English Lexicology 英语词汇学学习笔记

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English Lexicology

• 1, Basic Concepts of words and Vocabulary 词的基本知识
  • 1,1 What is a word 词的定义
    • To sum up, the definition of a word comprises the following points: 1) A minimal free form of a language 2) A sound unity 3) A unit of meaning 4) A form that can function alone in a sentence Therefore, we can say that ' a word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function'
  • 1.2 Sound and Meaning 声音与意义
    • A word is a symbol that stands for something else in the worlds. Each of the world's cultures has come to agree that certain sounds will represent certain persons, things, places, properties, processes and activities outside the language system, this symbolic connection is almost always arbitrary. And there is 'no logical relationship between the sound which stands for a thing or an idea and the actual thing and idea itself' Example: A dog is called a dog not because the sound and the three letters that make up the word just automatically suggest the animal in question. It is only symbolic. The relationship between them is conventional because people of the same speech community have agreed to refer to the animal with this cluster of sound. For example, woman--'frau' in German, 'femme' in French, 'funu' in chinese.
  • 1.3 Sound and Form 声音与拼写
    • 1, Reasons for the differences between sound and form 1> The internal reason for this is that the English alphabet was adopted from the Romans, which does not have a separate letter to represent each sound in the language so that some letters must do double duty or work together in combination. 2> the pronunciation has changed more rapidly than spelling over the years, and in some cases the two have drawn far apart. 3> some of the differences were created by the early scribes. 4> Borrowing, which is an important channel of enriching the English vocabulary.
  • 1.4 Vocabulary 词汇
    • Vocabulary refers to all the words in a language make up its vocabulary. The term 'vocabulary' is used in different senses. Not only can it refer to the total number of the words in a language, but it can stand for all the words used in a particular historical period, e.g. Old English vocabulary, Middle English vocabulary and Modern English vocabulary. English is one of the world's highly developed languages. Naturally the vocabulary is one of the largest and richest. The general estimate of the present-day English vocabulary is over one million words.
  • 1.5 Classification of Words 词汇的分类
    • 1.5.1 Basic Word Stock and Nonbasic Vocabulary 基本词汇与非基本词汇---by use frequency(使用频率)
      • 1, Characteristics of words belonging to the basic word stock 基本词汇的特点
        • 1) The basic word stock is the foundation of the vocabulary accumulated over centuries and forms the common core of the language. Though words of the basic word stock constitute a small percentage of the English vocabulary. Yet it is the most important part of it.
        • 2) Characters
          • 1) All national character 全民性 Words of the basic word stock denote the most common things and phenomena of the world around us , which are indispensable to all the people who speak the language. They include words relating to the following respects: 1, Natural phenomena. 自然现象 -- rain, snow, fire, water, sun , moon, spring, summer, wind, hill. 2, Human body and relations.人体和人们之间的关系 3, Names of plants and animals.动植物名称 4, Action, size, domain, state. 形为，大小，范畴，状态 5, Numerals, pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions.数词，代词，介词，连词 2) Stability 稳定性 3) Productivity 能产性 4) Polysemy 多义性 5) Collocability 搭配性
      • 2, Nonbasic vocabulary: 非基本词汇
        • 1) Terminology 术语：consists of technical terms used in particular disciplines and academic areas. 由特定学科和学术领域使用的技术术语组成。 2) Jargon 行话: refers to the specialized vocabularies by which members of particular arts, sciences, trades and professions communicate among themselves. 指特定艺术、科学、行业和专业的成员之间进行交流的专业词汇。 3) Slang 俚语: belongs to the sub-standard language, a category that seems to stand between the standard general words including informal ones available to everyone and in-group words like cant(shoptalk of any sub-group), jargon, and argot, all of which are associated with, or most available to, specific groups of the population. 俚语属于非标准语言，介于一般标准词汇(包括每个人所接触的非正式语言)和团体内部用词之间，像隐语，行话和黑话，所有这些词汇都在特定团体的人群中流行。 4) Argot 黑话: generally refers to the jargon of criminals, its use is confined to the sub-cultural groups, and outsiders can hardly understand it, e.g. can-opener(all-purpose key), dip(pick-pocked), persuader(dagger). 黑话是犯罪分子的行话，仅用于亚文化人， 外人几乎是不懂的。 5) Dialectal words 方言词: are words used only by speakers of the dialect in question. 方言词限于讲该种方言的人使用。 6) Archaisms /ˈɑːrkiɪzəm/ 古语词: are words or forms that were once in common use but are now restricted only to specialized or limited use. Neologisms 新词: are newly-created words or expressions, or words that have taken on new meanings 新词语是批新创造的词语及表达方式，或被赋予新义的旧词。
    • 1.5.2 Content Words and Functional Words 实词与虚词 ---by notion(概念)
      • Content words denote clear notions and thus are known as notional words. They include nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs and numerals. 实义词表示明确的概念，因此被称为实词。它们包括名词、动词、形容词、副词和数字。 Functional words do not have notions of their own. Therefore, they are also called empty words.
