语言学教程 胡壮麟版语言学 第5章Meaning

这是一篇关于语言学教程 胡壮麟版语言学 第5章Meaning的思维导图，详细解释了词汇的定义、识别、分类以及词形变化。首先，图片定义了词汇作为一个语言表达单位，指出母语者可以通过直觉在口语或书面语中识别它。脑图列出了词汇的三种理解：(1) 作为物理上可定义的单元；(2) 同时作为一个通用和特定的术语；(3) 作为一个语法单位。随后，图片探讨了“什么是词？”的问题，并提出了词汇的识别特性，如稳定性、相对连续性和作为最小的自由形式。整个概念图以清晰的结构和明确的示例展示了词汇的多种理解方式和词形的分类，为读者提供了一个关于词汇和词形学的全面认识。

Meaning

• 4.1 Meanings of “Meaning”
  • 7 types of meaning（7种意义类型）
    • by G.Leech利奇提出的
    • 1.Conceptual meaning(概念意义)
      • 1.Conceptual meaning is logical, cognitive and denotative. Denotation（外延） is concerned with the relationship between a word and the thing it denotes, or refers to. In this sense, conceptual meaning overlaps to a large extent with the notion of REFERENCE.概念意义是“外延”的，因为它关注词语跟它所指称事物之间的联系。从这点看，概念意义在很大程度上与指称(Reference)相重合。
    • 2.Connotative meaning（内涵意义）
      • 2.Connotation（内涵） refers to the properties of the entity a word denotes.“内涵”connotation ),跟“外延”(Denotation)相对，表示词语所指称实体的性质。
    • 3.Social meaning（社会意义）
    • 4. Affective meaning（情感意义）
    • 5.Reflected meaning（反射意义）
    • 6.Collective meaning（搭配意义）
    • 7. Thematic meaning（主位意义）：is determined by the order and emphasis of the word.
• 5.2 Referential theory（指称论）
  • DEFINITION:Referential theory is a theory of meaning which relates the meaning of a word to the thing it refers to, or stands for.把词语意义跟它所指称或所代表的事物联系起来的理论，叫作指称论。
    • Concept（概念）：
• 5.3 Sene relations（涵义关系）
  • sense（涵义） vs reference（指称）
    • Sense（涵义） may be defined as the semantic relations between one word and another,or more generally between one linguistic unit and another.一个词含义与其他词之间的一种涵义关系→词语间的语义关系
    • Reference（指称） is concerned with the relation between a word and the thing it refers to, or more generally between a linguistic unit and a non-linguistic entity it refers to.词与所指物的关系→语言单位与非语言实体的关系
  • 3 sense relations三种涵义关系
    • sameness（同义关系）
      • synonymy（同义关系）
        • Synonymy is the technical name for the sameness relation. If two words can exchange with eachother in a sentential context without altering the sentence's truth conditions, then they can bejudged as synonymous in that context.
    • oppositeness（反义关系）
      • Antonymy（反义关系）
        • 1.gradable antonymy（等级反义）
          • good; bad
        • 2.complementary antonymy（互补反义）
          • alive: dead; male: female; boy:girl
        • 3.converse antonymy（关系反义）
          • buy: sell; borrow: give; parent: child; husband: wife; host: guest
          • 不构成肯定、否定的对立，两实体间的一种反向关系，典型表现在社会关系、时间空间关系等方面，还有比较级也属于此类。与前两个的区别：one presuppose other（一个预设了另一个且涉及两个实体）。
    • inclusiveness（互包关系）
      • Hyponymy(上下关系)
        • 1. Superordinate or hypernym(上坐标词)
          • flowers
        • 2.Hyponym（下义词)
          • peony, jasmine, tulip, violet, carnation, rose
• 5.4 Componuential Analysis（成分分析法）
  • Semantic feature/Semantic components（语义特征/语义成分）
    • Semantic feature/Semantic components are semantic units smaller than the meaning of a word.比词的意义更小的语义单位。
      • E.g.boy: human, young, male
      • girl: human, young, female
      • man； human, adult, malewoman:
      • woman: human, adult, female
  • Entailment（蕴含关系）
    • A.John killed Bill. B.Bill died.
    • A. l saw a boy. B.l saw a child.
    • A.John is a bachelor. B.John is unmarried.
  • Problems of Componential Analysis
    • 1) Many words are polysemous
      • man
    • 2) some semantic components are seen as binary taxonomies
      • male - female
      • adult - young
    • 3) There may be words whose semantic components are difficult toascertain
• 5.5 Sentence Meaning（句子意义）
  • Compositionality(组合性)
    • Compositionality(组合性)refers to the principle that the meaning of a sentence depends on the meaning of the constituent words and the way they are combined.句子的意义是由词语的意义和组合方式所决定的。
      • Sentence meaning is not the total sum of the word meanings
