导图社区 语言学导论（期末）
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语言学导论（期末）
语言学导论（期末）的思维导图，语言学是对语言的科学或系统的研究。语言学研究的科学性可以归纳为：穷尽性、一致性以及简洁性。
编辑于2023-06-27 09:44:59- 语言学
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第一章：导言
1.1 复习笔记
本章要点：
要点
1. 语言的定义和研究范围 The definition and main branches of linguistics study
2. 语言的定义与起源 The definition and the origins of language
3. 语言的特征和功能 The design feature and the function of language
4. 语言学重要的概念 Some major concepts in linguistics
本章内容
1. Definition of linguistics （语言学的定义）
语言学是对语言的科学或系统的研究。语言学研究的科学性可以归纳为：穷尽性、一致性以及简洁性。 Linguistics refers the scientific or systematic study of language, which is led by the three scientific canons: enhaustiveness, consistency and economy.
2. Linguistics vs. traditional grammar （语言学与传统语法）
语言学不同于传统语法3：
1. 语言学描述语言，传统语法设定规则 Linguistics describes languages, while traditional grammar prescribes rules of correctence.
2. 语言学认为口语是基础而非文字。 Linguists regard the spoken language as primary, not the written.
3. 语言学根据语言本身的优点来描述每种语言，而传统语法基于拉丁语的框架来分析语言。 Linguistics describes each language on its own merits, while traditional grammar analyzes language based on a Latin-based frame-work.
3. Scope of linguistics（语言学的研究范畴）
1. Microlinguistics（微观语言学）
语音学 Phonetics
音系学 Phonology
形态学 Morphology
句法学 Syntax
语义学 Semantics
语用学 Pragmatics
2. Macrolinguistics（宏观语言学）
社会语言学 Sociolinguistics
心理语言学 Psycholinguistics
神经语言学 Neurolinguistics
文体学 Stylistics
语篇分析 Discourse analysis
认知语言学 Cognitive linguistics
应用语言学 Applied linguistics
计算语言学 Computational linguistics
司法语言学Forensic linguistics
人类语言学Anthropology linguistics
4. Definition of language(语言的定义）
1.语言是一个系统——其元素非任意排列，而是根据一定规则组合的 Language is a system-the elements of language are not organized and combined at random,but rather according to certain rules.
2. 语言是任意的——一个词的意思和它的声音或形成之间没有任何自然或必要的联系。 Language is arbitrary-the absence of any natural or necessary connection between a word's meaning and its sound or form.
3. 语言是口头的——是所有语言的基本交流形式。 Language is vocal-sound is the primary medium for all languages.
4. 语言是人类用来交流的工具——不同于动物的交流系统。 Language is used for human communication-language is different frome the communication systems animals poseess.
5. Origins of language(语言的起源）
1. Ding-Dang Theory(本能论）
语言起源于人类用于日常生活相关的声音来命名物体 language began when humans started naming objects after a relevant sound that was already involved in their everyday life.
2. Sing-Song Theory（唱歌说）
语言起源于与仪式舞蹈相联系的原始圣歌。 Language arose from rhythmic primitive chants associated with ritual dance.
3. Pooh-Pooh Theory（感叹说）
语言来源于对痛苦、恐惧、惊讶或其他情感的自动声音反应：大笑、尖叫、喘息。 Language comes frome the automatic vocal responses to pain, fear, surprise, or other emotions: a laugh, a shriek, a gasp
4. Yo-He-Ho Theory（劳动喊声说）
语言来源于共同劳动时发出的有节奏的声音。 Language started with the rhythmic sounds people used when they worked together.
5.Ta-Ta Theory（模仿说）
语言来源于用舌头和嘴的手势来模仿手的手势。 Language came frome the use of tongue and mounth gestures to mimic manual gestures.
6. Bow-Wow Theory（摹声说）
语言起源于拟声词，即对自然声音的模仿。 Language developed as onomatopoeia, imitations of natural sounds.
6. Design features of language（语言的定义特征）
1. Arbitrariness(任意性）
任意性是指某个符号的声音与意义之间没有逻辑或内在联系。 This refes to the fact that there is no natural or necessary connection between a word's meaning and its sound or form.
2. Duality(二重性)
二重性是指语言有两个系统的特征。在较低的层次上是无意义的声音系统。这些声音可以被分割并在较高层次上重新组合成大量的意义单位（语素和单词等）。这些有意义的单位可以被安排和重新安排成无限数量的句子。比如，人类语言中音因素，独立的音素本身通常没有意义，与其他音素结合起来形成语素才有可能产生意义。 language consists of two sets of structures. At the lower level is a structure of sounds which is meaningless in themselves. These sounds can be grounped and regoounped into a large number of units of meaning(morphemes and words etc.) at the higher level. These meaningful units at the higher level can be arranged and rearranged into an infinite number of sentences.
3. Productivity(能产性）
能产性是指人们的一种语言能力，它能使人们说出或者理解无限多的句子，有些是我们以前从未听过的句子。 Productivity or creativity refers to man's ability of the users of languages in making and comprehending an infinite number os sentences including those that they have never heard before.