    • 1.5.3 Native Words and Borrowed Words 本族语词与外来语词 ---by origin(起源)
      • 1, Characteristics of native words
        • 1, Native words are words brought to Britain in the fifth century by the German tribes: the Angles, the Saxons, and the Jutes, thus known as Anglo-Saxon words
        • 2, Two features
          • 1) Neutral in style文体中性 Since native words denote the commonest things in human society, they are used by all people, in all places, on all occasions, and at all times. Native word Borrowed word Begin Commence【French】 Brotherly fraternal【French】 Kingly Royal【Latin】 Rise mounts【Latin】
          • 2) Frequent in use使用频繁 Native words are most frequently used in everyday speech and writing. The proportion of its use in relation to borrowings is perhaps just the opposite of its number. The percentage of native words in use run usually as high as 70 to 90 percent.
      • 2, Characteristic of borrowed words
        • 1) Words taken over from foreign languages are known as borrowed words or loan words or borrowings in simple terms.
        • 2) It is estimated that English borrowings constitute 80 percent of the modern English vocabulary.
        • 3) According to the degree of assimilation and manner of borrowing, we can bring the loan-words under four classes.
          • 1, Denizens 同化词: Denizens are words borrowed early in the past and now well assimilated into the English language. In other words, they have come to conform to the English way of pronunciation and spelling. E.g port from Portus(L), cup from Cuppa(L)
          • 2, Aliens 非同化词 Aliens are borrowed words which have retained their original pronunciation and spelling. Example: kowtow(CH), intermezzo(IT)
          • 3, Translation-loans 译借词 Translation-loans are words and expressions formed from the existing material in the English language but modelled on the patterns taken from another language Example: mother tongue from lingua materna(L), long time no see from hao jiu mei jian(CH)
          • 4, Semantic-loans 借义词 Words of this category are not borrowed with reference to the form. But their meanings are borrowed. Example: Dream original meant 'joy' and 'music' , and its modern meaning was borrowed later from the Norse. Pioneer once signifying 'explorer' only or 'person doing pioneering work' has now taken on the new meaning of 'a member of the Yong Pioneer' from Russian.
• 2, The development of the English Vocabulary 英语词汇的形成与发展
  • 2.1 The Indo-European Language Family 印欧语系的谱系关系
  • 2.2 A Historical Overview of the English Vocabulary 英语词汇发展的历史回顾
    • 2.2.1 Old English(450-1150)
    • 2.2.2 Middle English(1150-1500)
    • 2.2.3 Modern English(1500-up to now)
  • 2.3 Growth of Present-day English Vocabulary 当代英语词汇的发展状况
  • 2.4 Modes of Vocabulary Development 词汇的发展方式
• 3, Word Formation 1 英语构词法1
  • 3.1 Morphemes 词素
    • 3.1,1 Definition
      • the smallest functioning unit in the composition of words
    • 3.1.2 Basic criteria
      • 1, It is a word or a part of a word that has meaning.
      • 2, It can't be divided into smaller meaningful segments without changing its meaning or leaving a meaningless remainder.
      • 3, It has relatively the same stable meaning in different verbal environments
    • 3.1.3 Example
      • denaturalization de- / nature / -al /-ize / -action
  • 3.2 Allomorphs 词素变体
    • 3.2.1 Definition
      • An allomorph is a phonetic variant of a morpheme. sometimes morphemes change their sound or their spelling but not their meaning. each of these different forms is classed as an allomorph.
  • 3.3 Types of Morphemes 词素的分类
    • 3.3.1 Free Morphemes 自由词素
      • Morhemes which are independent of other morphemes. these morphemes have complete meaning in themselves and can be used as free grammatical unit in sentence.
        • man / earth / wind / car / anger. free morphemes are free roots.
    • 3.3.2 Bound Morphemes 黏附词素
      • Bound morphemes cannot stand alone, they have to be bound to another morpheme to carry any meaning.
        • 1, recollection (re + collect + ion) 2, idealistic (ideal + ist + ic) 3, exprisoner (ex + prison + er) there are altogether nine morphemes. collect / ideal / prison can exist by themselves, these are free morphemes. re- / -ion / -ist / -ic / ex- / -er/ are bound as none of them are freestanding units.
      • 3, Two types
        • 1, Bound root
          • a bound root is that part of the word that carries the fundamental meaning just like a free root. Unlike a free root, it is a bound form and has to combine with other morphemes to make words.
            • - dict - it is a Latin root which conveys the meaning of "say or speak", but can not stand alone. add prefixes: contra --contradict meaning 'speak against'. pre --predict meaning 'tell beforehand' add suffixes: ion --contradiction meaning 'opposition between two conflicting forces or ideas' or --predictor meaning 'someone who makes predictions of the future'
        • 2. Affix
          • 2.1 affixes are forms that are attached to words or word elements to modify meaning or function.
          • 2.2 Types
            • 2.2.1 Inflectional affixes
              • affixes attached to the end of words to indicate grammatical relationships are inflectional, thus known as inflectional morphemes.
