实予以承认或接受，从而免除当事人对该事实的举证责任
self-evidence propositions不证自明的facts
presumption推定
judicial shortcut司法捷径
a substitute for proof一种证据的替代品
eg：
codified laws
court records
scientific facts
local facts
types
judicial notice of fact
judicial notice of law
mandatary有强制力的法律
permissive建议性的法律
Real Evidence/physical evidence物证
概述
addressed directly to trier of fact直接递送给案件事实的审判者
eg：exhibition of injured arm or sound recording of factory noise
special problems有关物证的特殊问题
proper authentication of the object对该实物真实性的查证
too burdensome or inspire prejudicial emotions outweighting its probative value
types
direct evidence
circumstantial evidence
original evidence原始证据
prepared evidence
sketches or models
这类证据也叫作demonstrative evidence
general conditions of admissibility可采信的情况
authentication证据的查证（法官负责）【证据的确证：陪审团负责】
查证：法院在接受实物证据前必须对其进行查证。所谓查证是指证据提出方必须有足够的证据证明是他所称的证据，其实就是确定证据的相关性。 确证：陪审团来认定证据是否是真实的
condition object and useful probativeness
如果这个实物的状况是显著的，那么在庭审时也应显示出相同的状况
并且该实物应该对证明该主张有逻辑上的帮助
legal relevance
法官的自由裁量权（法官要考虑其他辅助性的政策auxiliary policy or 一些原则 )
辅助性的政策对real evidence的限制主要是基于以下几个方面的考量
physical inconvenience（比如该证据的实体非常庞大，以至不能拿到法庭上，则该证据形式有可能被放弃，但可以以其他证据形式展示）
子主题
indecency or impropriety一些不恰当或不雅的证据可能被法官放弃
probative value＜unfair prejudice
particular types of real proof物证的一些特殊类型
reproductions复制品and explanatory real evidence可解释性的实物证据
经过authentication的reproductions,并且probative value＞unfair prejudice时是admissible的
entirely for explanatory purposes完全用来做解释的实物证据
eg：skeletons, charts
are permitted at a trial【可以允许当事人去展示,并且展示者的证据是admissible的，但出示的这个real evidence（用来作解释的实物证据）一般不能当做证据来采信的】
but
not admitted into evidence
not given to the jury during its deliberation(审议)
maps, charts, models,etc.
这些形式的复制品需要与原实物达到共同的效果
exhibition of child in paternity suits在确认生父的诉讼中
terms
putative father推定的父亲
physical resemblance物理上的相似性
exhibition of injuries
向陪审团展示injuries
demonstrations
showing effect of bodies injury
scientific experiments
but
showing sole control of witness
are excluded
Documentary Evidence文件/书面证据
概述
relevancy
authenticity真实性
exception
当满足了authenticated and relevant时，也有可能因为违反the best evidence（最佳证据规则） or hearsay rule（传闻证据规则）等规则而被排除
authentication
a writing or any secondary evidence(eg:复印件) 在被当做证据之前，必须经过authentication
the writing is usually not self-authenticating
the writing needs 其他证据（eg:testimonial sponsor or shepherding angel )来佐证这个书面文件是与该案的relevant person所制定(made)，签署(signed)或通过(adopted)的
evidence of authenticity(怎么去证明书面证据的真实性）
admissions（对方）认可
我方的书面证据可以通过任何其他证据来佐证，这个其他证据应该是对方admitted its authenticity（对方对真实性的认可）的或者是对方acted upon its authenticity（用行为来认可）
testimony of eyewitness（目击证人的证言）
who sees it executed or hears it acknowledged
handwriting vertifications笔迹的证实
sb. familiar with sb's handwriting
ancient documents
reply letter doctrine回答的书面记录原则
是指答辩人出示对方发给作者的信息的书面记录时，允许对该记录予以查证的一项证据规则。如对方谈话内容的查证。如果答辩人表示他接了某人的电话，并能辨认接电话人的声音，或者接电话人确信自己就是出于该案争议中的人，则该谈话内容可作为证据采信。
A在书面文件(eg: Wechat，e-mail, letter) 里与B（claimed author)的交流，并且发送给了B(claimed author)(消息已经发送）
circumstantial evidence in general用间接证据来证明书面证据的真实性
photographs用照片来证明书面证据的真实性
照片的内容+证人的证实
best evidence rule
requires
the party submit the original(提供原件)
the court can accept a secondary copy
