Speech Sounds--Chapter 2

胡壮麟语言学导论第五版第二章：Tap and Flap促音和闪音：当舌对齿龈进行一次触及，发生一次颤动，就是促音；闪音是首先以卷舌音的音姿将舌尖向上并向后卷，然后返回到下齿后面位置。

Speech Sounds--Chapter 2

• 2.1 Speech Production and Phonetic Transcription
  • Articulatory Phonetics发音语音学:the study of the production of speech sounds.
  • Acoustic Phonetics声学语音学:the physical properties of speech transmission.
  • Perceptual or Auditory Phonetics感知语音学/听觉语音学：the perception of speech sounds.
  • 2.1.1 Speech Production
    • • Speech Organs/Vocal Organs:lungs,the trachea(or windpipe),the throat,the nose,and the mouth.
      • The pharynx,mouth,and nose form the three cavities of the Vocal Tract
      • Speech sounds are produced with an Airstream as the sources of energy,which comes from the lungs.
      • Pharynx 咽腔 is between the root of the tongue舌根, the nasal cavity鼻腔,and the larynx喉部
      • The upper part of the mouth include the upper lip,the upper teeth,the alveolar ridge齿龈，the hard palate硬腭，the soft palate(or the velume)软腭，and the uvula小舌.
      • The bottom parts of the mouth include the lower lip, the lower teeth,the tongue,and the mandible(the lower jaw)下颚.
      • The Nasal sound produced by the soft palate being lowered to block the oral cavity and allow air to pass through the nasal cavity.鼻音的产生
      • Tongue can be divided into five parts:the tip舌尖，the blade舌叶，the front,the back and the root. --------------------Coronal舌冠音（tip and blade）,Dorsal舌背音（front and back）and Radical舌根音（root）.
      • Vocal Folds are either apart,close together,or totally closed.
      • Apart: the air can pass through easily and is to be voiceless.such as [p,s,t]
      • Close together:the airstream causes them to vibrate against each other and is to be voiced.Such as [b,z,d]
      • Totally closed,no air can pass between them.
  • 2.1.2Phonetic Transcription
    • The sound segment are grouped into consonants and vowels.
• 2.2 Consonants and Vowels
  • the distiction between vowels and consonants lies in the obstruction of airstream.
  • 2.2.1 Consonants
    • 1.The manner of articulation
      • 子主题
        • (a). the articulators may close off the oral tract for an instant or a relatively long period
          • 1.Stop 爆破
        • (b). narrow the space considerably
          • 2.Nasal 鼻音
          • 3.Fricative 摩擦音 两个发音器靠拢，导致部分气流被阻，产生的气流的震荡。
          • 4.Approximant 通音 两个发音器相近，而声道变窄的程度又不足以产生气流震荡
          • 5.lateral 边音 气流在口腔中部受阻，舌的一边或两边与上颚形成不完全闭合
          • 6.Trill颤音 当某一发音器因气流而产生颤动时，其音称之为颤音。[r] in red
          • 7.Tap and Flap促音和闪音：当舌对齿龈进行一次触及，发生一次颤动，就是促音；闪音是首先以卷舌音的音姿将舌尖向上并向后卷，然后返回到下齿后面位置。[t,d]in the words "city and ladder"
          • 8.Affricate塞擦音 eg：church 和 jet
        • (c). modify the shape of the tract by approaching each other
    • 2.The place of articulation
      • 1.Bilabial双唇音 由上下唇发出的音 eg:[p,b,m]
      • 2.Labiodental 唇齿音 由上齿和下唇发出的音 eg：f,v
      • 3.Dental齿音 由舌尖或舌叶和上齿发出的音 eg：think
      • 4.Alveolar齿龈音 由舌尖或舌叶和齿龈部发出的音 [t,d,n,s,z,l]
      • 5.Postalveolar or Palato-Alveolar齿龈后音和颚龈音 ship genre
      • 6.Retroflex 卷舌音
      • 7.Palatal 硬颚音 j
      • 8.Velar 软腭音[k,g]
      • 9.Uvular 小舌音
      • 10.Pharyngeal 咽音11.Glottal 声门音
  • 2.2.2 Vowels
    • 半元音 纯元音 二合元音 三合元音
    • English Vowels
      • The height of tongue raising (high,mid,low)
      • The position of the highest part of the tongue(front,central,back)
      • The length or tenseness of the vowel(tensevs.lax/long vs.short)
      • Lip-rounding (rounded vs/unrounded )
  • 2.2.3 The sounds of English
    • Received Pronounciation RP
    • Genereal America GA
    • On the left being voiceless and the one on the right voiced.The rest are in the above.
• 2.3 Phonological Analysis
  • Sound are produced as a structure of gestures by speech organs and continually show the influence of their neighnors.
  • To indicate that a vowel has been nasalized,we add a curved line to the top of the symbol
  • Aspirated 送气音 in peak Unaspirated不送气音 in speak ,This aspirated voiceless bilabial stop is thus indicated by the diacritic.
  • 2.3.1Phonemes
    • Minimal pair 最小对比对
    • The word Phoneme simply refers to a "unit of explicit sound contrast"
    • Language differ in the selection of contrastive sounds.peak /speak ;
    • 对词的音位转写和语音转写是不同的
  • 2.3.2 Allophones
    • An aspirated sound is transcribed with a superscript"h"after the symblo of the sound.
    • The phoneme /l/ is pronounced as /l/ before a vowel and as after a vowel
    • in complementary distribution
  • 2.3.3 Phonological Rules
    • Nasalization,dentalizationand velarization are all instances of assimilation, which means one sound takes on some or all the characteristics of a neighboring sound.
    • A following sound is influencing a preceding sound,it is called Regressive Assimilation,vice versa.
  • 2.3.4 Rule ordering
    • Epenthesis 增音 两个元音之间缺少一个辅音 就需要加一个辅音 eg：a ~an
    • Plaral suffix 复数变化
      • The "s" appears after voiceless sounds
      • The "z" appears after voiced sound.(Voiced sounds include vowels)
      • The"əz"appears after sibilants.咝音
• 2.4 Suprasegmentals超音段特征
  • Include syllable 音节,stress重音，tone声调，and intonation语调
  • A syllable must have a Nucleus or peak,which is often the task of a vowel,sometimes for a consonant to play the part of a nucleus.such as table,the last syllable "bl"
  • Stress refers to the degree of force used in producing a syllable. Word stress in English is sometimes reffered to as accent instead of stress.
  • A difference in tone changes the meaning of a group of words.And when his happens ,it is called a difference in intonation.
  • Tone sandhi 连续变调