            • 2.2.2 Derivational affixes
              • 2.2.2.1 Definiton
                • derivational affixes are affixes added to other morphemes to create new words.
              • 2.2.2.2 Two types
                • 1, Prefixes
                • 2. Suffixes
  • 3.4 Root and Stem 词根与词干
    • 1, Root definition a root is the basic form of a word which cannot be further analysed without total loss of identity.
    • 2, Stem definition a stem can be defined as a form to which affixes of any kind can be added.
  • 3.5 Question and Tasks
    • Write the terms in the blanks according to the definitions: 1, a minimal meaningful unit of a language __morpheme 2, one of the variants that realize a morpheme __allomorph 3, a morpheme that occurs with at least one other morpheme __bound morpheme 4, a mprpheme that can stand alone. __free morpheme 5, a morpheme attached to a stem or root. __affix 6, an affix that indicates grammtical realtionship. __inflectional affix 7, an affix that forms new words after the removal of all affixes. __derivational affix 8, what remains of a word after the removal of all affixes. __root 9, a form to which affixes of any kind can be added. __stem
• 4, Word Formation 2 英语构词法2
  • 4.1 Affixation 词缀法
    • 4.1.0 Definition
      • Affixation is generally defined as the formation of words by adding word-forming or derivational affixes to stems. This is also known as derivation. 词缀通常被定义为通过向词干添加词形或派生词缀来形成单词
    • 4.1.1 Prefixation 前缀法
      • Prefixation is the formation of new words by adding prefixes to stems. Prefixes do not generally change the word-class of the stem but only modify its meaning. 前缀法是在词干上添加前缀构成新词的一种方法，一般来说，前缀不会改变词干的词类，而只是修饰词干的意义
      • we shall classify prefixes on a semantic basis into nine groups
        • 1) Negative prefixes.(表示否定意义的前缀)
          • prefix Example a- amoral, apolitical dis- disloyal, disobey in- injustice il- ilegal ir- irresistible im- immature non- non-smoke, non-classical un- unfair, unwilling
        • 2) Reversative prefixes.(表示逆向意义的前缀)
          • prefix example de- Decentralize(give greater powers for self-government) De-compose(separate into parts) dis- Disunite(become separate) Disallow(refuse to allow) un- Unhorse(cause to fall from a horse) unwrap(open)
        • 3) Pejorative prefixes.(表示贬义的前缀)
          • prefix example mal- maltreat(treat badly) malpractice(wrong doing) mis- misconduct(bad behaviour) mistrust(not to trust) pseudo- pseudo-friend(false friend) pseudo-science(false science)
        • 4) Prefixes of degree or size.(表示程度或大小意义的前缀)
          • prefix example Arch- Archbishop(a priest in charge of bishops in a large area)大主教；总教主 Extra- Extra-strong(very strong) Hyper- Hyperactive(extremely active) macro- Macrocosm(the universe)宏观世界；宇宙 micro- Microcomputer(very small computer) mini- Mini-election(small-scale election) out- Outlive(live longer than) over- Overweight(weighing more than normal) sub- Subheading(secondary heading) super- Superfreeze(freeze to a very low temperature) sur- Surtax(tax too much) 附加税 ultra- Ultra-conservative(extremely conservative) under- Underdeveloped(less developed)
        • 5) Prefixes of orientation and attitude.(表示倾向和态度意义的前缀)
          • prefix example Anti- Anti-nuclear; anti-government; Contra- Contraflow(the arrangement for the traffic to go on both direction on one side of the road) Counter- Conterfeit(a copy that is represented as the original) 伪造的，假冒的 Pro- Pro-democracy(supporting democracy) 支持
        • 6) Locative prefixes.(表示方位意义的前缀)
          • prefix example Extra- Extrordinary(more than ordinary) Fore- Forehead; forearm Inter- Inter-city(between cities) Intra- Intr-party(within the party) Tele- Telecommunication(communication by telephone, radio, televison) Trans- Trans-world(across the world)
        • 7）Prefixes of time and order.(表示时间和顺序意义的前缀)
          • prefix example Ex- Ex-student(former student) Fore- Fortell(tell before happening) Post- Post-election(after election) Pre- Pre-prepared(prepared beforehand) Re- Reconsider(consider again)
        • 8）Number prefixes(表示数量意义的前缀)
          • prefix Example bi- Bicycle; bilingual(concerning two language) Multi-(poly-) Multi-purpose(more than one purpose) Polysyllable(more than one syllable) Semi-(hemi-) Semi-naked(half naked) Hemisphere(a half of the earth on either side of equator) Tri- Tricycle(v vehicle with three wheels) Uni-(mono-) Uniform(not different) monorail(one rail) 单轨；单轨铁路
        • 9）Miscellaneous prefixes.(其它不同种类意义的前缀)
          • Auto-(自己，独自), autobiography-自传 neo-(新的), Neo-Nazi 新纳粹 pan-(全，总), pan-European 泛欧的，全欧洲的 vice-(副的，次的), vice-chairman-副主席
    • 4.1.2 Suffixation 后缀法
      • 1, Suffixation is the formation of new words by adding suffixes to stem, unlike prefixes which primarily change the meaning of the stem. They mainly change the word class.