original was lost, destroyed or otherwise unavailable,all in good faith(当诚实地向法院说明原件的确丢失、损毁或因其他情形而不能使用的，法院可以接受原件的二手复印件）
eg: 原告辩称与被告的合同中某一特定条款（specific provision）是不存在的，那么此时原告必须出示原件，而非复印件
applicablility of the rule(最佳证据规则)
where(if) the writing is a legally opertive or dispositive instrument是一个法律上具有可操作性的或者决定性的文件
eg: contract, deed, will, divorce decree
the knowledge of a witness concerning a fact有证人能证明当时双方签合同的事实
non-applicability of the rule(最佳证据规则)
fact to be proved exists independent of any writing 这个书面证据已经被证明是独立于任何其他书面证据而存在的（它不需要其他辅助性书面证据来证明它的真实性了，自然就不适用于best evidence rule）
eg:
目击证人可以口头来证明我的确是在超市付钱了，尽管当时没有发票（documentary evidence/best evidence)来证明
writing is collateral to litigated issue 该文本证据对于正处于诉讼中的案件是附带的/次要的
最佳证据规则常常适用于对该案起重要作用时
summaries of voluminous records成册记录的概述性（文件）
public records公共的记录
proponent may offer into evidence
proponent提出者：在法庭中提出动议者
a copy of an official record
a copy of a document
1.such a copy must be certified as correct by the custodian(保管人)of the document复印件必须要由文件的保管人来开证“证明”
2.other person authorized to do so或者其他有权利开证明的人
3.testified to be correct by a person who compared it to the original
to prevent the loss or absence of public documents
parol evidence rule
根据此项规则，当事人签订书面合同以之为正式协议时，合同条款不得因此前的书面或口头协议而变更或推翻，但也有例外
in contract law:
most agreements are enforceable强制执行 even if only oral
the essence of the parol evidence rule:
如果一个协议成为了一个书面性的协议，那么这个书面性的文件一般是该该协议的唯一证据
inadmissible
当出现对书面文件的增减或变更时，口头证据规则是不适用的（书面文件的增减、变更一般需要以书面形式）
completion of incomplete or ambiguous contract当仅仅是为了完成一个未完成或一个带有模糊性的合同时
口头证据与要证明的书面证据产生矛盾时
exception
当合同中有一些不确定的、模糊的或有合理争议时，口头证据可以被用来解释这些争议或模糊的地方
reformation of contract合同的更改
一方当事人就事实问题提起争议时，比如：他认为合同是在双方理解错误的条件下签的，那么就可以授予该当事人更改协议的权利，那么这时口头证据规则不适用
admissible
challenge to validity of contract对合同的有效性进行质疑时
subsequent modifications of written contract后来对书面合同的修改
negotiations or agreements made prior, or at the time of, the execution of the written contract
show subsequent modification or discharge of the written contract
Testimonial Evidence言词证据
what is testimonial evidence
is a person's testimony offered to prove the truth of the matter asserted主张
eg: statement made under oath
also known as direct evidence
it includes oral or written statements given to police/ who witnessed an event
competency of witnesses
witnesses must pass tests of basic reliability证人必须要通过一个可靠性测试（但一般认为他们是具有作证能力的，除非法院或另一方对其可靠性提出质疑）
basic testimonial qualifications
four basic attributes
the capacity to observe
the capacity to recollect能够准确地回忆起来
the capacity to communicate
the capacity to appreciate the obligation to speak truthfully
federal rules of competency联邦证据规则对作证能力的解释
two limitations
personal knowledge对于他要出庭证明的东西要有一个亲身的认知/了解+present recollection对于当时的事情有记忆
by oath or affirmation（确认）
modern modifications of common law disqualification现代普通法对于不具备作证资格的条件作出的修订
several grounds 没有出庭作证资格的理据
financial interest in the suit
the spouse of a party
lacked religious belief
been convicted of a crime带罪之人不得出庭作证
lacked mental capacity心智不健全
Dead Man Acts死者生前口头承诺法
重点：口头的承诺，并没有签字
一般是inadmissible的
在civil action中
form of examination of witness审查证人是否有作证能力的形式
问题的形式：
when may leading questions诱导性的问题are used?