4. Interchangeability(互换性）
互换性是指人可以传递和接受相同的语言信号能力，即人作为说话者或听话者的角色是可以随意更换的。 Interchangeability or reciprocity refers to the fact that humans can transmit and receive identical linguistics signals,and our positions as a speaker and a hearer can be easily switched.
5. Displacement(移位性）
移位性是一种语言的能力，它能使人们谈论那些不可及的事物，也就是那些要么不在这里，要么现在不在这里的事物。 Displacement is the capability of language to communicate about things that are not immediately present, i.e., things that are either not here or not here now.
6. Specialization(专门性）
专门性指人们在交流过程中并非全身投入，而是只通过语言即可交流的能力。Specialization refers to the fact that man is not fully physically involved in the process of communication.
7. Cultural transmission（文化传递性）
语言是通过文化传递的，文化传递性指语言是后天通过社会环境习得的，而不是与生俱来的特征。 Language is culturally transmitted, i.e., language is more learned after birth through a social setting instead of inherent.
7. Funtions of language（语言功能)
1. Phatic function/communion（寒暄功能）
语言能用来在说话者和听者之间建立或维持良好的人际关系。如问候语、送别及称谓。 Language is used to establish or maintain good interpersonal relationships between the addresser and addressee.Greetings,farewells,and addresses perform this function.
2. Directive function(指示功能）
语言能使听话者按照听到的话去做。大部分祈使句都体现了这种功能。 Language is used by the addresser to get the addressee to do something. Most imperative sentences fulfil directive function.
3. Informative Function(信息功能）
信息用来陈述，交流信息，或表示一个人对某事的理解，一般出现在陈述句中。 Language is used to make statements, to communicate information, or to represent one's understanding of something. Declarative sentences perform this function.
4. Interrogative function(疑问功能）
语言用来向他人提问而获取信息。 Language is used to obtain information from those being asked.
5. Expressive function(表达功能）
语言用来提供有关说话者的价值观、感情和态度的信息。 Language is used to supply information about the speaker's values, feelings and attitudes.
6. Evocative function(唤起功能）
语言用来使听话者产生某种感情。 Language is used to elicit specific emotion in those who hear it.
7. Performative function(施为功能）
语言用来实施一种行为。 Language is used to do things or to carry out actions.
8. Some maijor concepts in linguistics(语言学中的主要概念）
1. Descriptive and prescriptive grammar（描写式与规定式语法）
（1.）描写式语法旨在对语言进行描述，而规定式语法旨在规定语言应该如何使用。 Descriptive grammar objectively analyzes and describes how language is actually used; while prescriptive grammar attempts to eatablish rules defining correct usage of language.
（2.）传统语法学家试图规定语法规则，这被称为规定式语法。现代语言学基本上是描写式语法。 Traditional grammar is often referred to as prescriptive because it attempts to set down rules. Modern linguistics is descriptive.
2. Synchronic and diachronic linguistics（共时与历史语言学）
共时语言学指在任何特定的时间描述一种语言的语言学分类，而历史语言学是指研究一种语言在一段时间内是如何演变的学科分类。 Synchronic linguistics aims at describing a language at any given time, while diachronic study refers to study of how a language evolves over a period of time.
共时语言学集中研究历史任何时期点的语言现状，而历史语言学集中研究几十年或几百年的时期内两个或比两个更多的语言状况的差异。 Synchronic linguistics is concerned with the state of language at any point in history whereas diachronic linguistics is concerned with the variations between two or more states of language over time.
3. Langue and parole(语言与言语）
（1.）索绪尔对语言和言语做了重要的区分。 F.de Saussure made an important distinxtion between language and parole.
（2.）语言是指一个语言群体的所有成员所共有的抽象的语言系统。言语是指言语的具体实现和运用。Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the menbers of a speech community. Parole refers to particular realizations of langue.
（3.）索绪尔从社会学的角度把语言作为一种社会习俗来分析。语言是社会的，约定性的，而言语是个人的话语。 Saussure analyzes language from a sociological perspective as a matter of social conventional side of language, while parole the speech of individuals.
4. Competence and performance（语言能力和语言应用）
根据乔姆斯基的理论，语言能力是指说话者内化的一套规则，它使说话者能产生和理解无数个句子，并能识别错误和歧义。 According to Chomsky, competence is a set of rules internalized by speakers which enables them to produce and understand an infinite number of sentences and recognize the mistakes and ambiguities, 语言运用是指语言交际中一系列规则的实际实现。 while performance is the actual realization of the set of rules in linguistics communication.
5. Syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations(组合和聚合关系）
索绪尔提出了另一对概念：组合与居合关系。组合关系是指在同一句子或文本中同时出现的词之间的一种语义关系。聚合关系指一种不同类型的语义关系，一个词被同意范畴内的另一个词所替代。 Saussure also makes distinction between syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations. Syntagmatic relations is a type of sematic relations betwen words that co-occure in the same sentence or text. Paradigmatic relation is a different type of sematic relations between words that can be substituted with another word in the same categories.
