导图社区 新编简明英语语言学重点 戴维栋版
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新编简明英语语言学重点 戴维栋版
这是一篇关于新编简明英语语言学重点 戴维栋版的思维导图，包含general linguistics，language等内容。
编辑于2022-05-14 15:06:46
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Linguistics
It is generally defined as the scientific study of language. (Linguistics studies not any particular language ,but it studies language in general)
General Linguistics
The study of language as a whole is called general linguistics. (language is a complicated entity with multiple layers and facets)
Distinctions in linguistics
descriptive vs. prescriptive
Descriptive linguistics aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use. Prescriptive linguistics aims to lay down rules for “correct and standard” behaviors. eg. what they should say and what they should not to say.
synchronic vs. diachronic
Synchronic linguistics studies the description of language at some point of time in history. Diachronic linguistics studies the description of language as it changes through time.
speech vs. writing
Speech and writing are the two media of communication. Modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written. (speech is prior to writing)
langue vs. parole
Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of the speech community. It is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to abide by. For example: English sentence must have subject and predicate. Parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use. It is concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules.
Saussure
competence vs. performance
Competence is the ideal user's knowledge of the rules of his language. Performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.
Chomsky
modern linguistics vs. traditional grammar
1. Modern linguistics is descriptive, while traditional grammar is prescriptive. 2. Modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written. 3. Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar also in that it does not force languages into a latin-based framework.
The core of linguistics
Phonetics
Phonetics studies the phonic medium of language; it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world's languages.
The three branches of phonetics
Articulatory phonetics (longest history)
Auditory phonetics
Acoustic phonetics
Speech of Organ: three important areas
The principle source of such modifications is the tongue. The tongue is the most flexible.
Pharyngeal cavity
the throat
The oral cavity
the mouth
Nasal cavity
the nose
International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)
The basic principle of the IPA is using one letter selected from major European languages to represent one speech sound.
Broad transcription
The transcription of speech sounds with letter symbols only.
Narrow transcription
The transcription of speech sound with letters symbols and the diacritics.
Aspirated and unaspirated
Take the consonant [p] as an example. We all know that p is pronounced differently in the two words pit and spit. In the case of pit, the [p] sound is said to be aspirated and in the case of spit, the [p] sound is unaspirated. This difference is not shown in broad transcription, but in narrow transcription, a small raised “h” is used to show aspiration, thus pit is transcribed as [pit] and spit is transcribed as [spit].
Classification of English speech sounds
vowels
Vowels are sounds produced without obstruction, so no turbulence or a total stopping of the air can be perceived. 
monophthongs
diphthlongs
consonants
Consonants are sounds produced by constricting or obstructing the vocal tract at some places to divert, impede or completely shut off the flow of air in the oral cavity. 
manner of articulation
stops
fricatives
affricates
nasals
liquids, glides
place of articulation
bilabial
labiodental
dental
alveolar
palatal
velar
glottal
Phonology
Phonology studies how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.
Phone
A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. But a phone does not necessarily distinguish meaning; some do, some don't. For example, [s] and [t] do, as [si:m] and [ti:m] are two words with totally different meanings, and [t] and [t’] don't, as [stop] and [st'op] mean the same to a speaker of English.
Phoneme
A phoneme is a phonological unit; it is a unit of distinctive value; an abstract unit, not a particular sound, but it is represented by a certain phone in certain phonetic context. For example, the [p] sound in peak is called an aspirated [p], and the [p] sound in speak is an unaspirated [p]. Such a difference does not give rise to difference in meaning. So /p/ is a phoneme in the English sound system, and it can be realized differently as aspirated or unaspirated in different contexts.
Allophone
Allophones are the phones that can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments. For example, the phoneme /l/ in English can be realized as dark [l], clear [l], which are allophones of the phoneme /l/.
Phonemic contrast
If the phonetically similar sounds are two distinctive phonemes, e.g. [p] and [b] in "pit" and "bit", they are said to form a phonemic contrast.
Complementary distribution
Complementary distribution is a case that allophones of the same phoneme do not distinguish meaning, but complement each other in distribution. For instance, the clear [l] always occurs before a vowel while the dark [l] always occurs between a vowel and a consonant, or at the end of a word. So the two allophones are said to be in complementary distribution.