      • 2, type of suffixation
        • 1) Noun suffixes.
          • 1, denominal nouns 由名词转化的名词
            • a, Concrete 具体名词: The suffixes of this group are added to noun bases to produce concrete nouns
              • -eer(profiteer牟取暴利者), -er(engineer), -ess(priestess), -ette(cigaratte), -let(booklet)
            • b, Abstract 抽象名词
              • -age(wastage), -dora(officaldom), -ery/-ry(slavery), -hood(adulthood), -ing(farming), -ism(terrorism), -ship(friendship)
          • 2, Deverbal nouns由动词转化的名词
            • a, The following suffixes combine with verb stems to create largely nouns denoting people.
              • -ant(assistant), -ee(employee), -ent(respondent), -er(-or)
            • b, Suffixes of this group added to verb stems to produce largely abstract nouns, denoting action, result, process, state.
              • -age, -al, -ance, -ation(-ition, -tion, -sion, -ion), -ence, -ing, -ment,
          • 3, De-adjective nouns: 由形容词转化的名词
            • -ity(popularity流行，普及，声望), -ness(happiness幸福).
          • 4, Noun and adjective suffixes 名词和形容性后缀: -ese,-an, -ist
        • 2) Adjective suffixes.形容词后缀
        • 3) Adverb suffixes. 副词后缀： -ly, -ward(s), -wise(在..方面， 方向)
        • 4) Verb suffixes. 动词后缀：
  • 4.2 Compunding 复合法
    • 4.2.0 Definition
      • Compounding, also called composition, is the formation of new words by joining two or more stems. 将两个或两个以上的词干结合在一起构成新词的方法叫做复合法，又称合成法。 Words formed in this way are called compounds. So a compound is a 'lexical unit consisting of more than on stem and functioning both grammatically and semantically as a single word'
    • 4.2.1 Characteristics of Compounds
      • 1, Phonetic features. 语音特征
      • 2, Semantic features. 语义特征
      • 3, Grammatical features 语法特征
    • 4.2.2 Formation of Compounds
      • 1, Noun compounds 名词复合词
      • 2, Adjective compounds 形容词复合词
      • 3, Verb compounds 动词复合词
  • 4.3 Conversion 转类法
    • 1) Conversion is the formation of new words by converting words of one class to another class. 转类法是将一种词类转化为另一种词类构成新词的方法 These words are new only in a grammatical sense. Since the words do not change in morphological structure but in function. This process is also known as functional shift. 构成的新词的语法意义是新的，但词的形态(morphological structure)没有改变，改变的是词的语法功能，因此，此过程也可称为功能转换(functional shift)
    • 2) Conversion to noun. 转类成名词
      • 1）Verb to noun 动词转换成名词
      • 2）Adjective to noun 形容词转换为名词
      • 3）Miscellaneous conversion to noun 其它词类转换为名词
    • 3) Conversion to verb. 转类成动词
  • 4.4 Blending 拼缀法
    • 1) Blending is the formation of new words by combining parts of two words or a word plus a part of another word. 拼缀法是将两个词的某些部分张雁全 在一起或将一个词和另一个词的一部分合并起来构成新词的方法， 通过这种方法构成的词叫做拼缀词(blends)。
    • 2) The structure of blending.拼缀法的构成模式
      • 1）head + tail 词首+词尾
        • Autocide (automobile + suicide) 撞车自杀 Motel (motor + hotel ) 洗车旅馆 Cremains (cremate + remains ) 骨灰
      • 2）Head + head 词首 + 词首
        • Comsat ( communication + satellite ) 通信卫星 Sitcom ( situation + comedy ) 情景喜剧
      • 3）Head + word 词首 + 词
        • Medicare ( medical+ care) 医疗保健 Telequiz ( telephone+ quiz) 电话测试
      • 4）word+ tail 词 + 词尾
        • Workfare ( work+ welfare ) 工作福利制 Lunarnaut ( lunar+ astronaut ) 登月宇航员
  • 4.5 Clipping 截短法
    • 1) Clipping is the formation of new words by shortening a longer word by cutting a part of the original and using what remains instead. 截短法是指截去原词的某一部分，让剩余部分代替原词使用的一种构词方法。
    • 2) The structure of clipping.(截短法的构成模式)
      • 1）Front clipping 截短前部
        • Quake (earthquake) 地震 scope(telescope) 望远镜 copter(helicopter) 直升机
      • 2）Back clipping 截短后部
        • Dorm (dormitory) 宿舍 math (mathematics) 数学 fan(fanatic) 狂热入迷者