6. Functionalism and formalism（功能主义与结构主义）
功能主义或功能语言学指对语言在交际中的社会功能的研究。 Functionalism or functional linguistics is an approch to the study of language in terms of its social functions in communication.
结构主义或结构语言学指对抽象的语言形式及内部关系的研究。 Foemalism or formal linguistics studies the abstract forms of language and the relationship between linguistic elements.
1.2 课后习题
1.3 真题
第二章：语音
1. 要点
1. 发音器官 Speech organs
2. 辅音和元音的区别、分类及描写规则 Distinction, classification and the criteria of description between consonants and vowels
3. 语音的变化 Variations of sounds
4. 音位、最小对立、集合体和自由变异 Phonemes, minimal paires and sets and free variation
5. 区别特征和辅音连缀 Distictive features and consonant cluster
6. 音节结构、重音和语调 Syllable struzture, stress and intonation
2. 常考点
语音学
语音学的定义；发音器官的英文名称；英语辅音的定义、发音部位、发音方法和分类；英语元音的定义和分类、基本原因；发音语音学；听觉语音学；声学语音学
音系学
音系学的定义；音系学与语音学的联系和区别；音素、音位、最小音位体、自由变异；因为理论；区别性特征；超切分特征；音节；重音（词重音、句子重音）；音高和语调。
3. 语音学 Phonetics
语音学 Phonetics
语音学研究所有人类语言的声音。 Phonetics refers to the study of the speech sounds that appeared in all human languages.
语音学研究的三大领域 Three major research fields of phonetics
发音语音学研究语音的产生。 Articulatory phonetics refers to the study of how speech sounds are produced, or "pronounced".
声学语音学研究语音的物质特征。 Acoustic phonetics focuses on the process of the speech's propagation in the air.
感知语音学（或听觉语音学）研究语音的感知。 Auditory phonetics involves how listeners perceive speech sounds.
4. 发音器官 Articulators
发音器官 Articulators
七个主要的发音器官 Seven major articulators
There are seven maijor articulators:
咽腔 pharynx
软腭 velum or soft palate
硬腭 hard palate
齿龈 alveoar ridge or alveolum
舌 tongue
齿 teeth
唇 lips
三个注意的点 Three noyices
1. 咽也是发音器官 Larynx is a;so an organ of articulator.
2. 下颌有时也称作发音器官，但它与其他发音器官不一样。 Jaws are sometimes called articulators, but it is different from other articulator.
3. 鼻子和鼻腔和其他的发音器官也不一样。 The nose and the nasel cavity are different from other articulators.
浊音和清音 Voiced and voiceless sounds
1. 在发音过程中，发音时声带不振动，这样发出的声音叫做清音。 Voiceless sounds refers to those sounds pronounced in the way that the vocal cords do not vibrate during the pronounciation process(the vocal cords are spread apart, the airstream from the lungs is not obstructed at the space between vocal cords and passes freely).
2.在发音过程中，发音时声带振动，这样所发出的音叫做浊音。 voiced sounds refers to those sounds pronounced in the way that the vocal cords vibrate during the the pronunciation process.
鼻音和口腔音 Nasal and oral sounds
1.软腭下垂，使鼻腔和口腔同时通气，这样发出的音为鼻音。 Nasal sounds refers to sounds pronounced in the way that the velum droops and thus the nasal cavity and oral cavity are ventilated at the same time.
2.软腭上升直到喉咙后部，同时形成鼻腔阻塞，气流从口腔中释放，这样发出的音为口腔音。 Oral sounds refers to sounds pronounced in the way that the velum rises to the back of the throat, and at the same time, a blockage of the nasal cavity is formed, releasing the airsteam frome the mounth.
5. 辅音和元音 Classification of Enlish Speech Sounds
辅音 Consonants
发音时，声道的某些部位受到压缩或阻碍后，使得气流在口腔里转向、受阻或完全被阻塞，由此产生的音叫做辅音。Consonants are sounds produced due to certain parts of the vocal tract are compreseed or obstructed,causing the airstream in the oral to be deflected, obstructed or completely blocked in the process of pronounciation.
发音方式和发音部位 Manner of Articulation and Place of Articulation
1.发音方式指发音器官之间的关系，以及气流经过声道的某些部位时的方式。 Manner of articulation refers to the actual relationship between the articulators and thus the way in which the air passes through certain parts of the vocal tract.
2. 发音部位指声道的那些发生气流摩擦、狭窄化或阻碍的部位。 Place of articulation refers to the involvement of the articulators in the production of a particular consonant .