Minimal pairs
When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same position in the strings, the two sound combinations form a minimal pair. So in English, pill and bill are a minimal pair.
Rules in phonology
Sequential rule
Sequential rule is a rule governing the combination of sounds in a particular language. For example, if a word begins with a [l] or a [r], then the next sound must be a vowel, so [lbik] are impossible combinations in English.
Assimilation rule
Assimilation rule is to assimilate one sound to another by copying features of sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar. For example, when the [i:] sound is followed by a nasal [n] or [m], it is nasalized, such as in words like bean, green, team, and scream.
Deletion rule
Deletion rule is to delete a sound in a certain phonetic context although it is represented in spelling. For example, delete a [g] when it occurs before a final nasal consonant, such as in words like sign, design, and paradigm.
Suprasegmental features
Stress
The location of stress in English distinguishes meaning.
word stress
For example, a shift of stress may change the part of speech of a word from a noun to a verb, such as 'import n. im'port v.
sentence stress
Tone
Tones are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords. English is not a tone lanquage, but Chinese is.
Intonation
When stress, pitch, and length variations are tied to the sentence rather than to the word, they are collectively known as intonation. English has three types of intonation that are most frequently used: falling tone (matter of fact statement) rising tone (doubts or question) the fall-rise tone (implied message) the rise-fall tone (not frequently used) For instance, That's not the book he wants.
Morphology
Morphology studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.
Morpheme
Morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit of language. For example, the word boys is made up of the morphemes boy and -s (a plural marker meaning more than one). The morpheme boy is a free morpheme since it can be used as a word on its own; the plural -s is a bound morpheme since it must be attached to another word.
Bound morpheme
inflectional morpheme
Inflectional morphemes are usually suffix which signify tense, number, case and so on. For example: John has noticed the change in his friend. Here the suffix -ed in the word noticed does not add any lexical meaning but represent the concept of tense.
suffix
derivational morpheme
Derivational morphemes are affixes used in the creation of words. When attached to roots, they may change the category, or grammatical class of words. The verb blacken, for example, is formed by adding derivational morpheme -en to the adjective black.
prefix
suffix
Free morpheme
Allomorphs
Allomorphs are the variant forms of a morpheme. For example, the morpheme used to express indefiniteness in English has two forms: a before a word that begins with a consonant and an before a word that begins with a vowel. The allomorphic variation also involves different pronunciations of a morpheme. For example, the plural suffix -s is pronounced /s/ in books, /z/ in bags, and /iz/ in judges.
Roots and affixes
The root constitutes the core of the word and carries the major meaning. Unlike roots, affixes do not belong to a lexical category and are always bound morphemes. The word reader, for example, consists of the root read (a verb) and the affixes -er (which is to form nouns refering to a person, animal, or thing that does the action described by the verb), here“reader”is someone who reads. 
Word formation
Compounding
Compounding forms a word by stringing words together. For example, the adjective bitter and the adjective sweet can form a compound word bittersweet, which means has some happy aspects and some sad ones at the same time.
Derivation
Derivation is an affixational process that forms a word with a meaning or category distinct from that of its bases. The verb blacken, for example, is formed by adding affixes -en to the adjective black.
Syntax
Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies the rules that govern the formation of sentences.
Word-level categories
Category refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb. To determine a word's category, three criteria are usually employed. 1. meaning. For example, nouns typically denote entities such as human beings like John, Mary and objects like pen and book. Verbs, characteristically designate action, sensations and states like run, hate and exist. However, nouns such as friendship do not concretely reveal their entities. Thus, to determine a word's category by its meaing only is often not reliable. So here comes the second criteria: 2. inflection For example, nouns such as boy and desk take the plural affix -s. Verbs such as work and help take past tense affix -ed and progressive affix -ing. And adjectives like quiet and clever take comparative affix -er and superlative affix -est. However, some words do not take inflections. For example, nouns like moisture and fog do not usually take plural suffix -s. So here comes the third criteria: 3. distribution For example, nouns can typically appear with a determiner like the girl and a card, verbs with an auxiliary such as should stay and will go, and adjectives with a degree word such as very cool and too bright. Thus, a word's distribution together with its meaning and inflection help identify its syntactic category.