1.通常会引起歧义的问题（质询者想从证人口中的得到的信息） 2.通常以yes/no 来回答的question,以达到质询者想要的结果
when the leading questions are permitted?
permitted on cross-examination
on direct examination in noncrucial areas if no objections is made
what other types of questions are objectionable?引起对方歧义的问题
when and how may a witness use memoranda证人自己当时做的记录/类似于日记的形式
improper questions
not permitted
misleading question
无法在无意中回答的问题
因为法官更想从当事人口中得到一个无意的回答（往往更加真实）
compound question
more than one question
eg: Did you see and hear the intruder?
argumentative question
reflect the examiner's interpretation of the facts
eg: Why were you driving so recklessly?
conclusionary question
calls for an opinion or conclusion that the witness is not qualified or permitted to make
eg: What did your friend think about that
assuming facts not in evidence假定了一个今天要采信的证据中无法证明的事实
当没有证据证明当事人酒驾时，提这种问题是不合适的：After defendant finished his fifth beer, he got up and went to his car, didn't he?" (他不能把未确定的事实给实锤了）
cumulative question
不能就一个已经确定了的问题进行反复提问
exception
on cross-examination
但是，当交叉询问时对该问题并没有进展，法官也可以要求停止这种询问方式
use of memoranda by witness关于证人怎样使用备忘录的问题
can not read her testimony from memorandum
may be used
to refresh the recollection of the witness
to substitute for the witness's forgotten testimony upon authentication of the memorandom
in cross-examination of the witness
memorandom 作为一个书面文本，也可以作为证据进行宣读，但是不能当做一个物证来当庭出示，除非另一方提出要求
opinion testimony意见证言
证人要在他亲身了解的范围内进行作证，and that the trier of fact should draw any conclusions therefrom事实的审理者应据此得出结论
All testimony relating to matter of fact is opinion evidence
一般来说，法院要限制opinion testimony的可采信性
fact 和opinion 之间有一种“程度”上的差异---subjective
types
opinion testimony by Lay Witnesses非专家证人的意见证言
一般是inadmissible
agency or authorization
当该案中涉及到这个agency or authorization时
作为证人一般不能对其陈述结论性的话语
证人只能对这些问题作出一个回答(事实性的问题）：whom she was employed, terms, and surrounding circumstances of her employment
contract or agreement
when an express contract is in issue, a witness generally may not state her opinion that an agreement was made
只能回答一些facts性的问题
theexistence or nonexistence of which establish whether a context existed
exception
general appearance or condition of person
State of emotion
invlving sense recognition/sensory description
voice or handwriting identification
to show familiar with the voice or handwriting
speed of moving object
fast/very fast
value of own service
rational or irrational nature of another's conduct
sanity心智健全与否
physical states
intoxication/injury
opinion testimony by expert witness专家意见证言
expert witness
offer opinions that may assist the judge or jury in understanding technical knowledge
generally allowed more leeway than a fact witness在陈述事实时有更大的空间
court evaluates the content of their testimony for admissibility
requirements of expert testimony
subject matter must be appropriate for expert testimony该案涉及的标的适合于需要一个专家证人的证明
test of assistance帮助性的测试（这个案子到底需不需要专家证人来证明）
the opinion must be relevant
the methodology underlying the opinion must be reliable专家证明的方法必须是可靠的
要满足初审法官对优势证据规则（preponderance of the evidence)的要求
优势证据规则一般适用于民事案件
the opinion is based on sufficient facts or data
the opinion is the product of reliable principles and methods