      • 3）Front and back clipping 截短前后部
        • Flu (influenza)流行性感冒 fridge(refrigerator)冰箱
      • 4）Phrase clipping 截短短语
        • Pub (public house ) 酒吧，客栈 zoo ( zoological garden) 动物园
  • 4.6 Acronymy 首字母缩略法
    • 4.6.0 Definition
      • Acronymy is the process of forming new words by joining the initial letters of names of social and political organizations or special noun phrases and technical terms. 首字母缩略法是将社会组织，政治组织，专用的名词词组或术语的首字母连接起来构成新词的方法。 以这种方式构成的词根据单词的发音可以分为首字母缩略词和首字母拼音词( initialisms and acronyms)
    • 4.6.1 Initialisms首字母缩略词
      • Pronounced letter by letter AD Anno Domini 公元。 B.C. Before Christ 公元前 C.O.D. case on delivery 货到付款
    • 4.6.2 Acronyms首字母拼音词
      • Pronounced as a normal wor Radar (radio detecting and ranging) 雷达NATO (the North Atlantic Treaty Organization) 北大西洋公约组织 AIDS (acquired immune deficiency syndrome) 艾滋病 TEFL (teaching English as a foreign language) 作为外语的英语教学
  • 4.7 Back-formation 逆生法
    • 1) Back-formation is considered to be the opposite process of suffixation. It is the method of creating words by removing the supposed suffixes 逆生法是与后缀法相反的构词过程，即去掉假定的后缀构成新词的一种方法
    • 2) The structure and stylistic features of back-formed words. (逆生词的构成方法和文体特点)
      • 1）abstract nouns 抽象名词
        • Diagnose 诊断 (diagnosis) Donate 捐献 (donation) Emote 表现感情 (emotion)
      • 2）Human nouns 表示人的名词
        • Loaf 游手好闲 (loafer) sculpt 雕，刻 (sculptor) burgle 夜间盗窃 (burglar)
      • 3）Compound nouns and others 复合名词及其他词
        • Eavesdrop 窃听 (eavesdropping) merrymake 作乐 ( merry-making) babysit 代人临时照看孩子 (babysitter)
      • 4）Adjectives 形容词
        • Drowse 使昏昏欲睡 (drowsy) laze 偷懒，混日子 (lazy) frivol 闲混 (frivolous)
  • 4.8 Words from Proper Names 专有名词普通化
• 5, Word Meaning 词的意义
  • 5.1 The Meanings of 'Meaning' “意义”的意义
    • 5.1.1 Reference 所指
    • 5.1.2 Concepte 概念
    • 5.1.3 Sense 语义的内涵
  • 5.2 Motivation 词义的理据
    • 5.2.1 Onomatopoeic /ˌɑːnəˌmætəˈpiːɪk/ Motivation 拟声理据
    • 5.2.2 Morphological Motivation 形态理据
    • 5.2.3 Semantic Motivation 语义理据
    • 5.2.4 Etymological Motivation 词源理据
  • 5.3 Types of Meaning 词义的类别
    • 5.3.1 Grammatical Meaning and Lexical Meaning 语法意义及词汇意义
    • 5.3.2 Conceptual Meaning and Associative Meaning 概念意义及关联意义
• 6, Sense Relations and Semantic Field 语义关系及语义场
  • 6.1 Polysemy 多义关系
    • 6.1.1 Two Approaches to Polysemy 多义关系的两种研究方法
      • 1, Diachronic approach 历史研究法
        • From the diachronic point of view, polysemy is assumed to be the result of growth and development of the semantic structure of one and same word
        • Primary meaning is the only first meaning that a word had when it was created.
      • 2, Synchronic aproach 共时研究法
        • Sychronically, polysemy is the coexistence of various meanings of the same wrod in a certain historical period of time
    • 6.1.2 Two Process of Development 词义发展的两种模式
      • 1, Radiation 辐射型
        • Radiation is a semantic process in which the primary meaning stands at the centre and the secondary meanings proceed out of it in every direction like rays.
      • 2, Concatenation 连锁型
  • 6.2 Homonymy 同形同音异义关系
    • 6.2.1 Types of Homonyms 类别
      • 1, Perfect homonyms /完全的同形异义词/ are words identical both in sound and spelling, but different in meaning.
        • bank n the edge of the river, lake. bank n an establishment for money business.
      • 2, Homographs /同形异义字/ are words identical only in spelling but different in sound and meaning.
        • bow /baʊ/ n bending the head as a greeting. bow /bəʊ/ n the device used for shooting arrows.
      • 3, Homophones /同音异形异义词/ are words identical only in sound but different in spelling and meaning.
        • dear /dɪə(r)/ n a loved person. dear /dɪə(r)/ n a kind of animal.
