Words and Morphology

英语语言学导论words and morphology章节思维导图总结：Content Words/ Open Class Words 实义词Function Words/Closed Class Words 功能词。

Words and Morphology

• The Nature of Words
  • A word is a semantic unit.
  • A word that involves one/more morphemes that can stand on its own.
    • the smallest units of meaning(walk, -er)
    • Simple Word (boy, teach)
    • Complex Word (boyhood, teacher)
  • Words do not include multiple meaningful units that can appear independently.
    • 词在音系意义上可以独立出现 (I / love / linguistics.)
    • 词在结构层面可以独立出现(this teacher √; tea-this-cher×)
      • Affix(词缀)
        • can be inserted between a word to form a new word(-er; -ing)
    • 词在语法层面可以独立出现
      • A word is the smallest filling unit that fills the position of a word's category.
        • A word is the smallest filling unit that fills the position of a word class in speech
      • Lexeme(词位)
        • the nation of word in an abstract sense.
        • walk
          • lexeme
          • walked
          • walking
          • Word Form(词语形式)
            • 在词尾的语法标记上有差异(number、case-格、tense、participle form)
• Content Words and Funnction Words
  • Content Words/ Open Class Words 实义词
    • express concrete meaning
      • denote entities,properties and event
      • noun
        • concrete object in the word
        • denote obstract ideas.(impression)
      • verb
        • describe dynamic activity
        • describe psychological state (love、worry)
      • adjective
        • provide information on the properties of an object
      • adverb
        • modify a verb, specifies the manner, time or location of an action
          • adj.+ly
          • well,almost,yesterday,very,hard
  • Function Words/Closed Class Words 功能词
    • 相对稳定
    • an integral part of the grammar of a grammar
      • help us express meaning more precisely
      • combine content cords into grammatical sentence
      • complementiser(标句词)
        • 很难提供明确意义，一般不传达任何语义(that)
      • pronoun
        • is used to refer to an entity mentioned in the preceding sentence or is known in the context
          • 依赖语境中的实体，与先行语(Antecedent)共指(Co-refer)
          • 并不总是有指代对象(It is raining outside.)
      • article(冠词)
      • demonstrative(指示词)
      • Determiner(限定词)
        • 都出现在n.前, anchor the entity denoted by the noun.
      • auxiliary verb(助动词)
        • 出现在verb前
        • 句首构成一般疑问句
      • preposition
        • is used to express the relationship between an object or an event and a location
          • 有时这种关系是抽象的(she knows much on...)
      • conjunction
        • is used to connect words, phrase or clause
• Types of Morphology
  • Free Morphemes(自由语素)
    • can form words independently
  • ★Bound Morphemes(黏着语素)
    • cannot function as words by themselves
    • Root(词根)
      • is the base of the world(-able)
        • Bound Roots(黏着词根)
          • 部分无法独立成词的词根(lingu-;astro-)
      • ★+root= Steam(词干)
        • 独立为词(cat)
        • 作为基础与其他★构成新词
    • Affix(词缀)
      • 无法作为词根的黏着语素
      • Prefix(前缀)
      • Suffix(后缀)
    • Allomorphy(同位语素变体现象)
      • 指语音上不同的成分在意义和语法功能上是同一抽象语素的不同变体
        • allomorphs(语素变体) (in-,ir-il-im-)
          • 构词上，遵循相同规则
          • 语义上，表达相同的意义
          • 语音上，细微不同
• Morphological Processes
  • ※Morpgology(形态学)——how are morphemes combined to form a new word/lexeme.
  • Derivation(派生构词)
    • refers to the morphological process of forming a lexeme by attaching an affix to an existing lexeme.
      • construct+'-ion'=construction
        • -ion: Derivation Affixes(派生词缀)/Derivational Morphemes(派生语素)
      • change the category of existing lexeme (n.——v./adj.)
      • 有时也不改变category (possible-impossible)
    • Conversion(转类)/ Zero-derivation(零派生)
      • 不添加任何 Affix/Categoriser 的词类化
  • Compounding (复合构词)
    • 分类
      • 按类别
        • Synthetic Compounds（合成性复合词)
        • Root Compounds (根复合词)
      • 按特性
        • 语义是透明的、组合性的
        • 语义不是透明的、组合性的(naturalise:获得某国的国籍/成为某国的公民)
    • the combination of two lexemes→Compound /Compound word(复合词)
      • Attributive Compounds(修饰性复合词)
        • is made of two lexemes，which one modifying the other.
      • Coordinative Compounds(并列型复合词)
        • the two sub-components are equal,(互不存在修饰关系) (teacher-student,师生关系)
      • Subordinative Compounds(从属型复合词)
        • 右侧
          • v.词干派生而成
        • 左侧
          • Argument(论元)
            • 句子当中的主语和宾语 (John drove a truck.)
        • E.g. truck-driver
  • Inflection (屈折构词)
    • 并不构成新词位，只生成原词位的不同词语形式→不改变原词位的词义/词类
    • E.g. like-likes ("-s"叫做屈折词缀 Inflectional Affixes/ 屈折语素 Inflectional Morphemes)
    • 句子当中，因语法要求对词进行改变
      • v.屈折构词操作:三单形式；过去式；进行体；过去分词
      • n.屈折构词操作:变复数
      • adj./adv.屈折构词操作
        • 比较级
        • 最高级
        • 当adj./adv.包含两个以上音节时，比较级最高级由more/most 表达
• Minor Morphological Processes
  • Coinage 词语新造
    • the introduction of a completely new word. (现在所使用的TV、aspirin)
  • Blending 截搭
    • a processes of combing parts of two lexemes which themselves are not morphemes.
      • Blend 截搭词 (brunch)
  • Backformation 逆构
    • native speaker 将一个简单词(只包含一个语素的词)感知为包含不同语素时
  • Clipping 截短
    • 将一个现有的长词缩短 (professor→prof)
  • Acronym 缩略
    • 将短语/名称中的每一个词的首字母组合在一起 (WTO)
      • 任何通过首字母的组合形成的缩写词(Abbreviation)——缩略词
      • 按单一词读出的缩略词—— NATO, TOEFL, IELTS
      • 每个构词成分首字母单独发音——WTO
        • Initialisms(首字母缩写词)
• Patient Argument（受事论元)
• Head(中心语)
• Modifier(修饰语)
• 该过程叫Categorisation(词类化)；'-ion'叫做Ceatgoriser(词类标记)
  • carry important 语法信息:Categotial Feature (词类特征)
  • 包含词类(语法)信息
    • 不包含语义信息(-ion，-ness)①
    • 包含语义信息(-er,动作发出者；-en,变成...)②
  • 不改变原词位词性的derivation
    • 不包含词类(语法)信息，只包含语义信息③
• 作为前缀粘附在adj.上，表达否定含义
• infix(中缀)、circumfix(框缀)
• noun、verb、adjective...

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