the expert has reliably applied the principles and methods to the facts of the case专家证人已经把这些可靠的方法适用于本案的事实当中
witness must be qualified as an expert
have a special knowledge,skill, experience, training, education
expert must possess reasonable probability regarding his opinion专家的证言必须有一种合理的可能性
opinion must be supported by proper factual basis
专家证言应该有以下3个信息源
facts from his own observation一些他自己看到的事实
facts presented in evidence at the trial在法庭上作为证据出示的事实and submitted to the expert并且已经提交给专家（这些问题通常是一个hypothetical question假设性的问题）
facts not in evidence that were supplied to the expert out of court在庭外提供给专家的非证据性事实
opinion may embrace ultimate issue专家证言的内容一般要包括案件的基本争议点
ultimate issue基本争议点： 指诉讼中必须做出确定性回答的问题。eg：在人身伤害案件中，被告是否有疏忽就是一个基本争议点
包含基本争议点的专家证言一般认为是没有异议的
exception
in criminal case
专家证人不能就有关犯罪构成要件的问题（eg：是否有主观恶意）发表意见
eg：an expert witness may testify that defendant suffers from schizophrenia精神分裂症,but may not testify that the defendant was legally insane
cross-examination交叉质询
necessity for cross-examination对于交叉询问的必要性问题
it is the most efficacious有效的truth-discovering device（是查明事实真相的最有效的方法）
因为如果因为证人的死亡或疾病而无法出庭作证（无法交叉询问），那么直接询问获得的结果可能被排除掉
scope of cross-examination
交叉询问的程度和范围是一个司法的自由裁量权judicial discretion的问题
交叉询问的限制一般要远小于直接询问
leading questions are permissible
交叉询问的范围不能超过直接询问时的标的
但是对于证人的直接质证（impeachment of witness）环节就不存在这种限制
impeachment of witness对证人的质疑： 指通过提出证据对证人的一般可信性或在特定案件中的可信性进行质疑
credibility言词证据的可信度/证人的可靠性---impeachment对言词证据的质疑
首先应由法庭判断确定证人的作证能力，再由陪审团判断其可信性
the method of impeachment
is by cross-examination of the witness under attack
在具有相关性(relevance)的前提下，对证人可靠性（credibility）的任何倾向（支持或反驳）都应被采纳
eg：
witness is biased toward or prejudiced aganist a party
witness is an untruthful person
witness has a prior criminal record
witness made a prior statement that is inconsistent with his/her present court testimony
5 main ways to impeach
attack character
by showing a prior inconsistent statement by witness
witness is biased
witness has sensory or mental defect
other evidence that contradicts witness's testimony
impeachment on collateral matter(附加的问题)---非本案的主流问题
如果该证人的陈述与该案的争议点没有直接的相关性，那么针对该附加问题（与本案没有直接相关性的问题）的质疑规则将被用来 禁止对方通过外部冲突的或与先前不一致的事实 来证明该陈述是不真实的
the purpose of the rule：
to avoid
the possibility of unfair surprise
confusion of issues对主流问题的混淆
undue consumption of time
objections（对证人的证言提出异议）, exceptions（例外）, offers of proof（对证人证言提出质疑后也要提出证据）
objections
is made by opposing counsel
如果对方一直没有提出异议，那么该证据一般就是可采信的
failure to object is deemed a waiver of any ground for objection放弃提出异议将视为对“异议”的任何理据的放弃
types
objections to trial testimony对审判证词提出异议
如果一方提出的问题是一个明显不可采信的（eg：hearsay）或形式不恰当的（eg：leading）证据，那么另一方就要针对这类问题立即提出异议
如果一方的证人的回答是明显inadmissible的，那么也可以提出异议（或motion )来要求法庭删掉这一回答
objections to deposition testimony对书面证词提出异议
deposition书面证词： 指：证人在庭外，依法院命令或诉讼规则，在宣誓后对口头询问（oral examination )或书面质询 (written interrogatories) 的问题作出回答，并做成笔录且经正式认证后所形成的证词
对书面证言特权（testimonial privilege）的异议，也要在当时立即提出，否则视为放弃
如果一个异议涉及到这个问题的实质，那么该异议的提出可以推迟直到书面的证词被提供出来
specificity of objections一些特殊的异议的提问方式
区别general / specific objection 的区别
general
I object
specific
I object, hearsay
opening the door
is a common law legal doctrine
当对方初次在法庭上说明哪些证据是不可采信的时，如果对方将一个本不可采信的证据open the door了，那么法庭也是允许采信这个证据的。其实涉及的就是一个法官的自由裁量权的问题
exceptions