    • 6.2.2 Origins of Homonyms 同形同音异义词的来源
      • 1, Change in sound and spelling 读音和拼写的变化
      • 2, Borrowing 借词
      • 3, Shortening 缩略词
    • 6.2.3 Differentiation of Homonyms from Polysemant 与多义词的区别
    • 6.2.4 Rhetoric Features of Homonyms 修辞特色
  • 6.3 Synonymy 同义关系
    • 6.3.1 Definition of Synonyms 定义
      • One of two or more words in the English language which have the same or very nearly the same essential meaning. 同义词是指英语中两个或两个以上基本意义相同或几乎相同的词
    • 6.3.2 Types of Synonyms 类别
      • 1, Absolute synonyms 绝对同义词
        • Absolute synonyms, also known as complete synonyms are words which are identical in meaning in all its aspects, i.e. both in grammatical meaning and lexical meaning, including conceptual and associative meanings. 绝对同义词也叫完全同义词，互为绝对同义词的两词在意义上没有差别，即语法意义和词汇意义都完全相同。
      • 2, Relative synonyms
        • Relative synonyms, also called near-synonyms are similar or nearly the same in denotation, but embrace different shades of meaning or different degrees of a given quality. 相对同义词也叫近义词，它们意义相近或几乎相同， 但在主义色彩或程度上有区别。
          • change: 用一个去替换另一个，指在不同事物间进行调换。 alter：在原事物上加以改动。 vary：指“作方式或时间上的变动”。 A man changes his habits,alter his conduct, and varies his manner of speaking. 一个人改变自己的习惯、品行和说话方式。
    • 6.3.3 Sources of Synonyms 来源
      • 1, Borrowing 借词
      • 2, Dialects and regional English 方言和地域性英语
      • 3, Figurative and euphemistic use of words 词的比喻和委婉用法
      • 4, Coincidence with idiomatic expressions 词与习语的偶合
    • 6.3.4 Discrimination of Synonyms 区别同义词的方法
      • 1, Difference in denotation 外延的区别
        • extend：指“在广度上或地域上扩张”。 increase：指”数量、份额等增加，增长“。 expand：指”指全方位扩大、扩张或膨胀“。
      • 2, Difference in connotation 内涵的区别
        • little：带有欣赏的意味。 small：属中性。 tiny： 则含有贬低的意味。
      • 3, Difference in application 应用的区别
        • empty: 表示里面没有人或物。 empty box/street/room vacant: 表示某物某地没被占用。vacant seat/chair/apartment blank：表示无字迹的。 blank page/cassette
  • 6.4 Antonymy 反义关系
    • 6.4.1 Definition
      • Antonyms can be defined as words which are opposite in meaning. 反义词指语言中意义相反的词
    • 6.4.2 Types of Antonyms 类别
      • 1, Controdictory terms 矛盾反义词
      • 2, Contrary terms 对立反义词
        • Antonyms of this ktype are best viewed in terms of a scale running between two poles or extremes 对立反义词指语义在两极之间的尺度上有相互关系的词。 Example: rich/poor, old/young
      • 3, Relative terms 关系反义词
    • 6.4.3 Some of the Characteristics of Antonyms 特点
      • 1, Antonyms are classified on the basis of semantic opposition. 按主义相反的情况划分。
      • 2, A word which has more than one meaning can have more than on antonym. 一个多义词可有多个反义词
        • fast 作“牢固的”讲时，反义词是loose 松动的； 作“快速的”讲时，反义词是 slow 缓慢的； 作“寻欢作乐”讲时，反义词是 sober 有节制的，适度的
      • 3, Antonyms differ in semantic inclusion. 反义词在主义的包容上不同。
      • 4, Contrary terms are gradable antonyms, differing in degree of intensity, so each has its own corresponding opposite. 对立反义词有级别性差异，在表意的强弱程度上也不同，因此各有不同的反义词。
    • 6.4.4 The Use of Antonyms 用法
  • 6.5 Hyponymy 上下义关系
    • 6.5.1, Hyponymy deals with the relationship of semantic inclusion. that is , the meaning of a more specific word is included in that of another more general word. 上下义关系研究的是主义包含的现象，即表示较为具体意义的词包含在表示更为概括意义的词之下。表示具体意义的词称为下义词(Hyponym or subordinate term)
    • 6.5.2, Hypernym or superordiante term 表示概括意义的词是上义词
    • 6.5.3 The use of hyponymy 上下义关系的使用
      • 1，Meaning 意义： the sense relation of hyponymy is very helpful in both receptive and productive processing of language. In reading comprehension, coherence by hyponymy is an important key. 上下义关系对我们学习和应用语言大有裨益。使用上下义词可使语言连贯，同时也为我们理解文章提供了重要依据。
  • 6.6 Semantic Field 语义场
    • 6.6.1 The concept of semantic field 语义场的概念
      • Words of language can be classified into semantically related sets or fields
    • 6.6.2 The function of semantic field 主义场的作用
• 7, Changes in Word Meaning 词义的演变
  • 7.1 Types of Changes 词义变化的种类
    • 7.1.1 Extension 扩大
      • Extension of meaning, also known as generalization, is the name given to the widening of meaning which some words undergo. 词义的扩大也叫普遍化，指一些词的词义的范围扩大。 It is a process by which a word which originally had a specialized meaning has now become generalized. In other words, the term has extended to cover a broader and often less definite concept.