辅音的分类 Classification of Consonants
1. 按发音方式分类，辅音可分为
爆破音 stops: [p, b, t, d, k, g]
擦音 fricatives: [f, v,q, ð , s, z, h,
塞擦音 affricates: [
流音 liquids: [l, r ]
鼻音 nasals: [m, n,
滑音 glides: [j, w]
2. 按发音部位分类
双唇音 bilabials: [p, b, m, w]
唇齿音 labiodentals: [f, v]
齿音 dentals: [
齿龈音 alveolars: [t, d, n, s, z, r, l ]
硬腭音 palatals: [j,
软腭音 velars: [k,g,
声门音 glottal: [h]
元音 Vowel
发音时声音不受任何压缩或阻碍，因此不会有气流·的紊乱或停滞，由此产生的音叫做元音
舌头最高部分的位置 The Hight of the Tongue
前元音 front vowels: [
中元音 central vowels: [
后元音 back vowels: [
唇的圆展度 The Shape of the Lips
圆唇音 rounded vowels:[
展唇音 unrounded vowels: [
开口的宽度 The Width of the Mouth
开元音 open vowels:[
闭元音 close vowels: [
半开元音 semi-open vowels: [
单元音与双元音 Monophthongs and Diphthongs
单元音指在数量上和性质上都恒定不变的纯元音。 Monophthong refers to those pure vowels that are constant both in number and quality.
如果在发音时通过舌头的一次运动，由第一个单元音滑向第二个单元音，所产生的组合就叫做双元音。 Diphthong refers to a resulting combinaption of sounds from a sequence of two sounds produced from one vowel position to another.
6. 音的变化 Variations of Sounds
连读 Liaison
指在实际话语过程中把两个词连到一起读，尤其是第二个单词以元音开始时，这种现象叫做连读。 It refers to the phenomenon that two words are pronounced together in the actual discourse process, especially when the second word begins with a vowel.
省音 Elision
在实际话语中漏掉一个音或几个音，这种现象叫做省音。 It jrefers to the phenomenon of missing one or several sounds in the actual speech.
同化 Assimilation
同化指一个音有了近邻音的一部分或者全部特征的这一过程。 It refers to the process in which a sound changes and gets some or all of the charateristics of neighboring sounds or syllables.
7. 音系学 Phonology
音系学 Phonology
音系学研究的是语言的语音系统。 Phonology is study of the systems and patterns of speech sounds in a language.
音位 Phoneme
音位是音系学研究的一个基本单位，是一组语音特征的抽象集合体，具有区别意义作用。 Phoneme is a basic unit of phonology research, and it is an abstract collection of a set of phonetic features, which has the function of distinguish meaning.
最小对立体 Minimal Pairs and Sets
能够用一个音区别意义的两个词叫做最小对立体。 Minimal Pairs refers two words that can be distinguished only by one sound.
当一组词能够通过改变其中同一位置的一个音素来区别意义时，这组词就叫做最小集合体。 A minimal set refers to a group of words that can be distinguishied in meaning by changing a phoneme in the same position.
自由变体 Free Variation
如果两个或两个以上的音素出现在一个相同的语境环境中，并不区别意义，那么这两个音素就被视为自由变体。 If two or more phnomes occur in the same position without distinguishing their meanings, then these two phonommes can be regarded as free variation.
区别特征 Distinctive Features
8. 音节和辅音连缀 Syllables and Consonant Cluster
音节 Syllables
英语单词“beautiful”由三个部分组成beau-ti-ful， 这样的比一个音长但又比一个词的音短单位就叫做音节。
辅音连缀 Consonant Cluster
在英语中一些词在一个音节中会有两个或多个辅音。
9. 超切分特征 Suprasegmentals
超切分特征 Suprasegmental features
指的是大于音段层面上的，能够区别意义的特征，其主要包括重音、声调和语调等。
重音 Stress
重音指单词中的某个音节或语句里的某几个音节被读的重些强些。
语调 Intonation
语调涉及重复出现的升降模式，是指声调高低抑扬顿挫的配置和变化。
第三章 形态学
1.要点
1. 形态学的定义
2.语素的定义及分类
3.形素与语素变体
4.词语构成的分类
2.常考考点
词法的定义
屈折词与派生词
构词法（合成与派生）
语素的定义
语素变体
自由语素
粘着语素（词根，词缀和词干）
3.内容
一，形态学（Morphology）
定义
形态学是语言学的一个分支，研究词的内部结构以及构词规则，它包括屈折变化和构词法两个领域。（Morphology is a branch of linguistics which studies the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words are formed, including inflection and word formation.)
二，语素（Morpheme）
1.定义（Definition）
语素是形态学研究的基本单位。它是承载意义或功能信息的最小语言单位。语素既不是意思也不是语音，而是意思和语音的结合。（Morpheme is the basic unit in the study of morphology. It is the smallest unit of language that carries information about meaning or function. A morpheme is neither a meaning nor a stretch of sound, but a meaning and a stretch of sound joined together.)
2.语素的类型（Types of Morpheme)
(1.)自由语素（Free morpheme）
(1)自由语素指能够单独出现或独立成词的语素。所有的单语素词都是自由语素，由自由语素构成的多语素词为复合词。（Free morpheme is an element of meaning which takes the form of an independent word. All monomorphemes belong to free morphemes and polymorphemic words, which are made up of free morphemes, are compounds)
（2）词根指词汇中能单独成词的自由语素。词根是词汇的核心，它承载着词汇的主要意义。一个词可以包含多个词根。（A word must contain a free morpheme which can constitute a word by it self, such as "talk". Root is used to refer to such this free morpheme. Root is the core of the word as it carries the major component of its meaning. A word may contain more than one root.)