对法庭命令或裁决的反对。 在以前的诉讼中，在当事人不接受法庭判决时，可以通过提出异议的方式，使法庭重新审查其判决，或表明其将保留上诉的权利，寻求在以后的程序中推翻该判决。
in some states, 有时会要求基于合理的理据来提出一个书面的动议要求重新审理
offer of proof提出证据
在庭审中，当对某一证据可采信性的异议得到法官的支持后，被异议方可提请将该证据记录在卷，以便对法官的裁决提出上诉
包括3部分
the nature of the evidence证据本身
purpose
说明提出该证据的目的，即证据与案件事实具有相关性
admissibility
主张该证据具有可采信性的理据
types
witness offer
lawyer offer
tangible offer
testimonial privileges言词证据的特权
It can overrules a witness duty to reveal matters within the witness knowledge
某些证人虽然可以作证，但基于这些特殊身份可以不去作证
在司法程序中，允许一方拒绝披露一些保密的信息（confidential information）
two reasons:
practicality可行性的问题
society's desire to encourage certain relationship by ensuring their confidentiality, even at the high price of losing valuable information
eg：丈夫被指控了，那么妻子就可以不去作证（共犯或妻告夫要另当别论）
有利于维护内部关系和谐domestic harmony（eg：夫妻关系)
有利于避免该种证人为了保护一方当事人而做出perjury发假誓、contempt of court蔑视法庭、jeopardizing the marriage危害婚姻关系的行为
types
attorney-client privilege
it carries with it fewer exceptions than any other privilege(几乎没有例外，必须遵守）
communications between an attorney amd client, made during professional consultation, are privileged from disclosure ( 享有免披露的特权）
exception
objects and preexisting documents are not protected
concepts
attorney-client relationship
retainer negotiations律师聘用谈判
在律师接受或拒绝代理之前，当事人就要和律师达成这样一个保密协议
confidential communication
a communication is confidential if it was not intended to be disclosed to third persons只要是不打算透露给第三方的，都要保密
exception
communications made in the known presence and hearing of a stranger are not privileged
duration of privilege
the attorney-client privilege applies indefinitely(无限期/不确定期限）
termination of the attorney-client relationship does not terminate the privilege
even continues to apply after the client's death
rationale
encourages the client to communicate fully and frankly with her attorney
physician-patient privilege
a statutory privilege, which has not be adopted in all jurisdictions
elements of physician-patient privilege
professional member of relationship must be present要出示医患关系的证明
information must be acquried while attending patient
information must be necessary for treatment治疗所需要的信息是要有的
nonapplicability of the privilege
patient puts physical condition in issue患者把身体状况作为一个争议点在法庭提出时
in aid of wrongdoing披露患者信息是为了辅助证明对方的不当行为时，便可以不用保密
agreement to waive the privilege双方达成协议同意放弃保密特权
federal cases applying federal law of privilege有些联邦案件适用于联邦的保密规则（the federal court do not recognize any physician-patient privilege)
联邦法院一般不适用普通的医患关系保密规则，但认可精神病医生和患者的保密规则
psychotherapist/social worker-client privilege
几乎全美都认可，并且地位相当于attorney-client privilege
The United States Supreme Court recognizes a federal privilege for communications between a psychotherapist/licensed social worker and his client
husband-wife privilege
前提：夫妻双方互相作证的关系时
protects confidential communications during marriage在婚姻存续期间要保护他们之间的秘密谈话
types
the privilege not to testify against a spouse in a criminal case---spousal immunity (在刑事案件中，该特权允许配偶不作出不利于另一配偶的证言）
the privilege for confidential marital communications
exception
where the wife and the husband are committing a crime together刑事共犯/joint-criminal-participation联合作案同伙
both the wife and husband were involved in growing marijuana(共同种植大麻)
where both spouses were involved in trafficking cocaine走私可卡因