major lexical categories
minor lexical categories
Phrase
Phrase is a syntactic units that are built around a centain word category, such as noun phrase NP, verb phrase VP, adjective phrase AP and prepositional phrase PP. Whether formed of one or more than one word, they consist of two levels, phrase level and word level.
specifers
head
complements
complementizers
Complementizers are words which introduce the sentence.
complement clause
Complement clause is the sentence introduced by the complementizers.
Syntactic structure
D-structure
D-structure is formed by the XP rule in accordance with the heads.
S-structure
S-structure is the final syntactic form of the sentence which results form appropriate transformation.
Semantics
Semantics can be simply defined as the study of meaning.
Some views concerning the study of meaning
The naming theory - arbitrary
It was proposed by Plato. According to this theory, words are just names or labels for things. The naming theory is one of the oldest notions concerning meaning, and also the most primitive one.
Plato
The conceptualist view
The conceptualist view holds that there is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to. In the interpretation of meaning, they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind. This is best illustrated by the sematic triangle suggested by Ogden and Richards:  For example, the word dog is directly associated with a certain concept in our mind, i.e. what a "dog" is like, but it is not directly linked to that particular dog mentioned in the sentence "The dog is barking", i.e. the referent in this particular case. Thus, a symbol or a word represents 'something' in the mind of the language user through the concept associated with the form of the word; and the concept from this perspective is the meaning of the word.
Contextualism
Contextualism holds that the meaning of a word is its use in language. It should be studied in terms of situation, use, context——elements closely linked with language behavior. Two types of contexts are recognized: the situational context and the linguistic context. ①Situational context. For example, "The president of the United States" can mean either the president or presidency in different situation. ②Linguistic context. For example, "black" in black hair, black coffee, or black sheep differs in meaning.
Behaviorism
Behaviorists attempted to define meaning as the situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer. This view of meaning was proposed by Bloomfield. The story of Jack and Jill: 
Bloomfield
Lexical meaning
Sense vs. reference
①Sense is the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. lt is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form; it is abstract and de-contextualized. For example, the word dog does not refer to any particular dog that exists in the real world, but applies to any animal that meets the features described in the definition of dog. ②Reference is what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience. If we say“The dog is barking", we must be talking about a certain dog existent in the situation; the word dog here refers to a dog known to both the speaker and the hearer. Obviously, linguistic forms having the same sense may have different references in different situations. On the other hand, there are also occasions when linguistic forms with the same reference might differ in sense. A very good example is the two expressions morning star and evening star. What they refer to is the very same star that we see in the sky.
Five sense relations between words
Synonymy
Synonymy refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning.
synonyms
Words that are close in meaning are called synonyms. Synonyms that are mutually substitutable under all circumstances are called complete synonyms, which are rare.
Polysemy*
Polysemy refers to the phenomenon that the same one word may have more than one meaning, and such a word is called a polysemic word. E.g., table has seven meanings.
Homonymy
Homonymy refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form.
Homophones
When two words are identical in sound, they are called homophones. eg. rain/reign
Homographs
When two words are identical in spelling, they are homographs. eg. tear v. / tear n.
Complete homonyms
When two words are identical in both sound and spelling, they are called complete homonyms. eg. fast v.禁食 / fast adj.快速的; scale v.攀登 / scale n.范围
Hyponymy
Hyponymy is the sense relation between a more inclusive word and a more specific word. eg. superordinate: flower hyponyms: rose, tulip, carnation, lily
Antonymy
The term antonymy is used for oppositeness of meaning.
Gradable antonyms
There are often intermediate forms between the two members of a pair. eg. old-young, hot-cold, tall-short ...
Complementary antonyms
The denial of one member of the pair implies the assertion of the other. eg. alive-dead, male-female ...
Relational opposites
Relational opposites exhibits the reversal of the relationship between the two items. eg. husband-wife, father-son, doctor-patient ...
six sense relations between sentences
X is synonymous with Y
X: He was a bachelor all his live. Y: He never married all his life. (If X is true, Y is true, and if X is false. Y is false).