（3）词干指当自由语素和粘着语素连用时最基本的部分。词缀可以加在词干上。(When free morphemes are combined with bound morphemes, the basic word form is known as the stem. Affixes can be added to the stem.)
（4.)自由语素分为两类。一类是表达实义的名词，动词和形容词。它们被称作词汇语素。它们也被称为开放式词汇，因为我们可以定期地向这些类中添加新词汇。（There are two categories of free morphemes. The first is a set of nouns, verbs, and adjectives that bear the main information. They are called lexical morphemes. They are also called open class words since we can regularly add new words to these classes.）
（5.）第二类叫做功能语素。功能语素是修饰一个词的意义，而不是提供词根意义的语素。功能语素通常被认为是一个封闭式词汇，这意味着新的功能语素几乎无法产生。(The second category contains functional morphemes. A functional morpheme is a morpheme which simply modifies the meaning of a word, rather than supplying the root meaning. Functional morphemes are generally considered closed-class words, which means that new functional morphems cannot normally be created.)
（2.）粘着语素（Bound morpheme）
（1）一些语素不能够单独成词，但是会起到一定的作用。这种语素叫做粘着语素。（Bound moepheme is one that cannot occur on its own as a separated word. It must be attached to another one to form word. E.G., -s, -er and -ing.）
（2）粘着语素相当于词缀。英语中所有的词缀都是粘着的。附在词根或词干上前面的词缀叫做前缀，词缀可以改变词义或词语功能。
（3）词缀还可以放到词根或词干地后边，形成后缀，后缀也可以改变词义或功能。（Affixes may also be attached to the end of a root or stem, in which case they are referred to as suffixes. Suffixes may also alter a word's context or purpose.）
（4）粘着语素可以分为两类。一类叫做派生语素。派生语素指与一个词根结合，能改变语义意义或影响词的词性的语素。(Bound morphemes can be divided into two categories. The first category is derivational morphemes. Derivational morphemes, when combined with a root, change the semantic meaning or the part of speech of the affected word.)
（5）另一类叫做屈折语素。屈折语素是表示语法关系的纯语法标记。(The other category is inflectional morphemes. Inflectional morphemes are purely grammatical markers to indicate grammatical relations.)
三，形素和语素变体（Moephs and Allomorphs）
定义
1.形素是语素的语音实现。（Morphs are the phonetic realizations of morphemes in general.）
2.语素变体指一个语素在不同环境下的变体实现。（Allomorphs are the variant realizations of a particular morpheme in different environment.）
四，构词法（Types of Word Formation）
1.复合（Compounding）
复合是指将两个自由语素组合成一个复合词的过程。复合词有严格的形式。复合词的重音在前一部分，但词义通常由最终部分决定。（Compounding is the process of combining two free morphemes to produce new wards known as compounds. Compounds have strict patterns. Stress of the compound always fall on the first element, and the grammatical category of the compound will be determined by the final word.）
2.派生（Derivation）
派生是指将词缀加到其他词或语素上形成新词的过程。和复合词不同的是，派生词至少包含一个自由语素和一个粘着语素。（Derivation refers to the process that new wards are formed by the addition of affixes to other words or morphemes. Different from a compound, at least a free morpheme and a bound morpheme must be contained in a derivational word.）
3.其他构词法（Other ways of word formation）
(1.)转类构词法(Conversion)
是指在不改变单词形式的情况下改变或转换单词的类的过程。转类构词法又叫零派生（Conversion refers to the process of changing or converting the class of a word without chainging its form. Conversion is also called zero.）
(2.)逆向构词法(Back-formation)
有些时候我们可以通过去除后缀来得到新词，这个过程叫做逆向构词法。（New words may be coined by removing its suffix. For example, as we have "begger", we get "beg" by removing "gar". This process is called back-formation.）
(3.)截短构词法（Clipping）
把词语的一部分省略掉叫做截短构词法。多音节词汇变成形式较短的词汇，这种形式通常出现在非正式用语中。例如gym=gymnasium, burger=hamburger。（Clipping is a term used to describe the process of removing parts of a word. Clipping occurs when a multi-syllabic word is simplified to a shorter form. Clipped words often seen in casual speech. E.G, gym）
(4.)混成构词法（Blending）
混成构词法指将其他单词的部分组合成一个新词的过程。通常，混成构词法是结合了一个单词的开头和另一个单词的结尾。例如，smog=smoke+fog, motel=motor+hotel.（Blending is the process of combining parts of other words to form a new word. Typically, blending is usually completed by taking just the beginning of one word and attaching it to the end of another. E,g, smog=）
(5.)首字母拼音词（Acronym）
通过几个单词的首字母结合而成的单词叫做首字母拼音词。这类词可以以词的形式发音。例如，APEC, AIDS（An acronym is a word or name formed from the initial letters of several words. They are pronounced as a single word. Words of this kind such as APEC, AIDS are called acronyms.）
(6.)首字母拼写词（Initialism）
首字母拼写词由几个单词的首字母组成，要以单个字母来发音。例如，WHO= World Health Organization, WTO= World Trade Organization.（Initialism are words made up of the first letters of a sequence of words and are pronounced one by one. E.g, WHO=）
第四章句法
本章要点
1.规定法和描述法（Prescriptive approach and descriptive）