privilege against self-incrimination针对自证其罪的保密特权
司法公正性
a witness cannot be compelled to testify against himself不得强迫证人做出对自己不利的证据
Under Fifth Amendment of the United States Constitution
不得自证其罪
clergy-penitent privilege牧师和信徒之间的保密特权
is very similar in its operation to the attorney-client privilege
信徒在牧师面前忏悔的话不得被透漏
professional journalist privilege专业新闻记者的保密特权
protecting a reporter from being compelled to testify about confidential information or sources记者不得被强迫透漏与当事人的秘密谈话
一般州法对其保护较多，联邦法保护较少
governmental privileges
identity of informer政府要对提供信息的人的身份进行保密（eg：实名举报人的身份要保密）
official information
eg:国家安全局对某些信息的保密
exclusion and sequestration（separation) of witnesses被排除掉的情况(让证人退出法庭）、证人身份不暴露
purpose
they can not listen to the testimony of other witness
前提：
要在一方当事人的请求下（the trial judge may also do this on his own motion)
exception(以下情况不允许证人离场）
the witness is a party(证人是一方当事人时） or a designated officer（证人是指定的官员时） or employee of a party（证人是一方当事人的雇员时）
the witness is a person whose presence is essential to the presentation of a party's case
the witness is a person statutorily authorized to be present法律赋予一个证人必须在场的权利
The Hearsay Rule传闻证据规则
一般是inadmissible的
statement of the rule
concepts
转述他人之口
A told me that he saw D stabbing his wife
an out-of-court statement
if one part of the statement is inadmissible, the entire statement is inadmissible
reason for excluding hearsay
the adverse party was denied the opportunity to cross-examine the declarant对方不能对陈述人（A）交叉询问了
the definition of “statement"
a person's oral or written（陈述人以书面方式讲述的） assertion主张
nonverbal conduct intended as an assertion非言语行为表达的主张
assertive conduct非言语的示意行为(有意做出的）
use assertive conduct to substitute for words (但是要在联邦证据规则界定的“陈述”的范围内）
eg：a nod/finger pointing/eye contact
nonassertive conduct非言语又非示意的行为（无意做出的本能反应）
陈述人并没有打算将该行为作为一种主张表现出来
eg: 警方在讯问嫌疑犯时，被讯问者昏厥的情况（因生理或病理而晕厥，而非故意晕厥）此类行为不属于hearsay rule中的statement，可以被法庭采纳
evidence of nonassertive conduct is not hearsay
rationale
对比assertive or verbal conduct来说，nonassertive conduct中捏造事实的情况要少得多
offer to prove the truth of the matter用传闻证据来证明某些行为的真相
当一个庭外的陈述被用来证明无需交叉询问的其他目的时（非用来证明事件的真相时），那么就不被看做是一个hearsay（可以admissible）
statement that are no-hearsay under the federal rules在联邦证据规则之下，有些陈述并不能称作传闻证据
prior statements by witness（at the trial or hearing）在事件发生之前证人做出的陈述+有机会被cross-examine 的
admissions by party-opponent对方当事人也认可的情况下（证人做出了对自己一方不利的证据）
hearsay exceptions
admissible
declarant unavailable找不到陈述人时
法庭要将其陈述作为证据之时他是找不见的
former testimony先前在不知道要出庭作证时做的陈述
statements against interest陈述人做出了对本人不利的陈述
pecuniary金钱上的利益
proprietary财产上的利益
penal interest受惩罚轻重的利益
dying declarations临终陈述（陈述人明知自己的死亡不久要发生under belief of impending death）
but the declarant need not actually die 【eg:甲得了绝症，于是做出临终陈述（statements under belief of impending death），后感悟自己时日不多，于是出国游历（declarant unavailable）】
statements of personal or family history
statements concerning family history are often necessary to prove the facts of people's everyday lives
statements offered against party procuring declarant's unavailability找不见的陈述人做出了不利于当事人的陈述
declarant's availability immaterial能不能找到陈述人的重要性不大的情况下
present state of mind
陈述人在apparent sincerity的状态下陈述的是他当时的state of mind/emotion/sensation/physical condition
excited utterances受惊激动时的话语
