语言学教程 胡壮麟版语言学 第3章Words and Morphology

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Words and Morphology

3.1 The Nature of Words

What is words？

Definiton

Words are concerned with meanings.

Words are not the smallest unit of meaning.

A word contains one or more morphemes that can stand on its own.

Simple word

Complex word

①A word can stand alone in the sense of phonology.②A word can stand on its own in terms of its structure.③A word can stand alone in terms of its grammaticalperformance.

Classification

Content word（实义词）：content words expression concrete meaning. They are also called open class words.

noun

verb

adjective

advberb

Function word（功能词）：function words can be understood as undertaking the task of fulfilling grammatical functions.They are also called closed classwords.

complementiser（标句词）：that whether

pronoun（代词）

article（冠词）

demonstrative（指示词）

auxiliary verb（助动词）

preposition（介词）

conjunction（连词）

Morpheme (语素)

Definition：Morpheme is the smallest unit of language in terms of the relationship between expression and content, a unit that cannot be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning，whether it is lexical or grammatical.

Classification

Morpheme

Free morpheme（自由语素）

Lexical morpheme（词汇语素）

Functional morpheme（功能语素）

Bound morpheme（黏着语素）

Derivative morpheme（派生语素）eg. good→goodness

Inflectional morpheme（曲折语素）eg. small→smaller

Lexme（词位）

Definition：A lexeme can be understood as a family of words that differently in their grammatical endings. （E.g. walk, walked, walking）

The difference between lexeme and word form（词语形式）：lexeme： walk→word form：walk, walked, walking

3.2 Type of Morphemes

Morpheme（语素）

Free morpheme（自由语素）

Lexical morpheme（词汇语素）eg.house, long, work

Functional morpheme（功能语素）eg.but, in, the, it

Bound morpheme（黏着语素）

Derivative morpheme（派生语素）eg. good→goodness

Inflectional morpheme（曲折语素）eg. small→smaller

Free morpheme （自由语素）

It refers to those which may occur alone or which may constitute words by themselves. Free morpheme can be further divided into lexical morphemes and functional morphemes.可以独立成词。 All mono-morphemic words are free morphemes.所有单素词都是自由语素。

Bound morpheme（黏着语素）

Bound morpheme refers to those which cannot occur alone and must appear with at least one other morpheme.Bound morpheme can be further divided into derivational morphemes and inflectional morphemes.不能独立成词。 E.g. disagreement dis→inflectional morpheme；ment→derivational morpheme

Root（词根）

A root refers to the base form of a word that cannot be further analyzed without loss of identity.

1. enable：- able-

2. astronomy：- astro-

3. linguist：- lingu-

Stem（词干）

A stem is any morpheme or combinations of morphemes to which a bounded morpheme be added. 1) friend, friends 2) friendship, friendships A stem may be the same as a root. It may also contain aroot and one, or more than one, derivational affix.

词干=词根+黏着语素（词缀）

Affix（词缀）

Perfix（前缀）

Suffix（后缀）

Infix（中缀）

Circumfix（框缀）

Allomorph（语素变体）

A single morpheme may be phonetically realized as two ormore morphs. The different morphs that represent or which are derived from one morpheme is called theallomorphs of that morpheme. 1)The plural in English-[z], [s],[iz]（语音变形） 2) Negation in English -ir, il, in, im, dis, un ...（单词变形）

3.3 Morphological Processes

Derivation（派生）

Derivation refers to the morphological process of forming a lexeme by attaching an affix to anexisting lexeme. Affixes involved in derivation are derivational affixes or derivational morphemes.

Derivation involves the change of the category of the existing lexeme. lt is called categorization（词类化）.（nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs）

E.g.construct-construction; teach- teacher; child - childhood

Conversion（零派生）

When categorization take place without affixation, we call this type of categorization zero-derivation, or conversation.（零派生，没有词缀却变了词类）

E.g.1）Please send me an e-mail please. 2）E-mail me please

Compounding（复合构词）

Compounding yields new lexemes, which involves the combination of lexemes, instead of a lexemes and an affix. There are three types:attributive compounds, coordinative compounds and subordinative compounds.词位的结合，没有词缀参与。

type1

attributive compounds（修饰型复合词）E.g. blackmail, windmill；bookstore, lowlife

coordinative compounds（并列型复合词）E.g.prince-consort, teacher-student，truck-driver, coffee-grinder

subordinative compounds（从属型复合词）Eg.truck-driver 构成动宾关系通常有破折号

argument论元 通常主语和宾语是动词的论元

type2

synthetic compound（合成性复合词） - student-teacher 有派生

root compound（根复合词）blackmail 无派生

Inflection（屈折）

The morphological process of inflection does not give rise to a new lexeme, but only yields different word forms of the same lexeme. Inflection does not change the meaning of the base lexeme, nor does it change its category.不产生新词位，意思不变，词类不变

requirement of grammar

more productive

coinage(新造法)

Eg.iphone

Blending（截搭法）

Blending is another way of forming a new lexeme, which is a process of combining parts of two lexemes which themselves are not morphemes.

E.g. brunch; Brexit

Backformation(逆构法)

Eg.surveillance - surveilleburglar - burgle

Clipping（截短法）

Eg.refrigerator - fridgedemonstration - demo

Acronym(缩略法)

Eg. World Trade Organization-WTO(不可读)

Initialism（首字母缩写词）

Eg. NATO, TOEFL,IELTS（可读）

The difference between derivation and inflection：

①inflection is solely the requirement of grammar

②inflectional rules are more productive than derivational ones

③inflection never change the category of the base lexeme，devirationchanges the categery

④inflection never changes the meaning of the base lexeme

Words and Morphology

What is a word？

Word is a unit of expression that native speakers may recognize by intuition,whether in spoken or written form. 词是个语言表达单位，无论是在口语还是在书面语中，说母语的人都能够凭直觉识别这个语言单位。

Three Senses of “Word” (词的三种含义)

(1) a physically definable unit; 词是自然的有界限的对立单位；

(2) both a general and specific term; (2)词既是一个普通术语又是一个专门术语；

(3) a grammatical unit. (3)词是一个语法单位。

Identification of Words (词的识别)

stability (稳定性)

relative uninterruptibility (相对连续性)

a minimum free form (最小的自由形式)

Classification of Words (词的分类)

Variable and invariable words (可变词和不变词)

Variable words：Write ，writes. writing. wrote. written. cat cat

Invariable words：since. when. seldom. through. etc