2.直接成分分析（Immendiate constituent analysis）
3.成分结构语法（Constituent structure grammar）
4.标准理论（The "Standard Theory"）
5.转化语法（Transformational grammar）
6.系统功能语法（Systemic-functional grammar）
常考点
句法的定义
词类
乔姆斯基的经典理论
标准理论
深层结构
表层结构
成分
直接成分分析法的定义
句子成分
用实例进行分析
用直接成分分析法以及
树形图分析句子的结构等
文章内容
1.Syntax（句法）
（1.）定义（Definition）
句法学是语言学的一个分支，它研究词是如何被组合成词组、从句和句子的，以及支配其组合的规则（Syntax is a branch of linguistics. It studies the rules that govern the ways in which words are combined to form phrases, clauses, and sentences.）
（2.）词类（Word Classes）
常见的词类包括：名词、形容词、动词、副词、介词、代词和连词。（The general word classes include: nouns, adjectives, verbs, adverbs, prepositions, pronouns and conjuctions.）
2.Two Approaches（两种研究方法）
（1.）规定式（The Prescriptive Approach）
规定式指试图定义语言正确用法的研究方法。这些规则可能会强调拼写、发音、词汇、语法和语义等内容。一些语法家，主要是在18世纪的英国，采取规定式的分析语法。（Sone grammarians, mostly in eighteenth-century England, took a prescriptive approach to analyze geammar. Prescriptive linguistics attempts to establish rules defining correct usage of language. These rules may emphasize things such as spelling, pronounciation, vocabulary, syntax, and semantics）
（2）描写式（The Descriptive Approach）
描写式指客观地分析和描述语言的实际使用情况的研究方法，现代语言学采用描写式。无论人们实际使用的语言中发生了什么，语言学都加以描述和分析。描述式出现于二十世纪。（Modern linguistics adapt the descriptive approach which objectively analyze and describe bow language is actually used. It is believed that whatever occurs in the language people actually use should be described and analyzed. The descriptive approach energed in the 20th century）
3.Structural Analysis（结构主义研究）
结构主义是研究语言的形态结构的研究。它的研究方法包括“语言框架测试”。通过语言框架测试，我们能够发现哪些形式适合哪个语言框架，并对这些句子结构的特征进行描写。（It investigates the discribution of linguistic forms in a given language. "Test-frames", which may be sentences with empty slots, are used in structural analysis. We may produce a describution of certain elements of a language's sentence structures by constructing a series of test-frames of this kind and exploring what types match the slots in the test-frames.）
名词解释
1.结构成分语法（The Constituent structure grammar）
结构成分语法指通过分析句子的组成结构来分析句子的语法，这种语法是根据句子的各个组成部分来表示句子的语法结构。（A grammar which analyzes sentences by analyzing its constituent structure, which refers to a formal representation of the grammatical structuer of a sentence in terms of its individual constituents.）
2.直接成分分析法（Immediate constituent analysis (IC Analysis)）
（1.）定义：
直接成分分析法是句子分析方法，由Leonard Bloomfield首先提出，Rulon Wells 进一步发展。直接成分分析把句子分为直接成分，这些成分又进一步的直接成分。这个过程会持续下去，直到达到不可还原的成分，也就是说，直到每个成分只由一个词或一个词的有意义的部分组成。分析的最终结果通常以括弧或树形图的形式表示。（Immediate constituent analysis or IC analysis is a method of sentence analysis that was first mentioned by Leonard Bloomfiled, and developed further by Rulon Wells. IC analysis divides up a sentence into major parts or immediate constituents, and these constituents are in turn divided into further immediate constituents. The process continues until irreducible constituents are reached, i.e., until each constituent consists of only a word or a meaningful part of a word. The enf result of IC-analysis is often presented in the form of brackets or tree diagrams.）
（2.）优点：
通过IC分析法，句子的内在结构可以清晰地展示出来，如果有歧义也会被揭示出来。（The internal structure of a sentence can be easily illustrated using IC analysis, and any ambiguities can be reveald.）
（3.）问题
1.开始的时候，一些提倡者坚持二元切分。任何结构体在任何层面都分成两个部分。但实际上并不总是如此。（Supporters insisted on binary divisions at first. Any steucture, at any level, would be divided into two parts. However, this isn't always feasible.）
2.含有不连续成分的结构体会给IC分析法的树形图造成技术困难。最严重的问题是有些结构上的歧义不能用IC分析法来揭示和分析。（Tree diagrams in IC analysis will have technical difficulties with structures with discontinuous constituents. In some cases, some structural ambiguities cannot be shown by IC analysis.）
4.The transformational Grammar（转化语法）
1.乔姆斯基的经典理论（Chomsky's Classical Theory）
乔姆斯基早期的转化语法理论包括三部分：“classical theory”
短语结构规则（a aeries of phrase structure rules）
短语结构规则是一种用于描述给定语言语法的重写规则，它们表达了语言的规律性，明确了说话者对词语顺序和词语句法类别的认识。（Phrase structure rules are a type of reweite rule used to describe a given language's syntax. They express the regularities of the language and make explicit a speaker's knowledge of the order of words and the grouping of words into syntactic categories.）
转换规则（transformation rules）
基于转换规则，乔姆斯基把核心句型“S NP+VP”转换成其他相关的句子。（Chomsky then proposed the idea of transformation rules which could transform these basic "kernel"sentences S NP+VP into series of related sentences.）
