Chapter2 The sounds of language

这是一个关于Chapter2 The sounds of language的思维导图，包含Phonetics、Phonology。

The sounds of language

• Phonetics
  • Definition: The study of the speech sounds that occour in all human languages is called phonetics.
  • Sounds production
    • airticulatory phonetics(production)
    • acoustic phonetic(transmission)
    • auditory phonetics(perception)
  • Speech organs
    • Oral cavity(air passage within the mouth&the throat)
      • upper/lower lip,upper/lower teeth,alveolar ridge,hard palate,soft palate(velum),uvula,tongue,pharynx,vocal cards,glootls.
    • nasal cavity(air passage within and behind the nose)
  • Voiceless & Voiced(声带是否振动)
    • Voiceless:vocal cords are apart.
    • Voiced:vocal cords are close together.
  • Nasal & Oral Sounds（软腭是否抬起)
    • Nasal sounds:Soft palate is raised.
    • Oral sounds:Soft palate is lowered.
  • Vowels & Consonants
    • Vowels: Sounds don't have obstruction to the flow of air passes from the larynx to the lips.
    • Consonants: Sounds produced by obstructing the flow of air in the vocal tract.
  • Classification of English speech sounds
    • English Consonants
      • According to the place of articulation:
        • Bilabials:upper and lower lips(b,p,m,w)4
        • Labiodentals:upper teeth and lower lips(f,v)2
        • Dentals/interdentals:the lip of the tongue between the upper and lower teeth(θ,δ)2
        • Alveolars:(t,d,s,z,n,l,r)7
        • Palatals:back of the tongue at the hard palate(5)
        • Velars:back of the tongue against the soft palate or velum(k,g,η)3
        • Glottal:two pieces of vocal cords(h)1
      • According to the manner of articulation:
        • Stops/plosives:complete stopping of the airstream + letting it go abruptly(p,b,t,d,k,g)6
        • Fricatives:stop the airstream,having the air push through the narrow opening in the mouth with friction(f,v,z,s,θ,h,δ)9
        • Affricates:stop the airstream + slowly releasing it with friction 2
        • Liquids:some obstruction + no real friction(l,r)2
        • Nasal:the velum is lower + airstream is flow out through the nose(m,n,η)3
        • Glides/semi-vowels:The tongue moves rapidly in a gliding fashion either towards or away from a neighboring vowel(j,w)
    • English vowels
      • the highest part of the tongue
        • front vowels 6
        • central vowels 3
        • back vowels 5
      • lip-rounding
        • rounded vowels— back vowels 4
        • unrounded vowels
          • frount vowels 6
          • central vowels 3
          • back vowels 1
      • opening degree
        • open 4
        • semi-open 6
        • close 4
  • Variations of sounds
    • Liaison: A phenomenon of the linking of words in speech ,in particular when the second word begins with a vowels.
      • 4 types
        • Consonants+ vowels
        • R+vowels
        • the same consonants
        • vowels+ vowels
    • Elision: is the loss of a sound or sounds in speech.
      • when
        • rapid or casual speech
        • complex consonant clusters,ustressed syllables or syntactactically unstressed words.
      • 4 types
        • 爆破音 /b/- /p/ /d/-/t/ /g/-/k/
          • 爆破音+辅音/半元音，爆破音不发音
          • 爆破音在句尾，不发音
          • 爆破音+爆破音+辅音/半元音，两个爆破音均不发音
        • 摩擦音＋摩擦音，只读后面一个，前音省略
        • 辅音＋/h/，/h/不发音
        • /v/＋辅音
          • /v/＋辅音，/v/不发音
          • /v/＋/w/，/v/不发音
    • Assimilation：sounds belonging to one words or one syllable can cause changes in sounds belonging to neighboring words or syllables
      • 2 types
        • Progressive assimilation(eg:books,dogs)
        • Regressive assimilation(eg:impossible,intolerant)
• Phonology
  • Definition:is the description of the systems and patterns of speech sounds in a language.
  • Phonemes: the phonological units of language.(48 in English)
    • the smallest unit of sound in a language.
    • It can distinguish or contrast words.
  • Minimal pairs & sets
    • Minimal pairs are pairs of words which differ from each other only by one sound in a same position.(eg:pin - pen)
    • Minimal set is a group of which differ from each other only by one sound.
  • Free variation
    • Two or more sounds occur in the same position without any apparent change of meaning,they are said to be in free variation.
      • 形（sound）变义(meaning)也变
        • When the subtitution of one sound for another results in a difference in meaning,the two sounds represents two different phonemes.
      • 形（sound）变义(meaning)不变
        • Sometimes the change of one sound into another does not produce a different word,but only a different pronunciation of the same word.
    • allophone:The variants of a phoneme are called allophones of the same phoneme.
    • The allophones of the same phoneme never occur in the same context.They are said to be in complementary distribution.
  • Distinctive features is a feature to distinguish one phoneme from another.
  • Syllables: these units are often longer than one sound and smaller than a whole word.
    • Open syllable does not have coda.(eg:me,up,no) Notice:only tense vowels (long vowels & dipthongs) can occur in open syllables.
    • Closed syllable have cada.(eg:up,cup)
    • （C（C（C))）V（(((C)C)C)C）
  • Syllables and consonant clusters
    • Consonant clusters: a sequence of two or more consonants in one syllable.(eg:astray /V-CCCV)
    • 3 Classification
      • initial cluster
      • final cluster
      • medial cluster
    • 3 strict rules:
      • the first consonant must be /s/.
      • the second phoneme must be /p/ /t/ /k/ (voiceless stop)
      • the third consonant must be /l/ /r/ /w/ /j/ (liquid+ glide→ approximate)
    • Syllabification
      • 1.找元音（去尾e，一个元音一个音节，元音相连听音定，加上头尾是整体）
      • 2.辅音归属
        • 一靠后，二分手，多个中间偏左右（eg:so/lid, un/der, um/brella）
        • 组合字母算一个，常见组合要遵守(pr,pl,fr,cl,st,sk,scr,gr…)
        • 词尾看e加音节，发音不发分两种
          • +er,est,ing等，第一个元音字母肯定发音的词尾时，常增加一个音节，并用词尾的辅音字母当音节头。
          • +s,es,d,ed时，若e需要发音间隔增加一个音节，反之不增加音节。
        • 双字相连不连手 （eg:x /ks/ —CC）
        • 听声验证最后头，解释意外不发愁（th/ph/ng—C）mo/noph/thong CV-CVC-CVC
  • Suprasegmentals
    • Sound contrasts that extend over several segments(phonemes) and such contrasts are called suprasements.
    • Such as: stress,tone,intonation,pitch,length,volume,liaison,etc.
    • Stress points
      • word stress: stress location indicates word class.
        • noun. & verb.一般名词重音在第一个音，动词在第二个
        • adjective & verb 一般形容词重音在第一个音，动词在第二个
      • word stress indicates grammatical categories. compounds & noun phrases.
    • Intonation
      • functions of intonation:
        • Grammatical function
        • Attitudinal function
        • Accentual function