X is inconsistent with Y
X: John is married. Y: John is a bachelor. (If X is true, Y is false, and if X is false, Y is true.
X entails Y (Y is an entailment of X)
X: John married a blond heiress. Y: John married a blond. (If X is true, Y is necessarily true, If X is false, Y may be true or false.)
X presupposes Y (Y is a prerequisite of X)
X: John’s bike needs repairing. Y: John has a bike. (If X is true. Y must be true If X is false, Y is still true. )
X is a contradiction
When X is a contradiction, it is invariably false, e.g. My unmarried sister is married to a bachelor.
X is semantically anomalous
E.g. The table has bad intentions. When X is semantically anomalous, it is absurd in the sense that it presupposes a contradiction.
Analysis of meaning
Lexical meaning
Componential analysis
Componential analysis is a way to analyze lexical meaning. For example, the word man is analyzed as comprising the features of +HUMAN, +ADULT, +ANIMATE, +MALE. One advantage of componential analysis is that by specifying the semantic features of certain words, it will show how these words are related in meaning. However, the disadvantage is that it can't work with words having complex meaning.
Sentence meaning
grammatical meaning
The grammaticality of a sentence is governed by the grammatical rules of the language. With our knowledge of English grammar, we can easily tell that the following sentence are not grammatically well-formed: *We will went to Beijing tomorrow.
semantic meaning
Then whether a sentence is semantically meaningful is governed by selectional restrictions.
selectional restrictions
eg. the constraints on what lexical items can go with what others
Predication analysis
Predication analysis is a way to analyze sentence meaning. There are two aspects to sentence meaning: grammatical meaning and semantic meaning. For example, the predication of the sentence "Tom smokes" is said to consist of the argument“TOM”and the predicate“SMOKE", and the predication can be written as TOM(SMOKE).
British G. Leech
Pragmatics
Pragmatics studies how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.
Context
Context is constituted by the knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer.
Sentence meaning vs. Utterance meaning
While the meaning of a sentence is abstract and decontextualized, that of an utterance is concrete, and context-dependent. Utterance is the realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context. Now, take the sentence "My bag is heavy" as an example. It could have been uttered by a speaker as a straightforward statement, telling the hearer that his bag is heavy. It could also have been intended by the speaker as an indirect, polite request, asking the hearer to help him carry the bag. Still another possibility is that the speaker is declining someone's request for help. How it is to be understood depends on the context in which it is uttered and the purpose for which the speaker utters it.
Austin's model of speech acts
According to Austin's model, a speaker might be performing three acts simultaneously when speaking: locutionary act, illocutionary act, and perlocutionary act. A locutionary act is the act of uttering words, phrases, clauses. It is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology. An illocutionary act is the act of expressing the speaker's intention. A perlocutionary act refers to the effect of the utterance. Take the sentence "It is so hot in the room" as an example. The locutionary act performed by the speaker is his utterance of all the words "it""hot"in""room", etc. thus expressing what the words literally mean. The illocutionary act performed by the speaker can be a request of the hearer to open the window or turn on the air conditioner. The perlocutionary act can be the hearer's act of opening the window or his refusal to comply with the request.
Principle of converssation
Paul Grice
implied meaning/implicature
conventional implicature
eg. He is rich but he is not greedy.
non-conventional implicature
A: Where is the steak? B: The dog looks very happy.
Cooperative Principle (CP)
The Cooperative Principle is an important pragmatic principle proposed by E. Grice. It aims to explain how speakers carry on communication cooperatively in utterances. To be more specific, there are four maxims under this general principle: The maxim of quantity 1. Make your contribution as informative as required (for the current purpose of the exchange). 2. Do not make your contribution more informative than is required. The maxim of quality 1. Do not say what you believe to be false. 2. Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence. The maxim of relation Be relevant The maxim of manner 1. Avoid obscurity of expression. 2. Avoid ambiguity. 3. Be brief (avoid unnecessary prolixity). 4. Be orderly.