形态音位规则(morphophonemic rules)
形态音位规则作用于转换规则，对句子结构的形态与音系提供正确而恰当的表征。（The transformational rules' production will be subject to the morphopnonemic rules. Their job is to given the different sections of the structure the right morphological form, and then to provide the correct phonological description.）
2.标准理论（The "Standard Theory"）
1.深层结构和表层结构（Deep structure and surface structure）
深层结构是一种句法抽象表示，深层结构各个部分不一定要结合在一起，即句子不同成分之间的结构关系的潜在层面。
表层结构是句子的最终句法形式，它是对深层结构进行适当变换后的结果，它是人们实际产生、接受的结构组织。
2.标准理论（The “Standard Theory”)
3.句法移位（Syntactic Movement）
句法移位是指一个句子的任意成分从原来的位置移到另一个新位置（It denotes标志 the movement of any constituent 成分in a sentence from its original location to a new one.）
1. NP移位
NP移位指两种结构
1.被动句（passive sentences）（一般认为被动句是由主动句移位产生的）(Passive sentences are generally formed by the movement of active sentences)
2.提升结构(raising constructuins)
1.含有提升动词的结构(raising verbs)
2.含有提升形容词的结构(raising adjectives)
2.Wh-移位
Wh-移位是指生成疑问句句法依赖关系时形成的移位。它指的是将一个Wh-短语移到句子开头。（Wh-movement is the formation of syntactic句法 dependencies involving interrogative word疑问词. It refers to the movement of a Wh-phrase to the beginning of the sentence.）
3.助动词移位（Aux-movement）
助动词移位是指将助动词从原来的位置移动到句首的位置。（It refers to the movement of auxiliary words their original position to the beginning of the sentence.）
4. a规则（Move- a rule）
a 规则是指任何成分皆可以从句子的一个位置移至另一个位置 ( It's a general movement rule that explain how every constituent movement is conducted syntactically .)
4.a规则（Move-a rule）
5. Systemic-Functional Grammar（Halliday's approach）(功能学派)（布拉格语言学派）
1，概述（General Account）
2.语言的3个功能
1.概念功能（Idetional funtion）
2.人际功能（Interpersonal function）
3.语篇功能（Textual fuction）
名词解释
1.第一章（导言）
1. Definition of linguistics （语言学的定义）
语言学是对语言的科学或系统的研究。语言学研究的科学性可以归纳为：穷尽性、一致性以及简洁性。 Linguistics refers the scientific or systematic study of language, which is led by the three scientific canons: enhaustiveness, consistency and economy.
4. Definition of language(语言的定义）
1.语言是一个系统——其元素非任意排列，而是根据一定规则组合的 Language is a system-the elements of language are not organized and combined at random,but rather according to certain rules.
2. 语言是任意的——一个词的意思和它的声音或形成之间没有任何自然或必要的联系。 Language is arbitrary-the absence of any natural or necessary connection between a word's meaning and its sound or form.
3. 语言是口头的——是所有语言的基本交流形式。 Language is vocal-sound is the primary medium for all languages.
4. 语言是人类用来交流的工具——不同于动物的交流系统。 Language is used for human communication-language is different from the communication systems animals poseess.
2.第二章（语音）
1.辅音（Consonants）
发音时，声道的某些部位收到压缩或阻碍后，使得气流在口腔里转向、受阻或完全被阻塞，由此产生的音叫做辅音。（Consonants are sounds produced due to certain parts of the vocal tract are compressed or obstructed, causing the airstream in the oral cavity to be deflected, obstructed or completely blocked in the process of pronounciation.）
2.自由变体（Free Variation）
如果两个或两个以上的音素出现在一个相同的语音环境中，并不区别意义，那么这两个音素就可以被视为自由变体。（If two or more phonemes occur in the same position without distinguishing their meanings, the these teo phonemes can be regarded as free variation.）
3.第三章（形态学）
1.形态学（Morphology）
形态学是语言学的·一个分支，研究词的内部结构以及构词规则，它包括屈折变化和构词法两个领域。（Morphology is a branch of linguistics which studies the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words are formed, including infection and word formation）
形态学
屈折变化infection
构词法word formation
2.自由语素（Free morpheme）
1.自由语素只能够单独出现或独立成词的语素。所有的单语素词都是自由语素，自由语素的构成的多语素词为复合词。（Free morpheme is an element of meaning which takes the form of an independent word. All monomorphemes belong to free morphemes and polymorphemic words多语素词, which are made up of free morphemes, are compounds.）
2.词根指词汇中能够单独成词的自由语素。词根是词汇的核心，它承载着词汇的主要意义。一个词可以包含多个词根。（A word must contain a free morpheme which can constitute a word by itself, such as "talk". Root is used to refer to such this free morpheme. Root is the core of the word as it carries the maijor component of its meaning. A word may contain more than one root.）
3. 词干指当自由语素和粘着语素连用时最基本的部分。词缀可以加在词干上。（When free morphemes are combined with bound morphemes, the basic word from is known as the stem. Affixes can be addaed to the stem.）
4. 自由语素分为两类。
1.词汇语素（开放式词汇）（lexical morphemes/open class words）---表达实义的名词，动词和形容词。我们可以定期地向这些类中添加新词
2.功能语素（封闭式词汇(functional morphemes/ close class words)）---功能语素是修饰一个词的意义，而不是提供词根意义的语素。新的功能语素几乎无法产生。(simply modifies the meaning of the word.)