declarantions of physical condition
present bodily condition
倾诉的对象就是周边熟悉的人
relate to symptoms当时有关症状的陈述
past bodily condition---assist diagnosis or treatment当时帮助诊断的陈述
past recollection recorded对过去一些记录的陈述
more reliable than her testimony on the stand(比在证人席上做出的证言要可靠的多）
通常通过现实记忆复苏法（present recollection revived）来帮证人回忆起以前的事情
如果回忆不起来了，也可以启用当时事件发生前后的一些memorandum
records of a regularly conducted activity---business records做生意的记录
official records and other offical writings
public records and reports
records of vital statistics
statement of absence of public record
prior criminal conviction
ancient documents and documents affecting property interest
经查证年代久远的文件
learned treatises学术性的/有渊源的treatises
it can called to the attention of the expert witness upon cross-examination or relied upon by her during direct examination
established as reliable authority by the testimony or admission of the witness, by other expert testimony, or by judicial notice.
reputation声誉
concerning a person's character/personal or family history/land boundaries/ the community's general history
family records家谱
market reports市场的报道
published lists/directories are admissible if general used and relied upon by the public or by persons in a particular occupation
residual "catch-all" exception of federal rules（在联邦证据规则下）剩余的包罗万象的例外
"trustworthiness" factor
要与其他传闻证据的例外的可信性是等同的
"necessity" factor
这种陈述要提供一种关键性的事实，and must be more probative
notice to adversary
主张采信传闻证据的一方一定要提前告知对方当事人，关于该陈述的本质性的问题（including the name and address of the declarant），so that the adversary has an opportunity to prepare to meet it.
Procedural Considerations关于程序上的一些思考
burdens of proof举证责任
一般有两种不同的含义
burden of producing or going forward with evidence
produce出示 sufficient evidence to raise fact question for jury
definition
the burden of one party to introduce出示 sufficient evidence to avoid judgment against her as a matter of law是一方出示证据来避免法庭依法做出对他不利的判决的一种责任
is a critical mechanism关键性的机制 for judicial control of the trial
is usually cast upon针对 the party who has pleaded提请 the existence of the fact有该事实存在(的提请)
谁主张谁举证
当一方的举证责任履行完成之后，举证责任可以转移给对方
举证责任倒置
Prima Facie Case May Shift Burden of Production表面证据确凿的案件的举证责任转移的问题
1.Plaintiff offers evidence in her case-in-chief (庭审中负证明责任一方先举证的阶段) of Defendant's negligence 在一个过失侵权的案件中，首先原告主张被告过失侵权，原告先举证
2.Defendant's motion for a nonsuit(驳回诉讼)，made at the conclusion of Plaintiff's case, is denied. 在案件结束的时候，被告方提出动议，请求法院驳回诉讼（被告方认为原告的证据不充分），但是该动议被法院拒绝了，即法院认为原告的证据是充分的
3.This denial reflects a judicial ruling that Plaintiff has made out a prima facie case of Defendant's negligence. 法院驳回被告动议的行为表明，原告对于被告的过失侵权是一个表面证据确凿的案子
4.Put another way, it means that Plaintiff has met her burden of going forward with evidence on the negligence issue.即原告方满足了他主张被告过失侵权的举证责任
Measure of proof
preponderance of the Evidence
applies in most civil cases
clear and convincing proof明确并且令人信服的证据
especially in civil cases
an oral contract to make a will or issue of fraud often require proof by "clear and convincing evidence"
Beyond a reasonable doubt
criminal cases
the guilt of the defendant must be established beyond a reasonable doubt
presumptions无罪推定
指，从其他经司法认知或经证明或承认为真实的事实（一般称为基础事实basic facts）中推断出某一事实成立或为真实的。