      • 1) The man chased the dog
      • 2)The dog chased the man
      • 3) I've already seen that film. (Unmarked sentence)
      • 4)That film I've already seen. (marked sentence)
      • 5) The son of Pharaoh's daughter is the daughter of Pharaoh's son.
  • 1. Cognitive Semantics(认知语义学)
    • Cognitive Semantics proposes that "language is all about meaning".语言完全是关于意义的。
      • A.Linguistic meaning is perspectival.
      • B. Linguistic meaning is dynamic and flexible.
      • C. Linguistic meaning is encyclopedic and non-autonomous.
      • D.Linguistic meaning is based on usage and experience.
  • Frame Semantics（框架语义学）
    • Construction Grammar（构式语法）
      • The meaning of a sentence does not only depend onthe individual words used, but more importantly onthe construction as a whole.
  • Logical semantics（逻辑语义学）
    • propositional logic（命题逻辑）
      • Proposition(命题）：A proposition is what is expressed by a declarative sentence when that sentence is uttered to make a statement. 陈述句被用于描述时所表达的意思。
        • "If P is true, then ~P is false"
        • (The true value of a composite proposition is said to be the functionof, or is determined by, the true values of its component propositions and the logical connectives used in it.)(复合命题的真值是其组成命题的真值和逻辑连接词的功能决定。)
          • • a.The house is on fire.
              • (P)
                • T
            • b. The fire brigde are on the way.
              • (q)
                • T
            • C.The house is on fire and the fire bridge are on the way.
              • (P&q)
                • T
      • Logical connective（逻辑连词）：
        • A logical connective is a logical element which helps to construct a composite proposition on thebasis of simple proposition.
          • There are five usual logical connectives:
          • The negative connective:~否定
            • 一元连词
          • The conjunctive connective:&合取
          • The disjunctive connective :V析取
          • The implicational connective:→蕴含
          • The equivalent (or biconditional ) connective: 三 等值
          • 二元连词
    • Predicate logic(谓词逻辑)
      • Predicate logic studies the internal structure of simple propositions. In this logical system, propositions like Socrates is a man will beanalyzed into two parts: argument（主目） and predicate（谓词）.
        • An argument（主目） is term which refers to some entity about which a statement is beingmade
        • A predicate（谓词） is a term referred to.
        • Eg.Socrates is a man
          • Socrates - argument-主目
          • man- predicate -谓词
      • Universal quantifier: all(全称量词）
      • Existential quantifier: some(存在量词)
      • 练习
• Denotation vs Connotation
  • denotation外延：大约等于概念意义，可以用一个词与某个事物相连
  • connotation内涵：描述某个东西的特征
• 2-4是联想意义
• Immediate Constituent Analysis/IC analysis （直接成分分析法）
  • 成分A句子本身：The schoolmaster drove the car.
    • 成分B：the schoolmaster
    • 成分C：drove the car
  • 成分B和C是成分A的直接成分
• semantics（语义学）
  • Semantics is the study of the meaning of linguistic units, words and sentence in particular.

Words and Morphology

• What is a word？
  • Word is a unit of expression that native speakers may recognize by intuition,whether in spoken or written form. 词是个语言表达单位，无论是在口语还是在书面语中，说母语的人都能够凭直觉识别这个语言单位。
  • Three Senses of “Word” (词的三种含义)
    • (1) a physically definable unit; 词是自然的有界限的对立单位；
    • (2) both a general and specific term; (2)词既是一个普通术语又是一个专门术语；
    • (3) a grammatical unit. (3)词是一个语法单位。
  • Identification of Words (词的识别)
    • stability (稳定性)
    • relative uninterruptibility (相对连续性)
    • a minimum free form (最小的自由形式)
  • Classification of Words (词的分类)
    • Variable and invariable words (可变词和不变词)
      • Variable words：Write ，writes. writing. wrote. written. cat cat
      • Invariable words：since. when. seldom. through. etc