The maxim of quantity

The maxim of quality

The maxim of relation

The maxim of manner

Interdisciplinary branches
Sociolinguistics
Sociolinguistics is the sub-field of linguistics that studies the relation between language and society, between the use of language and the social structures in which the users of language live.
Speech variety
Speech variety refers to any distinguishable form of speech used by a speaker or a group of speakers, such as regional dialects, sociolects, registers and so on.
Linguistic repertoire
Linguistic repertoire is the totality of linguistic varieties possessed by an individual.
Varieties of language
Dialectal varieties
Halliday's register theory
According to Halliday(British), “language varies as its function varies; it differs in different situations." Register is the type of language which is selected as apprppriate to the type of situation. Halliday further distinguishes three social variables that determine the register: ①Field of discourse. It refers to what is going on and to the area of language activity. ②Tenor of discourse. It refers to the role of relationship in the situation in question. ③Mode of discourse. It refers to the means of communication. For example, the field of discourse of a lecture on biology in a technical college could be identified as scientific (biological), tenor of discourse could be defined as the relation between teacher and students (formal, polite), and the mode of discourse could be defined as oral (academic lecturing).
field of discourse
tenor of discourse
mode of discourse
Five stages of formality
Frozen
Formal
Consultative
Casual
Intimate
Bilingualism
Bilingualism is the situation that in some speech communities, two languaaes are used side by side with each having a different role to play; and language switching occurs when the situation changes. For example, both French and English are recognized as official language in Canada.
Diglossia
According to Ferguson(1959), diglossia refers to a sociolinguistic situation similar to bilingualism. But instead of two different languages, in a diglossic situation two varieties of a language exist side by side throughout the community, with each having a definite role to play. Each of these languages has two varieties: the high variety(H) and the low variety(L).
Neurolinguistics
Neurolinguistics is the study of two related areas: language disorder and the relationship between the brain and language. It includes research into how the brain is structured and what function each part of the brain performs, how and in which parts of the brain language is stores, and how damage to the brain affects the ability to use language.
cerebral cortex
It is within the human cortex that the secrets of language representation and processing are to be found. It is the cerebral cortex that accounts for the human distinctness in the animal world. Animals, for example, have no cortex at all.
lateralization
Most right-handed individuals are said to be left lateralized for language. However, few left-handers have language localization in the right hemisphere. Rather they tend to show significant language representation in both hemisphere, thus left-handers are generally less lateralized for language.
Broca's area
Broca's area is the bottom rear portion of the frontal lobe. It is responsible for the articulation of speech.
Psycholinguistics
Psycholinguistics is the study of language processing. It is concerned with the process of language comprehension and production.
Language
Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.
Functions
the descriptive function
the expressive function
the social function
Language and culture
The relation of language to culture is that of part to whole. Just as speech behavior is one variety of social behavior, linguistics competence is a variety of cultural competence. On the one hand, language as an integral part of human being permeates his thinking and way of viewing the world. It both expresses and embodies cultural reality. On the other, language, as a system of spoken or written symbols used by people in a shared culture to communicate with each other, reflects and affects a culture's way of thinking and helps perpetuate and change the culture and its influence, which also facilitates the development of this language at the same time. 一方面，语言既表达又象征着文化；另一方面，语言是在人们的交流中去使用的，反映和影响着人们的说话方式，而且也帮助着稳定这种文化，并且能够促进自身的发展。
culture
In a broad sense, culture reflects a total way of life of a people in a community. For example, an individual's attitudes, values, ideals and beliefs are greatly influenced by the culture in which he lives. In a narrow sense, culture may refer to local or specific practice, beliefs or customs, which can be manifested in folk culture, enterprise culture or food culture, etc. 
discourse communities
Discourse community is a set of people who use a common language for interaction.
Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis (SWH)
The interdependence of language and thought is now known as Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis (SWH). While the strong version believes that the language patterns determine people's thinking and behavior, the weak one holds that the former influence the latter. (In my opinion, the weak version is more reasonable. So far, many researches and experiments conducted in various disciplines provide support to the weak version.) The studies have shed new light on our understanding of the hypothesis: people tend to sort out and distinguish experiences differently according to the semantic categories provided by their different codes in their culture. A good illustration of this point is the word “snow” in Eskimo and English. The Eskimos have countless words for snow. For them, snow is extremely important and so crucial to life that each of its various forms and conditions is named. In English-speaking cultures, snow is far less important and the simple word “snow” usually suffices the needs. The study has shed two important insights: i. Language as code, reflects cultural preoccupations and constrains the way people think. ii. More than in Whorf's days, however, we recognize how important context is in complementing the meanings encoded in the language.
linguistic determinism
Linguistic determinism, is one of the two points of Sapir-Whorf hypothesis, and has developed into the strong version of this hypothesis. Linguistic determinism means that a language determines certain nonlinguistic cognitive processes.
linguistic relativity
Linguistic relativity means that different language offer people different ways of expressing the world around, so they think and speak differently.
an linguistic sign
Any linguistic sign may simultaneously have a denotative, connotative, or iconic kind of meanings. Take the word "rose" as an example. Its denotative meaning is well explained in a dictionary, its connotative meaning is the associations triggered by the word, such as love and beauty, and its iconic meaning invokes image or icons to people, such as an image of a beautiful women or pink bubbles. Denotative meaning is a meaning that is well explained in a dictionary.
linguistic evidence of cultural differences
denotative meanings
connotative meanings
iconic meanings
three forms of culture contact
acculturation
Acculturation occurs when one group's cultural system interferes with that of another, challenging the latter to adapt to the ways of the former. Such change has characterized most political conquests and expansions over the centuries, which accounts for the borrowing of many French words in English for instance.
assimilation
Assimilation occurs when individuals or groups of differing ethnicity are absorbed into the dominant culture of a society. The most typical example for assimilation is“the melting pot", a unique cultural feature in the US.
amalgamation(or hybridization)
Amalgamation occurs when a society becomes ethnically mixed in a way that represents synthesis. In Mexico, for example, Spanish and Indian cultures become increasingly amalgamated over centuries of contact.
cultural diffusion
Cultural diffusion means that some elements of culture A enter culture B and become part of culture B. One typical example of cultural diffusion is the appearance of loan words. When cultures come into contact, words are often borrowed from one language to another. eg. sofa, coffee
Language acquisition
Language acquisition refers to a child's acquisition of his mother tongue.
Theories of child language acquisition
the behaviorist
Traditional behaviorists view language as behavior and believe that language learning is simply a matter of imitation and habit formation.
Skinners
the innatist
Language Acquisition Device (LAD)
Chomsky proposed that human being are born with an innate ability known as language acquisition device or LAD.The LAD was described as an imaginary "black box" existing somewhere in the human brain. Children need access to the samples of a natural language to activate the LAD, which enables them to acquire mother tongue. Later Chomsky referred this innate endowment as Universal Grammar.
Chomsky
Critical Period Hypothesis (CPH)
Eric Lenneberg argued that the LAD, like other biological function, works successfully only when it is stimulated at the right time - a specific and limited time period for language acquisition.
Eric Lenneberg
the interactionist
The interactionisist view holds that language develops as a result of the complex interplay between the human characteristics of the child and the environment in which he grows.
Second Language Acquisition (SLA)
Second language acquisition studies how one person acquires a second language subsequent to his native language. 
error vs. mistake
Errors usually result from the learner's lack of knowledge; it represents a lack of competence. In other words, learners don't know the right form or are unable to use language correctly. Mistakes often occur when learners fail to perform their competence. In other words, the learner has already learned the knowledge or skill but simply cannot function correctly due to lack of attention or other factors.
Interlanguage
Interlanguage was established as learners' independent system of the second language, which is of neither the native language nor the second language, but a continuum or approximation from one extreme of his native language to the other of the second language. eg. to touch the society
systematicity
permeability
fossilization
Fossilization has become one of the main features of interlanguage. Some experts relate this to the learners' partial access or no access to the Universal Grammar, others hold that even if learners have full access to the Universal Grammar, it is done through their native language, and therefore, their language is short of native-like proficiency.
Input hypothesis
Krashen put forward that learners advance their language learning gradually by receiving "comprehensible input".
Krashen