一般有3种推定
conclusive or irrebuttable presumption of law决定性的或不可反驳的法律推定
也可称法律规则或法律拟制（eg：10岁以下的儿童明明犯罪了，但是法律却认为他无罪）（因为他还没有刑事责任能力）
inconclusive or rebuttable presumption of law非决定性的或可反驳的法律推定
按法律要求从已知事实中得出的推论，允许以相反的证据加以反证，在被反证推翻之前，该推论成立，eg：无罪推定
presumption of fact事实推定
指法官或陪审团可以（非必须）从其他已证实的事实中得出的推论。事实推定的效力具体情况具体分析
eg：根据一段时间内持续占有的事实可以推定占有人对其占有的财产享有所有权，这就是一项效力强的推定（strong presumrion）
eg：而根据某人与被谋杀的死者有金钱上的利益关系推定该人犯有谋杀罪，即是一项效力弱的推定(slight presumption)
purpose
the presumption serves to correct an imbalance resulting from one party's superior access to the proof on a particular issue为了平衡一方当事人对某个争议点证据的了解程度的优势
shift burden of production
举证责任可以转移，但是说服责任不能转移（始终是the party who had it originally）
burden of persuasion说服责任：指说服事实认定者确信其所提证据指向的事实或要件为真实情况的责任。若当事人未能履行其说服责任，事实认定者须就该事实或要件做出对当事人不利的裁决
rebutting a presumption
a presumption is overcome or destroyed when the adversary produces some evidence contradicting the presumed fact
the presumption is of no force or effect when sufficient contrary evidence is admitted
specific presumptions
以下通常是一些可以反驳的推定（rebuttable presumption）
presumption of legitimacy婚生子女的合法性推定
除非有相反证据，否则就推定妻子在合法婚姻期间所生子女的父亲就是其丈夫
presumption against suicide
presumption of sanity
presumption of death from absence
presumption from ownership of car---agent driver（代理司机）
presumption of regularity合法推定
除非有相反证据，否则推定政府官员以合法的方式履行职责/行政规定等符合其法定权限，因而是合法有效的。
presumption of continuance
presumption of mail delivery
presumption of solvency偿付能力
presumption of bailee受托人negligence
presumption of marriage婚姻的合法性推定
relationship of parties, judge, and jury
party responsibillity当事人的责任
当一方律师提起了一个答辩状（pleadings）或motions时
by initiating discovery（证据披露)(当事人必须透漏事实真相或有关文件内容等）
by entering into stipulations通常指双方的协定/协议
by calling witnesses and offering exhibits法庭上出示的证据 at trial
by interposing objections (干预异议) to the admission of evidence
court-jury responsibility
court---umpire仲裁人
superintend the trial
question of law
jury
question of fact
preliminary determination of admissibility对证据的可采信性作出一个初步的判断
the existence or nonexistence of the preliminary fact
determined by the jury
whether the evidence of the foundational fact is sufficient to allow the jury to find its existence
determined by the judge
in some cases
the question of the preliminary fact
must be decided by the judge alone
because the judge first finds the preliminary or foundational fact
in other cases
1.preliminary facts decided by jury
relevancy
2.preliminary facts decided by judge
facts affecting competency of evidence
requirements for privilege
requirements for hearsay exceptions
3.testimony by accused does not waive privilege against self-incrimination由被指控者提供的证言并不意味着他放弃了不得自证其罪的特权
eg：他可以描述circumstances surrounding allegedly illegal search
4.judicial power to comment upon evidence
5.power to call witnesses传唤证人
6.rulings法院的裁定
指法官在庭审过程中对证据的可采信性、对动议的申请是否许可等问题所做的决定
当法官对某一方的异议做出裁定时（eg：objection sustained ),要说明理据是什么
7.instructions on limited admissibility of evidence对证据的有限可采信性做出了一个指导
the trial judge must restrict the evidence to its proper scope and instruct the jury accordingly
sources of evidence law
1.blend of common law rules and miscellancous statutes
2.comprehensive of statutes or rules
3.Federal Rules of Evidence联邦证据规则