        • Examples: 1, manuscript--->its original meaning was "handwriting" only. 2, Fabulous ---> began with the meaning of 'resembling a fable' or 'based on a fable' but later came to mean 'incredible' or 'marvelous' 3, Barn / picture / mill / journal / bonfire / butcher / companion
    • 7.1.2 Narrowing 缩小
      • Narrowing of meaning, also called specialization, is the opposite of widening meaning. It is a process by which a word of wide meaning acquires a narrower or specialized sense. 词义的缩小也叫特殊化，它是与词义扩大相反的变化过程，在此过程中，具有普遍意义的单词变化后仅表达特殊意义。
        • Examples: Deer / garage / liquor / meat / disease / poison / wife / accident / girl
    • 7.1.3 Elevation 升华
      • Elevation or amelioration refers to the process by which words rise from humble beginnings to positions of importance. 词义的升华是指由表示低微意义转变为表示重要意义
        • Examples: 1, Nice-->ignorant (original)--->foolish--->delightful / pleasant (now) 2, Angel--->messager--->messager of God. 3, Knight--->servant--->rank below baronet. 4, earl--->man--->count. 5, governor--->pilot--->head of a state. 6, fond--->foolish--->affectionate. 7, minister--->servant--->head of a ministry.
    • 7.1.4 Degradation 降级
      • Degradation or pejoration of meaning is the opposite of semantic elevation. It is a process whereby words of good origin fall into ill reputation or non-affective words come to be used in derogatory sense. 词义的降格与词义的升格恰好是相反的，即原来的褒义词或中性词降格，现在表示贬义。
        • Example: 1, silly--->happy--->foolish. 2, knave--->boy--->dishonest person. 3, lewd--->ignorant--->lecherous. 4, criticize--->appraise--->find fault with. 5, lust--->pleasure--->sexual desire.
    • 7.1.4 Transfer
      • Words which were used to designate one thing but later changed to mean something else have experienced the process of semantic transfer. 词义转移指有些词原来指称某些特定的事物，后来经变化， 转而指称其他的事物。
        • Examples: 1, clear-sounding(from sight to hearing) 2, loud colours(from hearing to sight) 3, sweet music(from taste to hearing)
  • 7.2 Causes of Changes 词义变化的原因
    • 7.2.1 Extra-linguistic Factors 语言外部原因
      • 1，Historical 历史原因
      • 2，Class reason 阶级原因
      • 3，Psychological reason 心理原因
    • 7.2.2 Linguistic Factors 语言内部原因
      • 1, The influx of borrowings has caused some words to change in meaning.
      • 2, the change of meaning is brought about by analogy类比，比拟.
• 8, Meaning and Context 语义与语境
  • 8.1 Types of Context 语境的种类
    • 8.1.1 Extra-linguistic Context 非语言语境
    • 8.1.2 Linguistic Context 语言语境
      • 1, Lexical context 词汇语境： Lexical context refers to the words that occur together with the word in question. 词汇语境是指与某一个词一同出现的相关词汇，可以影响那个词的含义。
        • For instance： 1, a sheet of paper 纸 2, a white paper 文件，公文 3, a term paper 论文 4, today's paper 报纸 5, examination paper 考卷，试题
      • 2 Grammatical context 语法语境： the meaning of a word may be influenced by the structure in which it oocurs.
  • 8.2 The Role of Context 语境的作用
    • 8.2.1 Elimination of Ambiguity 消除歧义
      • 1, Ambiguity often arises due to polysemy and hononymy 歧义多由多义词和同形同音异义词引起
      • 2, Homonymy is another cause of ambiguity as two separate words share the same form. 同形异义词也会引起句子产生歧义，因为两个词形式相同。
      • 3, Grammatical structure can also lead to ambiguity. 语法结构有时也会导致歧义。
    • 8.2.2 Indication of Referents 限定所指
    • 8.2.3 Provision of Clues for inferring Word-meaning 提供线索以猜测词义
      • 1, Definition 定义 Often we find that the author gives formal definition immediately after the new term. 作者在写作过程中常在新术语后面给出一个明确的定义。
      • 2, Explanation 解释 If the concept is complicated and must involve technical terms in its definition, the author might explain the idea in simple words. 若某一概念较复杂，涉及术语，作者则会用较为简单的语言再解释一次。
      • 3, Example 举例 In some cases, instead of giving a formal definition or explanation, the author may cite an example which is sufficient to throw light on the meaning of the term. 有时作者会用一个例子来代替正式定义或解释。
      • 4, Synonymy 同义关系 Synonyms or synonymous expression are frequently ecmplyed by authors to explain new words. 同义词或同义词组也常用来解释新词。
      • 5, Antonymy 反义关系 Contrasting words or statements are also commonly used to explain unknown words. 反义词或反义表达也可用来解释新词。