3. 粘着语素（Bound morpheme）
（1）一些语素不能够单独成词，但是会起到一定的作用。这种语素叫做粘着语素。（Bound moepheme is one that cannot occur on its own as a separated word. It must be attached to another one to form word. E.G., -s, -er and -ing.）
（2）粘着语素相当于词缀。英语中所有的词缀都是粘着的。附在词根或词干上前面的词缀叫做前缀prefixes，词缀可以改变词义或词语功能。
（3）词缀还可以放到词根或词干地后边，形成后缀，后缀也可以改变词义或功能。（Affixes may also be attached to the end of a root or stem, in which case they are referred to as suffixes后缀. Suffixes may also alter a word's context or purpose.）
（4）粘着语素可以分为两类。一类叫做派生语素。派生语素指与一个词根结合，能改变语义意义或影响词的词性的语素。(Bound morphemes can be divided into two categories. The first category is derivational morphemes. Derivational morphemes, when combined with a root, change the semantic meaning or the part of speech of the affected word.)
粘着语素
1.派生语素derivational morphemes
改变词性
2.屈折语素inflectional morphems
语法相关
（5）另一类叫做屈折语素。屈折语素是表示语法关系的纯语法标记。(The other category is inflectional morphemes. Inflectional morphemes are purely grammatical markers to indicate grammatical relations.)
研究
形态学morphology
词的内部结构/构词结果internal structure/rules by words are formed
句法学
词是如何被组成词组。从句和句子的
4.第四章（句法）
1.句法（Syntax）
句法学是语言学的一个分支，它研究词是如何被组成词组、从句和句子的，以及支配其组合的规则。（Syntax is a branch of linguistics. It studies the rules that govern the ways in which words are comboned to form phrases, clauses, and sentences.）
2.结构主义研究（Structural Analysis）
结构主义是研究语言的形态结构的研究。它的研究方法包括“语言框架测试”。通过语言框架测试，我们能够发现哪些形式适合哪个语言框架，并对这些句子结构的特征进行描写。（It investigates the distribution of linguistic form in a given language. "Test-frames",which may be sentences with empty slots, are used in structural analysis. We may produce a description of certain elements of a language's sentence structures by constructing a series of test-frames of this kind and exploring what types match the slots in the test-frames.）
5.第五章（语义学）
1.语义学（Semantics）
语义学是语言学的一个分支，研究所有字面的意义，不考虑语境。（Semantics is a branch of linguistics which is concerned with the study of meaning in all its formal aspects.）
2.语义场（Semantic field）
语义场是将相关的词汇表达汇总到一起的系统，其中它们又是相互有关连的。比如表达亲属关系的词。（Semantic filed is a system that aggregates related words and expressions, in which thry are interrelated. For example, kinship terms such as father, mother, brother, sister, uncle, aunt belong to a semantic field whose relevant features include generation, sex, membership of the father's or mother's side of the family.）
3. 语义角色 (Semantic role)
从句中描述或呈现的名词性指称短语叫做语义角色。（Noun phrase that are described or presented within a clause are called sematic roles, for example as agent, patient, or cause.）
6.第六章（语用学）
1.语用学（pragmatics）
语用学是研究语言实际运用的学科，集中研究说话人意义、话语意义或语境意义。（Ptagmatics is the study of the use of natural language in communication, focusing on speaker's meaning, discourse meaning or contextual meaning.）
2.微观语用学与宏观语用学的定义（Definition of micropragmatics and macropragmatics）
（1.）在较小的语境中研究语话的含义的研究叫做微观语用学。例如指称、指示、回指及预设现象都是这一领域的研究内容。（The study of the meaning of utterances话语 in smaller contexts is called micropragmatics. For example, refrence, deixis, anaphora and presupposition are the topics in the filed.）
（2.）在更广范围内研究并且更深入探究话语机制。这种研究方法是宏观语用学。（The study of the larger chunks of language and more in-depth exploration of the discourse mechanisms is called macropragmatics.）
3. 回指（Anaphora）
文章中的一个单词或短语指前文中所提到的内容，叫做回指。（Anaphora is the use of a pronoun指 or other linguistic unit to refer back to another word or phrase used earlist in a text or conversation）
language
system
arbitary
vocal
communicatiom
linguistics
scientific,systematic