      • 6, Hyponymy 上下义关系 Superordinates and subordinates often define and explain each other, thus forming an important context clue. 上义词与下义词可以相互定义和诠释，故可视作重要的语境线索。
      • 7, Relevant details 有关细节 In some contexts, the author provides details relating to the unkonwn word, such as the functions, characteristics, nature, etc. 在某些语境中，作者给读者提供了许多和新词有关的细节，如所指事物的功能，特征，品性等。
      • 8, Word structure 词的结构 The morphemic structure of words, especially compounds and derived words offers clues for inferring the meanings of unkown words. 词的词素结构，特别是复合词和派生词的词素结构，为推断新词意义提供了重要线索。
• 9, English Idioms 英语习语
  • 9.0 The definition of idiom 习语的定义
    • Idioms consist of set phrases and short sentences, which are peculiar to the language in question and loaded with the native cultures and ideas. 习语由某种语言中所特有的，含有本族文化和思想的固定短语和短句构成。 Strictly speaking, idioms are expressions that are not readily understandable from their literal meanings of individual elements. 严格的说，习语是难以从其单个元素的字面意义理解的表达。
  • 9.1 Characteristics of Idioms 习语的特点
    • 9.1.1 Semantic Unity 语义的整体性
    • 9.1.2 Structural Stability 结构的完整性
      • First, the constituents of idioms cannot be replaced. 习语的成分不可替代。
      • Secondly, the word order cannot be inverted or changed. 词序不可改变。
      • Thirdly, the constituents of an idiom cannot be deleted or added to. 习语的成分不可增减。
      • Finally, many idioms are grammatically unanalysable. 最后，许多习语无法对其语法结构进行分析。
  • 9.2 Classification of Idioms 习语的分类
    • 9.2.1 Idioms Nominal in Nature 名词性习语
      • Idioms of this class have a noun as the key word in each and function as a noun in sentences. 名词性习语是以名词为中心词，在句中起名词作用的习语。
        • white elephant (adj + n.) 昂贵而没有实用的东西 brain trust (n. +n )智囊团 flesh and blood (n. +conj. +n) 亲属
    • 9.2.2 Idioms Adjectival in Nature 形容性习语
    • 9.2.3 Idioms Verbal in Nature 动词性习语
    • 9.2.4 Idioms Adverbial in Nature 副词性习语
    • 9.2.5 Sentence Idioms 句式习语
  • 9.3 Use of Idioms 习语的使用
    • 9.3.1 Stylistic Features 文体
      • 1, Colloquialisms 口语体
      • 2, Slang 俚语
      • 3, Literary expression 书面表达方式
    • 9.3.2 Rhetorical Features 修辞
      • 1,Phonetic manipulation 语音的运用
        • 1), Alliteration 头韵
        • 2), Rhyme 尾韵
      • 2, Lexical manipulation 词汇的运用
        • 1) Reiteration 同义词复用
        • 2）Repetition 词语重复
        • 3) Juxtaposition 反义词并置
      • 3, Figures of speech 修辞格
        • 1, Simile 明喻
        • 2, Metaphor 暗喻
        • 3,Metonymy 换喻
          • Metonymy refers to idioms in which the name of noe thing is used for that of another associated with it. 换喻指用一个事物的名称喻指另一个与其相关的事物。
        • 4, Synecdoche 提喻
        • 5, Personification 拟人
        • 6, Euphemism 委婉语
    • 9.3.3 Variations of Idioms 变异形式
• 10, English Dictionaries 英语词典
  • 10.1 Types of Dictionaries 词典的种类
    • 10.1.1 Monolingual and Bilingual Dictionaries 单语和双语词典
    • 10.1.2 Linguistic and Encyclopedic Dictionaries 语文词典和百科扁
    • 10.1.3 Unabridged, Desk and Pocket Dictionaries 大型词典，案头词典和袖珍词典
  • 10.2 Use of Dictionaries 词典的使用
    • 10.2.1 Choice of Dictionaries 选用
      • 1，单语/双语词典
      • 2，综合性词典或专用词典
      • 3，英国词典或美国词典
      • 4，早期词典或最新词典
    • 10.2.2 Content of the Dictionaries 内容
      • 1, Spelling 拼写
      • 2, Pronunciation 发音
      • 3, Definition 定义
      • 4, Usage 用法
      • 5, Grammar 语法
      • 6, Usage notes and language notes 用法注释或语言注释
      • 7, Etymological information 词源知识
      • 8, Supplementary matter 附录
    • 10.2.3 Use of the Dictionary 使用
  • 10.3 Three Good General Dictionaries 三本常用词典
    • 10.3.1 Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English (LDCE) New Edition (1987) 朗文当代英语词典
      • 优点1，Clear grammar codes 清楚的语法规则
      • 2，Usage note 用法注释
      • 3，Language notes 语言注释
    • 10.3.2 Collins COBUILD English Language Dictionary (CCELD) (1987) 科林斯合作英语词典
      • 1，含有朗文当代英语词典优点外，还有以下特点：
      • 2，定义用完整的句子表示，可读性强，定义本身也有对词的语法特点的暗示。
      • 3，另辟坚栏。在这个竖栏里我们可以查到词类，用法指导，同义词，反义词，上义词，动词句型等。定义里每一条意义都竖栏里有相应的注释。
      • 4，用法例证丰富， 几乎每个词都有例证，而且大部分例证都是来自英语实际使用中的句子。
    • 10.3.3 A Chinese-English Dictionary (Revised Edition) (CED) (1995) 汉英词典